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The CHARGE of an ATOM = 0
# Protons (+) = # Electrons (-)
4.1 Atomic Theory and Bonding
Atom Compound
Composed ofProtons, Neutrons,and Electrons
Different atoms arecalled elements
A pure substancemade up of TWO or
MORE ELEMENTS
NaCl is a compound
O2 is NOT a compound
+
++
Electrons: 1- charge
Protons: 1+ charge
Neutrons: NO charge
ATOMIC # = # of Protons
The mass of an atom= # PROTONS + # NEUTRONS(electrons have almost no mass)
PROTONS + NEUTRONS + ELECTRONS
= SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
+
METALS SEMI-
METALS
NON-METALS
ATOMIC MASS =#Protons + #Neutrons
Charge when an ion.*Atom has no charge
ATOMIC # =# Protons
* Atomic Mass should be rounded to nearest wholenumber EXCEPT when dealing with isotopes
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Bohr Diagrams
Electrons and Periods
Forming Compounds
Ionic Compounds
Valence Shell Rule: 2:8:8 RULE
Electrons are organized in shells:
1st Shell: MAX 2 electrons2nd Shell: MAX 8 electrons
3rd
Shell: MAX 8 electrons
As you move RIGHT, ONEMORE ELECTRON is added,until the outer SHELL is FULL(In this case 8 on outer shell)
Period or ROW Far right column in this rowhas FULL SHELL, called aSTABLE OCTET
Outer shell is calledthe VALENCE SHELL
There are 2 types of compounds:
1. Ionic 2. Covalent
Formed from + and charged ions Involve TRANSFER of ELECTRONS Held together by IONIC BONDS
Formed when 2 elements SHAREelectrons
There are no IONS formed Held together by COVALENT BONDS
Ionic compounds form from IONS:METAL ATOMS lose ELECTRONS to form a POSITIVE ION (CATION)NON-METAL ATOMS gain ELECTRONS to form a NEGATIVE ION (ANION)
IONS are ATOMSthat have eitherGAINED or LOST
ELECTRONS
Charge of theion that forms:
-1 for Chlorine
Charge of the ionthat forms:+3 for Aluminum
Metal: Cation (Positive)Non-Metal: Anion (Negative)
Chlorine will GAIN 1 electron to form an ION Aluminum will LOSE 3 electrons to form an ION
Family or COLUMN:#18 Noble Gases: FULL VALENCE SHELL
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Ionic vs Covalent Compounds
Lewis Diagrams
Step 2 : Add any extra
dots as pairs
Some METALS can form MORE THAN ONE ion: called Multivalent
Iron can form either:+3 charge OR +2 charge
NON-METALS ARE NEVERMULTIVALENT
Ionic
Covalent (Molecular)
Sodium has one electronon VALENCE shell. Itwants to lose this
Chlorine needs ONEmore electron on its
Valence shell to make 8.It wants to gain one
1 2
3
SODIUM DONATES1 ELECTRON
CHLORINE ACCEPTS1 ELECTRON
SODIUM IONFORMED +1
CHLRORINE IONFORMED -1
SODIUM CHLORIDE FORMED
Electrons are SHAREDbetween the Nitrogen atomand the 3 Hydrogen atoms
NO electrons areTRANSFERRED
NO IONS are formed
Lewis diagram shows ONLY theVALENCE electrons (outer shell)
Step 1: Draw 4 dots alone first
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Lewis diagrams to show Ions and Ionic Compounds
Lewis Diagram of Covalent Molecules
Naming Simple Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compound Formulas
-Sodium loses its onlyouter valence electron;-Chlorine gains anelectron to fill in its last
pair
FLUORINE ATOM
F
8-
FLUORINE ION
F-
Nitrogen has 5 VALENCEelectrons
Nitrogen SHARES 3electrons with threehydrogen atoms. Thisleaves 2 electrons notpaired to anything
Fluorine has oneunpaired electron.Each Fluorine shares itslone electron with theother lone electron.
4.2 Names and Formulas of Compounds
Ionic compounds: compounds composed of POSITIVE CATIONS and NEGATIVE ANIONS
Ionic compounds are named
using the IUPAC standard of naming:
Sodium Chloride
Metal :
Always comes first Never ends in ide
Non-Metal :
Always comes last
Ends in ide
Na3P
Subscript = # of Na ions in this compound
When no subscript is writtenthe value is 1
Na
Na NaP
Means THREE Naions bind toONE P ion
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Writing Ionic Compound Formulas from Ions (SHORTCUT METHOD)
Multivalent Ions
Writing Formulas from Compound Names with Multi-Valent Ions
Writing Names from Formulas (REVERSE of above)
Polyatomic Ions
Step 1: Write out ions
Mg +2 with N-3
Step 2: Cross Charge #s
Mg +2 with N-3
Step 3: Write newsubscripts
Mg 3N2
Step 4: ReduceSubscripts (if possible)
Mg 3N2
Mn+4 with 0-2 Mn+4 with 0-2 Mn2O4 MnO2
When naming MULTIVALENT IONS you must indicate whichcharge of ion: e.g. Fe +3 would be Iron (III)
In a compound containing Fe +3 you would name this:
Iron (III) Oxide not Iron Oxide
Some METALS can form more than onet e of ion = multi le char es
Vanadium (IV) Oxide
Step 1: Write out ions
V +4 with O-2
Step 2: Cross Charge #s Step 3: Write newsubscripts
Step 4: ReduceSubscripts (if possible)
V +4 with O-2 V 2O4 VO2
VO2 Step 1: Uncross
subscriptsStep 2: Write uncrossed
numbers as charges
Step 3: Fix the NON-METAL ion to its correct
charge
Step 4: Write the namesof the ions in your
Formula Name
VO2 V +2 with O-1 V +4 with O-2 (Oxygen must be doubled;so must Vanadium then)
Vanadium (IV) Oxide
Polyatomic ions are IONS MADE UP OF MORE THAN ONE TYPE OF ATOM:
NO3-
In the formula MgSO 4, to determine if you are dealing with a polyatomic ion look for a normal ionFIRST AND CIRCLE
Mg SO 4 The remaining ion is not simple so it must be a Polyatomic Ion
Made up of :ONE Nitrogen
THREE Oxygens
The entire thing has a TOTAL charge of -1
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Naming Formulas Containing Polyatomic Ions
Covalent Compounds
Al (OH)3 Using methods above, we would see that there is:
Name your compound using ions that it contains: Aluminum Hydroxide
One Aluminum ION Three OH IONS
Reminder that Aluminumdoes not need Roman
Numerals
OH- is not a regular ion so you mustuse the provided POLYATOMIC
Naming sheet to name
Covalent Compounds DO NOT have IONS: Naming is different from Ionic compounds
Naming Rules:
N2O = dinitrogen monoxideP4S10 = tetraphoshphorus decasulfide
CO is NOT monocarbon monoxide:it is carbon monoxide
There is no NO METAL,making this a
COVALENT COMPOUND
DO NOT REDUCE THE SUBSCRIPTS FOR
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Covalent Compoundsare named accordingto their SUBSCRIPTS
IDE endings are thesame for covalent
EXCEPTION TO THE RULE:
If the FIRST element is a ONE you DO NOT use MONO
Formula Name
CH4 methane
NH3 ammonia
H2 O water
Some COVALENTCOMPOUNDS
HAVE COMMON NAMES:
CS2 P4O10
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Chemical Reaction Structure
Conservation of Mass in Chemical Change
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations (SIMPLE)
4.3 Chemical Equations
Word Equation: nitrogen monoxide + oxygen nitrogen dioxide
Symbolic Equation: 2NO + O 2 2NO2
Reactants Products
Coefficients are number placed in front of a FORMULA
Conservation of Mass states that mass is conserved in a chemical reaction
TOTAL MASS REACTANTS = TOTAL MASS PRODUCTS
Step 1: Write out Word Equation: Iron + Bromine Iron (III) Bromide
Step 2: Write out Skeleton Equation with ions: Fe + Br 2 Fe+3 + Br-
Step 3: Write out Skeleton Equation: Fe + Br2 FeBr 3
Step 4: Balance the equation by adding 2 Fe + 3 Br2 2 FeBr 3 COEFFICIENTS
2 Irons 2 Irons3 x 2 =6
Bromines
2 x 3 =6
Bromines
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Writing and Balancing Polyatomic Equations
Acids and Bases Core Ideas
Acid BasepH value 0 to less than 7 More than 7 to 14Corrosive? YES YES Taste SOUR BITTERReact with metals? YES NO
pH Indicators
Step 1: Tin(IV) Nitrite + Potassium Phosphate Potassium Nitrite + Tin (IV) Phosphate
Step 2: Sn+4 NO2- + K+ PO4
-3 K+ NO2- + Sn+4 PO4
-3
Step 3: Sn(NO 2)4 + K3PO4 KNO2 + Sn3(PO 4)4
Step 4: 3 Sn(NO 2)4 + K3 PO4 3 K NO2 + Sn3(PO 4)4
Step 5: 3 Sn(NO 2)4 + K3 PO4 3 KNO2 + Sn3(PO 4)4
Step 6: 3 Sn(NO 2)4 + 4 K3 PO4 12 KNO2 + Sn3(PO 4)4
Use SHORT CUT RULE
(SHOWN PREVIOUSLY )
Treat each POLYATOMICION AS A GROUP
Four NO2 One PO4 One NO2 Four PO4
Balance Metals
HINT: When balancing equations with OXYGEN and HYDROGEN,balance the CARBON first, then hydrogen, then oxygen
5.1 Acids and Bases
Acids DONATE H+ ionsBases ACCEPT H+ ions
pH Scale
0 to less than 7 =ACID More than 7 to 14 = BASE
7= NEUTRAL
Phenolphthalein: COLORLESS TO PINK from 8.2-10.0Bromothymol blue: YELLOW TO BLUE from 6.0-7.6
See DATA BOOKLET
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Naming Acids
Naming Bases
Acid versus Bases (In solution)
Core Concepts
Normal : Hydrogen Chlor ide becomes Hydrochlor ic Acid
Special : Hydrogen Carbon ate becomesCarbon ic Acid
Hydrogen Sulf ite becomesSulfur ous Acid
HCl Hydrogen Chloride HCl (aq) Hydrochloric Acid Aqueous (aq)(in solution)
Dry
IDE turns into IC
ATE turns into IC but NO hydro
ITE turns into OUS
Bases are H+ acceptors; usually have an OH on the right side of their formula
Caustic: a solution made from very reactive bases (e.g. concentrated Sodium Hydroxide)
NaOH Sodium HydroxideCa(OH) 2 Calcium HydroxideNH4OH Ammonium Hydroxide
More H+
than OH-
ACIDS H
+
= OH-
NEUTRAL More OH
-than H
+
BASES
Pure water has the same amount of H+ and OH- ions :MEANING there are NO EXTRA H + ions or OH - ions
H+ + OH- H2O
Since ACIDS and BASESproduce IONS
they CONDUCT ELECTRICITY
5.2 Salts
Salt: Contain a positive ion (from a base) and a negative ion (from an acid ) e.g. NaCl
ACID + BASE SALT + WATER Na + OH- H+ Cl-
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Acid/Base Neutralization
Oxides Reacting with water
Acids and Metals
Core Ideas
3 H2SO4 + 2 Al(OH) 3 Al2(SO4)3 + 6 H2O
ACID BASE SALT WATER
Metal Oxides react with water to form a BASE
Non-Metal Oxides react with water to form an ACID SO2(g) + H 2O --> H 2SO3 (aq)
Na 2O(s) + H2 2O --> 2 NaOH (aq)
An oxide is a compound with a METAL or NON-METAL with OXYGEN
Acids will react with METALS to form a SALT and HYDROGEN GAS
Na 2O(s) + H 2O --> 2 NaOH (aq)
2 HCL (aq) + Mg (s) --> MgCl 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
5.3 Organic Compounds
Organic: Compounds that contain CARBON
Inorganic: Compounds that do NOT contain CARBON (exceptions are: CO 2 + CO + CO3-2 + Carbides)
Carbon has 4electrons in its valence shell
Carbon forms4 COVALENT BONDS
Carbides are IONIC compounds thathave CARBON as a NON-METAL:
e.g. Al 4C3
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Hydrocarbon examples
Alcohol examples
Reaction Types
HYDROCARBONS:Organic compoundthat only contains
CARBON andHYDROGEN
ALCOHOLS:Organic compoundthat only contains
CARBON, HYDROGEN,& OXYGEN
6.1 Types of Chemical Reactions
Synthesis:
Decomposition:
A + B C
2 Na + Cl2 2 NaCl
AB A + B
2 NaCl 2 Na + Cl2
2 Na + Cl2 2 Na+ and 2 Cl -
ATOM ATOM ION ION
2 Na+ and 2 Cl - 2 Na + Cl2ION ION ATOM ATOM
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Single Replacement VS Double Replacement Reactions
Neutralization Reaction Combustion Reaction
2Al + 3CuCl2 3Cu + 2AlCl3 Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaI 2NaNO3 + PbI2 M NM M NM M M
SINGLE REPLACEMENTA METAL CAN SWITCH WITH A METAL
ORA NON-METAL WITH A NON-METAL
Remember:A METAL forms + IONS
NON-METAL forms - IONS
DOUBLE REPLACEMENTION switches with a ION
AND- ION switches with a - ION
ACID + BASE SALT + WATER
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2 HOH
H+ + OH- H2O (HOH)
HYDROCARBON + O2 CO2 + H2O
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
SUGARS such as Glucose (C 6H12O6)will also undergo combustion
6.2 Factors Affecting the Rate of Chemical Reactions
Rate of Reaction: How quickly or slowly reactants turn
into products
Every chemical reaction occurs at a certain RATE
4 things AFFECT REACTION RATE: 1. Temperature2. Concentration3. Surface Area
4. Presence of a Catalyst
1. Temperature
Temp = Reaction Rate
2. Concentration
Concentration = Reaction Rate
Increased temp. means an increase in KINETICENERGY = More particles colliding
Increased conc. means that there are moremolecules in a solution to collide with one another
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Core Ideas
Isotopes
3. Surface Area
Surface Area = Reaction Rate
4. Catalysts
Surface area is a measure of how much areaof an object is exposed
The greater the surface area the more of asolid is available to react
A substance that speeds up the rate of a chemicalreaction
Catalysts LOWER the energy needed to breakbonds for a reaction to occur
Catalysts are not used up in a chemical reaction
Biological Catalysts are called ENZYMES
Catalysts allow REACTANTS to better line up andproperly collide making a reaction easier to occur
7.1 Atomic Theory, Isotopes, Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity: release of HIGH ENERGY PARTICLE OR WAVES
Natural Background Radiation: radiation that occurs in our environment. This radiationhas the potential to interact with ATOMS creating IONS
1. Electromagnetic Radiation: (energy waves) RADIO WAVES to GAMMA WAVES
2. High energy particles: ALPHA and BETA PARTICLES
Two types of Radiation
Discovered by Roentgen and later Marie Curie
that uranium caused photographic plates todarken: this led to the discovery of what she
called RADIOACTIVITY
Isotope: the SAME particular element but with a DIFFERENT ATOMIC MASS
Note that the ATOMIC MASSlisted is the AVERAGE mass forALL the K atoms in nature:SOME ARE HEAVIER than 39
but the AVERAGE K weighs
39.1 AMU
POTASSIUM has 3 isotopes:K-39 K-40 K-41 19 P 19 P 19 P
20 N 21 N 22 N
ONLY THE # OF NEUTRONS ISDIFFERENT Some ISOTOPES are RADIOACTIVE and
undergo DECAY
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Radiation Types
Core Ideas
Electromagnetic Radiation
The more frequent(compressed) the energy
waves are the moreENERGY they carry
GAMMA RAYS are highenergy destructive
waves released bycertain radioactive
ATOMS
Radioactive Decay: these include ALPHA and BETA particles
Positively Charged Same as a helium nucleus
Low-penetration
Negatively Charged Same as an electron
Higher-penetration
Alpha Beta
BOTH ARE EJECTED FROM A NUCLEUS DURINGRADIOACTIVE DECAY
MASS is conserved meaningit is the SAME on both SIDES
of ARROW
Bottom #s = CHARGES
NO CHARGE or MASS ARE WAVES not particles HIGHEST-penetration
Gamma
7.2 Half Life
Radiocarbon Dating: determining the age of an object by measuring the amount of Carbon-14 remaining
Half Life: The amount of time it takes for HALF of the nuclei in a sample to decay(THIS IS A CONSTANT)
At start: 100%1 st Half-life 50%2nd Half-life 25%3 rd Half-life 12.5%
The time it TAKES toget to each half life is
specific for eachradioactive atom
Parent Daughter
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Using a Decay Curve
Core Ideas
You can use this graph tofind out HOW much PARENTis left at ANY point in time
(even between half lives)
Remember:
Parent % + Daughter % = 100% Use this scale to read
what % is remaining
Use this scale toread how much
time has passed
7.3 Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Fission VS Nuclear Fusion The splitting APART of a BIGGERnucleus into 2 SMALLER NUCLEI,
LOTS OF ENERGY, andSUBATOMIC PARTICLES
The fusion of 2 SMALLER NUCLEI(JOIN TOGETHER) to make aBIGGER NUCLEUS, LOTS OFENERGY, and SUBATOMICPARTICLES
FORMS A BIGGER NUCLEI:MUST BE FUSION
FORMS 2 SMALLER NUCLEI:MUST BE FISSION
ENERGY ENERGY
During FISSION a smallerparticle such a NEUTRON (n )may be fired at a the LARGERNUCLEUS to break it apart
Remember, MASS is conserved: This means that the MASS of the LEFT SIDE of the
reaction = MASS of the RIGHT SIDE
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Chain Reaction: One nuclear reaction initiates the next reaction
In Canada, we use CANDU reactors, which are safe yet efficient system to generatingelectricity .HOWEVER, this FISSION reactor produces radioactive waste that must be isolated safely forthousands of years
SUN: The sun is a giant FUSION REACTOR:
Must be controlled:
In a NUCLEAR REACTOR certain materials are used to control therelease of NEUTRON which are the BULLETS that are released by aREACTION and TRIGGER the next reaction(SEE ABOVE)
Scientists are looking for ways to create FUSION nuclear reactorsThese usually produce wastes that are NOT radioactive
Heaver isotopeof Hydrogen:Deuterium
High pressure in the sun FUSES the 2HYDROGEN NUCLEI together
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