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Environmentally SoundEnvironmentally Sound
Destruction of POPs Destruction of POPs
Incinerationncineration
Kre Helge KarstensenKre Helge Karstensen
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Technology descriptionTechnology descriptionHigh temperature hazardous waste incineratorsHigh temperature hazardous waste incineratorsare available in a number of configurations andare available in a number of configurations and
principles.principles.
Typically a process for treatment involvesTypically a process for treatment involvesheating to a temperature greater than 850C or,heating to a temperature greater than 850C or,
if the chlorine content is above 1 %, greaterif the chlorine content is above 1 %, greater
than 1,100 C, with a residence time greaterthan 1,100 C, with a residence time greaterthan 2 seconds, under conditions that assurethan 2 seconds, under conditions that assure
appropriate mixing and subsequent destruction.appropriate mixing and subsequent destruction.
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Dedicated hazardous waste incinerator
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Temperature & residence timeTemperature & residence time
Combustion temperature and residence time needed for mixedCombustion temperature and residence time needed for mixed
hazardous wastes cannot be readily calculated and are oftenhazardous wastes cannot be readily calculated and are often
determined empirically. Some common solvents such asdetermined empirically. Some common solvents such as
alcohols and toluene can easily be combusted atalcohols and toluene can easily be combusted at
temperatures less than 1,000oC and less than one secondtemperatures less than 1,000oC and less than one secondresidence time, while other more complex organic halogensresidence time, while other more complex organic halogens
require more stringent conditions.require more stringent conditions.
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...more complex organicmore complex organic
halogens such as PCBhalogens such as PCB
requiresrequires 12001200ooC and 2C and 2
secondsseconds residence time residence time
US EPA Toxic Substances ControlUS EPA Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA) PCB Incineration CriteriaAct (TSCA) PCB Incineration Criteria
A DRE of 99.9999% is required by TSCA for the incineration of PCBsA DRE of 99.9999% is required by TSCA for the incineration of PCBs
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...if more than 1 % of halogenated...if more than 1 % of halogenated
organic substances, expressed asorganic substances, expressed as
chlorine, are incinerated, thechlorine, are incinerated, thetemperature has to be raised totemperature has to be raised to
minimumminimum 1100C during at1100C during atleast two secondsleast two seconds..
EU Directive 2000/76/EC on Incineration of Waste regulatesEU Directive 2000/76/EC on Incineration of Waste regulates
Co-incineration of Hazardous Waste in Cement KilnsCo-incineration of Hazardous Waste in Cement Kilns
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Technology descriptionTechnology description
Hazardous waste is normally incinerated in two types of facilities:Hazardous waste is normally incinerated in two types of facilities:
merchant plants who accept different types of waste for disposal; andmerchant plants who accept different types of waste for disposal; and
dedicated incinerators that handle a particular waste stream. Andedicated incinerators that handle a particular waste stream. An
example of the latter might be a chemical manufacturing plantexample of the latter might be a chemical manufacturing plant
treating chlorinated wastes to recover HCl.treating chlorinated wastes to recover HCl.The most common combustion technology in hazardous wasteThe most common combustion technology in hazardous waste
incineration is the rotary kiln. Facilities in the merchant sector rangeincineration is the rotary kiln. Facilities in the merchant sector range
in size from 30,000 to 100,000 tons/year throughput. Dedicatedin size from 30,000 to 100,000 tons/year throughput. Dedicated
hazardous waste incinerators use a variety of incineration, pyrolysis,hazardous waste incinerators use a variety of incineration, pyrolysis,and plasma treatment techniques.and plasma treatment techniques.
Similar to the incineration of municipal solid waste, hazardous wasteSimilar to the incineration of municipal solid waste, hazardous waste
incineration offers the benefits of volume reduction and energyincineration offers the benefits of volume reduction and energy
recovery.recovery.
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Dedicated hazardous waste incinerator for treating liquid and
gaseous chlorinated wastes at a chlorinated chemical
manufacturing facility
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Technology descriptionTechnology description In Rotary kilns solid, sludge, containerized orIn Rotary kilns solid, sludge, containerized or
pumpable waste is introduced at the upper end of thepumpable waste is introduced at the upper end of the
inclined drum. Temperatures in the kiln usually rangeinclined drum. Temperatures in the kiln usually range
between 850 and 1300C. The slow rotation of the drumbetween 850 and 1300C. The slow rotation of the drum
allows a residence time of 30-90 minutes.allows a residence time of 30-90 minutes. The secondary combustion chamber following theThe secondary combustion chamber following the
kiln completes the oxidation of the combustion gases.kiln completes the oxidation of the combustion gases.
Liquid wastes and/or auxiliary fuels may be injected hereLiquid wastes and/or auxiliary fuels may be injected here
along with secondary air to maintain a minimum residencealong with secondary air to maintain a minimum residencetime of two seconds and temperatures in the range of 900-time of two seconds and temperatures in the range of 900-
1300C, effectively destroying any remaining organic1300C, effectively destroying any remaining organic
compounds.compounds.
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Rotary kiln incineratorRotary kiln incinerator
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Formation and Releaseormation and Releaseof Unintentional POPsf Unintentional POPsEmission testing has confirmed that composition of theEmission testing has confirmed that composition of the
waste, furnace design, temperatures in the post-waste, furnace design, temperatures in the post-
combustion zone, and the types of air pollution controlcombustion zone, and the types of air pollution control
devices (APCD) used to remove pollutants from thedevices (APCD) used to remove pollutants from theflue gases are important factors in determining theflue gases are important factors in determining the
extent of POPs formation and release. Depending onextent of POPs formation and release. Depending on
the combination of these factors, POPs releases canthe combination of these factors, POPs releases can
vary over several orders of magnitude per ton of wastevary over several orders of magnitude per ton of wasteincinerated.incinerated.
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Average 6 - 7 Nm3 of flue
gas per kg waste
Specific collection/treatment for:
Dust - staged filters
Chlorine - neutralised by scrubbing with lime
Sulphur - washing stage
Dioxins - combustion control, activated carbon
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Example of flue gas cleaning technologyExample of flue gas cleaning technology
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Examples of APCDs relevant to theExamples of APCDs relevant to the
prevention or reduction of unintentionalprevention or reduction of unintentional
POPs releasesPOPs releases
Cyclones and multi-cyclonesCyclones and multi-cyclones
Electrostatic precipitators wet, dry, orElectrostatic precipitators wet, dry, orcondensationcondensation
Fabric filters including catalytic bag filtersFabric filters including catalytic bag filters
Static Bed FiltersStatic Bed Filters
Scrubbing systems - wet, spray dry, or ionizationScrubbing systems - wet, spray dry, or ionization
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
Rapid Quenching SystemsRapid Quenching Systems
Carbon Adsor tionCarbon Adsorption
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Unintentional POPs
formation can occurwithin the ESP at
temperatures in therange of 200C to
about 450C.Operating the ESP
within thistemperature range
can lead to theformation of
unintentional POPs inthe combustion gases
released from thestack.
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Fabric filters are alsoreferred to as baghouses or
dust filters. These
particulate matter control
devices can effectivelyremove unintentional POPs
that may be associated with
particles and any vapors
that adsorb to the particles
in the exhaust gas stream.
Filters are usually 16 to 20
cm diameter bags, 10 m
long, made from woven
fiberglass material, and
arranged in series. Fabric
filters are sensitive to acids;therefore, they are usually
operated in combination with
spray dryer adsorption
systems for upstream
removal of acid gases.
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Fabric filters (bag filters) are widely applied in waste incineration and have the
added advantage, when coupled with semi-dry sorbent injection (spray
drying), of providing additional filtration and reactive surface on the filter
cake.
Pressure drop across fabric filters should be monitored to ensure filter cake is
in place and bags are not leaking.
Fabric filters are subject to water damage and corrosion and are best suited for
dry gas streams with upstream removal of acid gases. Some filter materialsare more resistant to these effects.
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CarbonarbonAdsorptiondsorption Activated carbon is injected into the flue gas prior toActivated carbon is injected into the flue gas prior to
the gas reaching the spray dryer-fabric filter/ESPthe gas reaching the spray dryer-fabric filter/ESP
combination. PCDD/PCDF (and mercury) arecombination. PCDD/PCDF (and mercury) are
absorbed onto the activated carbon, which is thenabsorbed onto the activated carbon, which is thencaptured by the fabric filter or ESP. The carboncaptured by the fabric filter or ESP. The carbon
injection technology improves capture of theinjection technology improves capture of the
unintentional POPs in the combustion gases by anunintentional POPs in the combustion gases by an
additional 75% and is commonly referred to as flueadditional 75% and is commonly referred to as flue
gas polishing. Many APCDs have been retrofittedgas polishing. Many APCDs have been retrofitted
to include carbon injection.to include carbon injection.
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Spray dry scrubbing, also called spray
dryer adsorption, removes both acid gas
and particulate matter from the post-
combustion gases.
The spray drying technology is often usedin combination with ESPs and fabric filters.
Spray drying reduces ESP inlet
temperatures to create a cold-side ESP.
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Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is a secondary control measureprimarily designed to reduce NOx emissions. The process also destroys
unintentional POPs via catalytic oxidation. SCR is a catalytic process in which
an air-ammonia mix is injected into the flue gas stream and passed over a
mesh catalyst. The ammonia and NOx react to form water and N2.
SCR units are usually placed in the clean gas area after acid gas and
particulate matter removal. Efficient operation of the SCR process requires
maintenance of the catalyst between 130 and 400C. For this reason, SCR
units are often placed after ESPs to avoid the need for reheating of the flue
gases. Caution must be exercised in such placement to avoid additional
unintentional POPs formation in the ESP.
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Wastewater from incinerationWastewater from incineration
Controls vary from country to countryQuantity:
influenced by gas scrubbing technology
chosen i.e. wet, semi-dry, dry
Treatment:
in aerated lagoons / widely used / lowcost / may not meet required standard
physico-chemical treatment may also be
needed
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Best Environmentalest EnvironmentalPractices for Wasteractices for WasteIncinerationncineration Well-maintained facilities, well-trained operators, aWell-maintained facilities, well-trained operators, a
well-informed public, and constant attention to thewell-informed public, and constant attention to theprocess are all important factors in minimizing theprocess are all important factors in minimizing the
formation and release of the unintentional POPsformation and release of the unintentional POPs
from the incineration of waste. In addition, effectivefrom the incineration of waste. In addition, effective
waste management strategies (waste management strategies (e.g.,e.g., wastewasteminimization, source separation, and recycling), byminimization, source separation, and recycling), by
altering the volume and character of the incomingaltering the volume and character of the incoming
waste, can also significantly impact releases.waste, can also significantly impact releases.
W t I ti d Ch t i ti
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Waste Inspection and Characterization
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Proper Handling,roper Handling,Storage, and Pre-torage, and Pre-TreatmentreatmentStorage areas must be properly sealed with
controlled drainage and weatherproofing. Fire
detection and control systems for these areas
should also be considered. Storage andhandling areas should be designed to prevent
contamination of environmental media and to
facilitate clean up in the event of spills orleakage.
Odors can be minimized by using bunker air
for the combustion process.
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Proper Handling, Storage, and Pre-TreatmentProper Handling, Storage, and Pre-Treatment
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Minimizing Storageinimizing StorageTimesimes Minimizing the storage period will help prevent
putrefaction and unwanted reactions, as well
as the deterioration of containers and labeling.
Managing deliveries and communicating with
suppliers will help ensure that reasonable
storage times are not exceeded.
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Establishing Qualitystablishing QualityRequirements for Wasteequirements for WasteFeded
Facilities must be able to accurately
predict the heating value and otherattributes of the waste being combusted
in order to ensure that the design
parameters of the incinerator are beingmet.
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Incinerator Operating and Management PracticesIncinerator Operating and Management Practices
Ensuring Good CombustionEnsuring Good Combustion
Optimal burn conditions involve:
mixing of fuel and air to minimize the existence of
long-lived, fuel rich pockets of combustion products,
attainment of sufficiently high temperatures in the
presence of oxygen for the destruction of
hydrocarbon species, and
prevention of quench zones or low temperature
pathways that will allow partially reacted fuel to exit
the combustion chamber.
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CirculatingCirculating
fluidised bedfluidised bed
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Proper management of time, temperature, andturbulence as well as oxygen (air flow), by means of
incinerator design and operation will help to ensure the
above conditions. The recommended residence time of
waste in the primary furnace is 2 seconds.
Temperatures at or above 850C are required for
complete combustion in most technologies. Turbulence,
through the mixing of fuel and air, helps prevent coldspots in the burn chamber and the buildup of carbon
which can reduce combustion efficiency. Oxygen levels
in the final combustion zone must be maintained above
those necessary for complete oxidation.
Incinerator Operating and Management PracticesIncinerator Operating and Management Practices
Ensuring Good CombustionEnsuring Good Combustion cont.cont.
BubblingBubbling
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BubblingBubbling
fluidised bedfluidised bed
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MonitoringMonitoringIn addition to carbon monoxide, oxygen in theflue gas, air flows and temperatures, pressure
drops, and pH in the flue gas can be routinely
monitored at reasonable cost. While thesemeasurements represent reasonably good
surrogates for the potential for unintentional
POPs formation and release, periodicmeasurement of PCDD/Fs in the flue gas will aid
in ensuring that releases are minimized and the
incinerator is operating properly.
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OperatorperatorTrainingrainingRegular training ofpersonnel is essential for
proper operation of
waste incinerators
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Maintaining Publicaintaining PublicAwareness andwareness andCommunicationommunication
Successful incineration projects have been
characterized by: holding regular meetings
with concerned citizens; providing days forpublic visitation; posting release and
operational data to the Internet; and
displaying real time data on operations andreleases at the facility site.
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BAT - General CombustionAT - General CombustionTechniquesechniquesEnsure design of furnace is appropriately matched to characteristics of theEnsure design of furnace is appropriately matched to characteristics of thewaste to be processed.waste to be processed.
Maintain temperatures in the gas phase combustion zones in the optimalMaintain temperatures in the gas phase combustion zones in the optimalrange for completing oxidation of the waste.range for completing oxidation of the waste.
Provide for sufficient residence time (e.g., 2 seconds) and turbulent mixing inProvide for sufficient residence time (e.g., 2 seconds) and turbulent mixing in
the combustion chamber(s) to complete incineration.the combustion chamber(s) to complete incineration.Pre-heat primary and secondary air to assist combustion.Pre-heat primary and secondary air to assist combustion.
Use continuous rather than batch processing wherever possible to minimizeUse continuous rather than batch processing wherever possible to minimizestart-up and shut-down releases.start-up and shut-down releases.
Establish systems to monitor critical combustion parameters including grateEstablish systems to monitor critical combustion parameters including gratespeed and temperature, pressure drop, and levels of CO, CO2, O2.speed and temperature, pressure drop, and levels of CO, CO2, O2.
Provide for control interventions to adjust waste feed, grate speed, andProvide for control interventions to adjust waste feed, grate speed, andtemperature, volume, and distribution of primary and secondary air.temperature, volume, and distribution of primary and secondary air.
Install automatic auxiliary burners to maintain optimal temperatures in theInstall automatic auxiliary burners to maintain optimal temperatures in the
combustion chamber(s).combustion chamber(s).
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BAT - Hazardous WasteAT - Hazardous WasteIncineration Techniquesncineration Techniques Rotary kilns are well demonstrated for the incineration ofRotary kilns are well demonstrated for the incineration of
hazardous waste and can accept liquids and pastes as wellhazardous waste and can accept liquids and pastes as wellas solids.as solids.
Water-cooled kilns can be operated at higher temperaturesWater-cooled kilns can be operated at higher temperaturesand allow acceptance of wastes with higher energy values.and allow acceptance of wastes with higher energy values.
Waste consistency (and combustion) can be improved byWaste consistency (and combustion) can be improved by
shredding drums and other packaged hazardous wastes.shredding drums and other packaged hazardous wastes.
A feed equalization system e.g., screw conveyors that canA feed equalization system e.g., screw conveyors that cancrush and provide a constant amount of solid hazardouscrush and provide a constant amount of solid hazardouswaste to the furnace, will ensure smooth feeding.waste to the furnace, will ensure smooth feeding.
C d ti
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Condensation
electrostatic
precipitator
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BAT Flue GasAT Flue GasTreatmentreatmentThe type and order of treatment processesThe type and order of treatment processes
applied to the flue gases once they leave theapplied to the flue gases once they leave theincineration chamber is important, both forincineration chamber is important, both for
optimal operation of the devices as well as foroptimal operation of the devices as well as for
the overall cost effectiveness of the installation.the overall cost effectiveness of the installation.Waste incineration parameters that affect theWaste incineration parameters that affect theselection of techniques include: waste type,selection of techniques include: waste type,
composition, and variability; type of combustioncomposition, and variability; type of combustionprocess; flue gas flow and temperature; andprocess; flue gas flow and temperature; andthe need for, and availability of, wastewaterthe need for, and availability of, wastewater
treatment.treatment.
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Destruction efficiencyDestruction efficiency
DREs of greater thanDREs of greater than99.9999 percent have been99.9999 percent have been
reported for treatment ofreported for treatment ofwastes consisting of,wastes consisting of,
containing or contaminatedcontaining or contaminatedwith POPs.with POPs.
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BAT - Residue Management TechniquesBAT - Residue Management Techniques Unlike bottom ash, APCD residuals including fly ash and scrubber sludges mayUnlike bottom ash, APCD residuals including fly ash and scrubber sludges may
contain relatively high concentrations of heavy metals, organic pollutants (includingcontain relatively high concentrations of heavy metals, organic pollutants (includingPCDD/F), chlorides and sulfides.PCDD/F), chlorides and sulfides.
Mixing fly ash and FGT residues with bottom ash should be avoided since this willMixing fly ash and FGT residues with bottom ash should be avoided since this willlimit the subsequent use and disposal options for the bottom ash.limit the subsequent use and disposal options for the bottom ash.
Treatment techniques for these residues include:Treatment techniques for these residues include: Cement solidification. Residues are mixed with mineral and hydraulic binders andCement solidification. Residues are mixed with mineral and hydraulic binders andadditives to reduce leaching potential. Product is landfilled.additives to reduce leaching potential. Product is landfilled.
Vitrification . Residues are heated in electrical melting or blast furnaces to immobilizeVitrification . Residues are heated in electrical melting or blast furnaces to immobilizepollutants of concern. Organics, including PCDD/F are typically destroyed in thepollutants of concern. Organics, including PCDD/F are typically destroyed in theprocess.process.
Catalytic treatment of fabric filter dusts under conditions of low temperatures and lack ofCatalytic treatment of fabric filter dusts under conditions of low temperatures and lack ofoxygen;oxygen;
The application of plasma or similar high temperature technologies.The application of plasma or similar high temperature technologies.
Fly ash and scrubber sludges are normally disposed of in landfills set aside for thisFly ash and scrubber sludges are normally disposed of in landfills set aside for thispurpose. Some countries include ash content limits for PCDD/F in their incineratorpurpose. Some countries include ash content limits for PCDD/F in their incineratorstandards. If the content exceeds the limit, the ash must be re-incinerated.standards. If the content exceeds the limit, the ash must be re-incinerated.
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Costs and Economic ConsiderationsCosts and Economic Considerations
The construction of large state-of -the-art incineratorsThe construction of large state-of -the-art incineratorsrequires major capital investment, often approachingrequires major capital investment, often approachinghundreds of millions USD. Installations recover capital andhundreds of millions USD. Installations recover capital andoperating costs through treatment fees and, in the case ofoperating costs through treatment fees and, in the case of
waste-to-energy facilities, through the sale of steam orwaste-to-energy facilities, through the sale of steam or
electricity to other industries and utilities.electricity to other industries and utilities.
The ability to fully recover the costs of construction andThe ability to fully recover the costs of construction andoperation is dependent on a number of factors including:operation is dependent on a number of factors including:
the relative cost of alternative disposal methods; thethe relative cost of alternative disposal methods; theavailability of sufficient waste within the local area;availability of sufficient waste within the local area;provisions for disposal of residues; and proper staffing,provisions for disposal of residues; and proper staffing,operation, and maintenance to maintain peak efficiencyoperation, and maintenance to maintain peak efficiency
and minimize downtime.and minimize downtime.
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CostsostsRelated to site-specific andcountry-specific factors
High level of sophistication &control = high constructioncosts
Air pollution control costs = 30-40% of total
Capital and operating costs for anCapital and operating costs for an
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Capital and operating costs for anCapital and operating costs for an
average 70,000 tpy HWI facilityaverage 70,000 tpy HWI facility
Cost Structure EUR
Planning/approval 3,000,000
Machine parts 16,000,000
Other components 14,000,000
Electrical works 10,000,000
Infrastructure works 6,000,000
Construction time 3,000,000
Total investment costs 54,000,000
Capital financing costs 5,000,000
Personnel 3,000,000
Maintenance 4,000,000
Administration 300,000
Operating resources/energy 1,300,000
Waste disposal 800,000
Other 300,000
Total operational costs 14,700,000
Per ton incineration costs (without revenues) 200-300
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Costs and Economic ConsiderationsCosts and Economic Considerations
Country Gate Fees in EUR/tonMSW Hazardous Waste
Belgium 56-130 100-1500
Denmark 40-70 100-1500
France 50-120 100-1500
Germany 100-350 50-1500
Italy 40-80 100-1000 Netherlands 90-180 50-5000
Sweden 20-50 Not available
United Kingdom 20-40 Not available
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ThroughputhroughputHazardous wasteHazardous waste
incinerators have aincinerators have a
capacity from a fewcapacity from a fewhundred tons to >100,000hundred tons to >100,000
tons per yeartons per year
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AvailabilityAvailability
Dedicated incinerators areDedicated incinerators are
available in many countriesavailable in many countries
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Hazardous wasteazardous wasteincinerationncineration are in principle capable to treat POPs and
POPs waste in an environmentally soundway and can meet stringent ELVs
are highly regulated need skilled personnel require high operating and safety
standards require high capital investment have medium to high operating costs
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