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AS MODULE 2:PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
& INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
BY
DR GEORGEVARVATSOULIAS
Lesson 1: Stress as a bodily
response
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TERMINOLOGY ON STRESS
...a pattern of negative physiological states and
psychological responses occurring in situations
where people perceive threats to their well-being
which they may be unable to meet(Lazarus &Folkman, 1984)
...a pattern of physiological, behavioural,
emotional, and cognitive responses to real or
imagined stimuli that are perceived as preventing
a goal or endangering or otherwise threateningwell-being(Linsky et al., 1995)
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NEGATIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO STRESS
Negative physiological states and psychological
responses to stress mean also that oneself is
protected against the worse in ones health
Negative Physiological States: Increase of Heart
Rate and Blood Pressure, Rise of Blood Sugars,
Deeper Breathing, Increase of Perspiration,
Secretion of Adrenaline, Digestion is Stopping
Negative Psychological Responses: Fear, Anger,
Hostility, Embarrassment, Depression,
Helplessness, Anxiety
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STRESS AND STRESSORS
People experience stressaccording to life situations(events) that feel difficult tocope with. These life situations(events) are generally known as
stressors (agents ofconsiderable tension)
Examples of the top 10:
Death of Spouse
Divorce
Marital Separation
Jail term
Death of close FamilyMember
Personal Illness orInjury
Marriage Fired at Work
Marital reconciliation
Retirement
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THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 1
(ABRIEF PRESENTATION)
Peripheral Nervous System comprising all cranial (12 pairs)and spinal cord (31 pairs) nerves
Autonomic Nervous system: The link betweenthe viscera (internal organs: heart, stomach,
intestines, etc.) and the Central NervousSystem/Coordinated via the hypothalamus and
limbic system
Sympathetic Branch:Acting upon emergency
situations
Parasympatheticbranch: Restoring the
bodys energy. Activatedby the anterior (front)nuclei (central cell) of
hypothalamus
Somatic Nervous System: Receives andidentifies sensory information from the
external world and sends signals tomuscles
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THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 2
(IN PICTURE)
Brain or cranial
nerves
Spinal cord:
Conductor of sensory
and motor nerve
impulses
Cervical spinal
nerves: Nerves
around the neck
Thoracic spinal
nerves: nerves
associated to the
upper body
Lumbar spinalnerves: Nerves near
the back and the hips
Sacral spinal nerves:
Nerves around the
genital area; around
the sacred rites of the
body
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THE BODYS RESPONSE TO STRESSORS 1
(PITUITARY ANDADRENAL SYSTEM)
Pituitary gland: Located at the base of the brain; consisting of
two parts: the anterior pituitary (the front part) which
releases hormones via blood vessels; the posterior pituitary
(the back part), sending impulses down to funnel-shapedpart (channel-like part) of the pituitary CRH:
Corticotrophic-releasing hormone;ACTH:
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone.
Adrenal System: Situated at the top of kidneys; they receive
regulatory input from the nervous system. Two parts:Adrenal medulla: it is the central core of the adrenal gland.
Adrenal cortex: its work is to synthesise cortisosteroid (fat-
combined small parts for the development of bodily
activities) hormones from cholesterol
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THE BODYS RESPONSE TO STRESSORS 2
(BRAIN AND THE PITUITARYADRENAL SYSTEM)
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SELYE (1936, 1976)AND THE GENERAL
ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS), OR THE
PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYNDROME
...It suddenly struck me that one could look at [the
experiments] from an entirely different angle. [Perhaps]
there was such a thing as a non-specific reaction of the body
to damage of any kind (Selye, 1976)
The General Adaptation System (GAS): Non-specificresponses to stressors are automatically confronted from
ones body. That kind of defence on behalf of ones body
returns the body to its previous original state. Selye (1956)
called the non-specific response to a stressor as General
Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
A back-fire to GAS: If repeated or prolonged exposure to a
stressor cannot be managed by the GAS, individuals can
suffer from tissue damage, increased susceptibility to
disease, and in extreme cases even...death!
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INTERACTION OF THE GAS WITH THE CNS
(HYPOTHALAMUS)/MACLEAN (1982) 1
The Primitive Brain: the
reptilian brain/fear-
threat-anger
The Intermediate Brain:
the paleo-mammalian
brain/family concerns
agonistic interactions,
emotions
The CerebralCortex/Gray Matter: the
neo-mammalian
brain/high intellectual
activities: science,
civilisation
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INTERACTION OF THE GAS WITH THE CNS
(HYPOTHALAMUS) 2
Operating towards:
Species-typical
Behaviour: behaviours
important for survival Homeostasis: the
maintenance of a
proper balance of
physiological variables
such as body
temperature and fluid
concentration
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INTERACTION OF THE GAS WITH THEANS
The ANS controls
internal bodily
processes, such as
urination, digestion,
the muscles
Two branches:
Parasympathetic
(restoration and
preservation of energy)and Sympathetic
(engaging or
withdrawing from
activities)
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INTERACTION OF THE GAS WITH THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The Endocrine System
is consisted of glands
that secrete hormones
The entire endocrinesystem is regulated by
Hypothalamus
The function of
hypothalamus relates
to understanding the
bodily effects of stress
on other endocrine
glands
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THE THREE STAGES OF THE GENERAL
ADAPTATION SYSTEM
General Adaptation
System
The Alarm Reaction: the
perception and evaluation of a
stressor, consisted of the
shock phase, and the
countershock phase
The Resistance Stage:
Recovering from the initial
shock and coping with the
situation
The Exhaustion Stage:
Tissues show signs of wear-and-tear; muscles come to a
fatique state; blood sugar
levels drop; endocrine glands
and kidneys may be damaged
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EVALUATION OF SELYESAPPROACH
Selyes GAS explains the physiology of stress.
Although he claims about non-specific patterns of
responses there can be found physiological
activity patterns different from those of other
stressors (Taylor, 1990)
Selyes research on stress was based in non-
human subjects (rats), and he did not take into
account the psychological factors to
understanding stress
Finally, Selye ignored the psychological effects of
stressors in his patterns of responses to stress
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STRESS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS 1
(HEART DISEASE AND DISORDERS OF THE
CIRCULATORYSYSTEM)
Type A Disorders: Individuals
frequently engaging
themselves in risky
behaviours (smoking) or are
psychologically reactive to
stress. Type A individuals arelikely to have coronary
proneness to a cardiac
disorder.
Non-Type A Individuals: Are
those who feel relaxed, easy-
going, are forgiving and noteasily angered. Funnily
enough, the second category
is more susceptible to a heart
disease, because they dont
easily refer themselves to a
doctor
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STRESS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS 2
(ASSOCIATED TO HYPERTENSION
CHRONICALLYHIGH BLOOD PRESSURE)
Blood flow is increased when ANS activity is
heightened
Heightened blood flow causes hardening anddeterioration of blood vessel tissues leading to
heart disease, stroke, and kidney failure
Heart diseases, stroke, and kidney failure relate
to urban life stressors, such as population
density, crime rates, poverty conditions
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THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM (PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY) 1
The Immune System
works towards fighting
against antigens (bacteria,
viruses, and other foreign
hazardous bodies) Infectious illnesses
relating to stress, such as
influenza, herpes, etc.
Decreased endorphins (a
morphine-like substance)may produce irritability,
anxiety, depression,
difficulty in
understanding, etc.
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THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM (PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY) 2
Acute and Chronic Stressors and the ImmuneSystem
1. Acute Stressors: Speaking in Public, Working to
Deadlines, etc.
2. Chronic Stressors: Separation, Divorce, Caringfor Others, etc.
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THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
(PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY) 3: ACUTE STRESSORS:
THESYMPATHO-ADRENOMEDULLARYAXIS
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THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
(PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY) 4: CHRONIC STRESSORS:
HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-ADRENAL AXIS
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SUMMARY
Stress is defined as a pattern of negative physiological
states and psychological processes
Selye concluded that non-humans respond in a non-specific
physiological way to stressors; the General Adaptation
syndrome (GAS) The GAS interacts with the CNS, the ANS, and the
Endocrine System
The key stages for GAS: the alarm reaction, the resistance
stage, and the exhaustion stage
Cardiovascular disorders are influenced by the presence ofstress in ones life
The immune system may lose its full potential reactivity if
an individual experiences stress
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QUESTION TO CONSIDER ON THIS SECTION
Definitions of stress and stressors. Discuss their
pros and cons
Describe the general adaptation syndrome andevaluate it
Discuss the relationship between stress and
cardiovascular disorders
Describe and evaluate the relationship betweenstress and the immune system
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REFERENCES
Lazarus, R.S, Folkman, S. (19840: Stress,
Appraisal, and Coping. New York: Springer
Linsky, A. S., Bachman, R., Straus, M. A. (1995):
Stress, Culture, and Aggression. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press
MacLean, P. D. (1982): On the origin and
progressive evolution of the triune brain. In E.
Armstrong & D. Falk (Eds.) Primate Brain
Evolution. New York: Plenum Press Selye, H. (1936): A syndrome produced by diverse
nocuous agents. Nature, 138, 32pp
________(1976): The Stress ofLife. New York:
McGraw-Hill
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