^AMBIX r i i r j o u r n a l o l ' lhe Society for l l ic Mis to iy o r A k l i c m y and C^hcmistry

Editor: D r M i c h a e l 'stuaow Newcastle-upon-Tyne Polytechnic

. A u l h o r i t a l i v c scholarly articles and book reviews on al l aspects o f the history o f a lchemy and chemistry from earliest times to the twentieth century are publ i she t l in Ambix. I t is o f great value to al l who are iiuerested in the subject, and indispensable to those engaged in teaching and research. Each volume o f over 200pp consists o f three parts, published in M a r c h , Ju ly and November.

T h e conienls o f V o l u m e 29, lf)H2, include:

S. K . H A M A R N E H , 'A rab i c - I s l amic A lchemy '

M . I - : . I.1-: G R A N D , ' T h e M o n t p e l l i e r Socicte Royalc des Sciences'

R. P A T / M , ' M a r i a the Jewess'

C;. E. P E R R I N , 'Joseph Black and the Ed inburgh Reception o f Lavoisier's Chemis t ry*

R. S 1 E G F R I I T 3 , 'Lavoisier 's T a b l e o f Simple Substances'

I'VE T I T C H , 'Conservat ion o f M a t t e r and the Biological W o r l d in the 18th C<'ntury '

E. l i . W I C L L E S , 'T he Unpub l i shed Alchemica l Sonnets o f Eelice Ecliciano'

I 'or l ibrar ies and other ins t i tu t ions the su ' i scr ip i ion is £10 .50 . A l l b-.u'k luunbers f rom V o l u m e I (1937) to V o l u m e 28 (1981) are available at £1.') each.

Subscr ip t ions and enquiries should be sent to:

H c f f e r s P r i n t e r s L t d .

K-ing's Hedges Road , Cambr idge , C B 4 2PQ, England

. I n indiuidunl requiring Arnhix for his own use may obtain it at a reduced rate by joining Ihe Societyfor the History of A Ichemy and Chemistry. Enquines nhout the Soi.ietv shout ihe addressed to the Hon. Treasurer, DrN. G. Coley, Open Unioer.uty, 230-2 London Road, East Crmstedd, West Simex RHI'J ll.A

llisl. Sn.,ssJ\'m)

ON V/HIGGISM

A. Rupert Hall Wellcome Institute for the History of Mediant, London

H e r b e r t B i i t t e r f i e l d ( 1 9 0 0 - 7 9 ) ^ e r a s e d a deep i n l l u e n c c u p o n m y own d e v e l o p m e n t as a h i s t o r i a n o f science; he was a inan w h o m I b o t h a d m i r e d and l o v e d , a n d w h o s e g e n e r o s i t y t o w a r d s m e was r e m a r k a b k ' . B u i ( h o u g h I res|)ect h i m , a n d a c k n o w l e d g e his l e a r n i n g a n d H a s h i n g i n i e l l i g e i u c , I d o no : i h i n k be w a s r i g h t i n a l l t h i n g s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , I have ( o n i e to d o u b t the t . i i i h ol i l ij i i p a r t i c u l a r m a x i m o i R u t t e r l i e l d ' s h i s t o r i o g r a j j l i y w h i c h is ])erlia])s best k n o w n , r h a t t h e ' \ \T i i i^_J j i i c rp i reJ^^ <>l' h i s n i r y necessar i ly i n v o l v e s a m i s l e a d i n g h i s t o r i c a l c iUer [ ) r i s c .

A s h i s c r i t i c s h a v e n o t f a i l e d to e m p h a s i z e , t h r o u g h some fif ty years o f h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g i n w h i c h h i s f a i t h a n d his p h i l o s o p h y were expressed i n v i g o r o u s a n d of ten p i c t u r e s q u e l a n g u a g e , B u l t c r f i e l d was no t by a n y means a l w a y s cons i s t en t . I n m a t u r i t y he c o u l d s w a l l o w w h a t the d e l i c a t e a [ )p ( ' t i t e o f his y o u t h f o u n d n a u s e o u s . N o t a b l y , m u c h o f the c o n t e n t o f The IVhii; inlerpreUitiim of history (19!i I ) w a s to be r eve r sed i n The Englishman and his history ( l ! ) 4 4 ) : here '"the b e n d i n g of h i s t o r y , so far f r o m b e i n g r e g r e t t e d , was n o w t r ea t ed as a v i r t u e , ben t T u s i o i y h a v i n g b e c o m e a spec i f ic aga ins t v i c e " . ' F r o m h a v i n g m i s l a k e n l y d l s c e i i u i l , p e r h a p s , s o m e useful r e g e n e r a t i v e s t r e n g i h in the t each ings o f l a s i i s m and N a z i s m — as so m a n y d i d b e l b n ' l9. 'iH — B u i l e r f i e l d was ( o i n c r i c d im<lci-C : h u r c h i l l ' s g u i d a n c e d u r i n g the cr is is o f o f a i t h i l l the B i i t i s b l i b e r a l ,

t h a t is W h i g , t r a d i t i o n . I d o no t t h i n k tha t in subsequen t w r i t i n g s he c\-cr r e so lved t h e s e e m i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n a s ty le o f h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g t ha t is m o r a l l y

/ g o o d t h o u g h i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n d e f e n s i b l e a n d " h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h " (as be some­t i m e s c a l l e d i t ) c a r r i e d t h r o u g h w i t h o u t care for the m o r a l i t y o f its p r o d u c t s .

[ d o n o t m e a n to face th i s issue, w h i c h m a y be r e g a r d e d as a v e r s i o n o f the p r o b l e m a b o u t h i s t o r y as c u l t u r e a n d h i s t o r y as science a n d m a v we I b e i t s e l f a k i n d o l i l l u s o r y d i c h o t o m y , b u t r a t l i e r to e x a m i n e the a s s u m j ) n ( ^ is! \vbos<'

r " j u s t i c c t h e B^u t l e r f idc l , o f _i^9i|^I was so c o n l i d e n l , t ha t " W h i g h i s t o r y ' is I i n t e l l e c t t i a l l y iiVk ' fensilile. T l i e n Ise a t . .eked " ' t he W h i g i n i c i p i c i a i i o n o f

" l l i s l o r y ' i n w h a t I c o n c e i v e to be the i i c i c p l e d m e a n i n g o f l lu' p h r a s e " as l l u i i i g b t h i s w a s o f t en used bv o i l i e r w r i l c r s , a n d in the n c x i se i i lence r e l e i r e d l o '"\', ha l is o r d i n a r i l y u n d e r s t o o d bv the w o r d s " as t h o u g h l h c \|(i\l (i>miiii)n i u n i i u \b u t 1 b e l i e v e t h a t i f the l a be l v \as not ( u n f e r r e d b \d l i i i i i s e l l . Ms u s c . i i

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p re sen t . ^

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••xtent the E i i j j ; l i sh_h!S tor ian has been P r o t e s t a n t , p rogress ive a n d W h i g , a n d the

v e r y mocfe i o f the 19 th c e n t u r y g e n t l e m a n . " ^ A s here , B u t l e r f i e l d i n his essay

g e n e r a l l y left t he W h i g h i s t o r i a n a n o n y m o u s : o n l y t w o are m e n t i o n e d b y n a m e ,

H e n r y H a l l a m as a n e x a m p l e o f the C o n s e i v a t i v e i n the p o l i t i c a l d i a l o g u e o f his

o w n d a y w h o neve r the l e s s w r o t e as a W h i g h i s t o r i a n , a n d L o r d A c t o n whose

v i e w s o n the m o r a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o f h i s t o r y are re fu ted at some l e n g t h . T h e

(b rce o f B u t t c r f i e l d ' s h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l a r g u m e n t , h o w e v e r , ex tends far b e y o n d

t h e p a r o c h i a l l i m i t s o f h is o w n c o u n t r y a n d its h i s t o r y ; w h a t he means by the

W h i g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' c a n be p u t i n a m o r e u n i v e r s a l l a n g u a g e :

I t is p a r t a n d p a r c e l of t he W h i g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y t h a t i t s tud ies the

pas t w i t h r d ' e r e i u x to t he p resen t . . . . T h r o u g h th is sys t em o f i m m e d i a t e

r e fe rence t o the p r e s e n t d a y , h i s t o r i c a l personages can eas i ly a n d i r r e s i s t i b l y

be c lassed i n t o t h e m e n w h o f u r t h e r e d progress a n d the m e n w h o t r i e d to

h i n d e r i t . . . . T h e W l i i g lnstoriIu7staiTd.roi^ s u m m i t o f the 2 ( ) lh c e n t u r y

a n d o r g a n i s e s his s c h e m e o f h i s l o r y f r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f his o w n ^lay. ' '

I n o t h e r w o r d s , as B u t l e r f i e l d e l s ewhere p o i n t s o u t , the W h i g h i s t o r i a n k n o w s the

m o r a l o f h i s t a l e be fo re he has sat d o w n to te l l i t , a n d solus t e n d e n c y is to search

fo r l i kenes s b e t w e e n pas t a n d p resen t , i n s t ead o f b e i n g v i g i l a n t Ibr

u n l i k e i i e s s e s ; so t h a t he w i l l find i t easy to say tha t he has 'sccn t h . present in

t h e pas t , he w i l l i m a g i n e t h a t he l ias d i s c o v e r e d a ' r o o t ' o r a n ' a n t i c i p a t i o n ' o f

the 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , w h e n i n r e a l i t y he is i n a w o r l d o f d i l l e r e n t c o n n o t a t i o n s

a l t o g e t h e r . . .

i Jo o n e , p e r h a p s , c o u l d m o r e a p t l y e x e m p l i f y th i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f ' W h i g ' h i s t o r y

t i i a n t h e ' T o r y | P i e r r e D u h e m , i n his search I b r the m e d i e v a l p recu r so r s o f

G a l i l e o ; i n d e e d B u t l e r f i e l d is a t p a i n s to e m p h a s i z e t h a t T o r y h i s t o r y o r

i d e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e past is ( i n his 'sense) ecfual ly ' W h i g ' , because 'MThas l )ee i reasy

i771)elicv(- t h a t C l i o h e r s e l f is o n the s ide o f the \ V h i g s " . ^ F o r t h o u g h the j j i v u ess o f

p i c k i n g a n d c h o o s i n g heroes a n d v i l l a i n s m a y be in\ers<-, it is o f the i d e n t i c a l k i n d .

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I n c i t h e r case the n i e t h o d o f p r o c e d u r e def i 'a ts the o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e o f the W h i g

h i s t o r i a n " w h i t h was to use the past for the e l u c i d a t i o n o f d i e p r e s e n t " ; such

f h i s t o r y goes c i i i ' u l a i d y f r o m a s s u m p t i o n s to c o n c l u s i o n s : " i h e u p s h o t o f a l l oui-

h i s t o r y is o n l y to send us back l i n a l l y to the p lace w h e r e we began a n d to ra t i fy

w h a t e v e r c o n c e p t i o n s we o r i g i n a l l y h a d in r e g a r d to o u r o w n l i m e s . " ' I f , I I J I -

e x a n i i ) k ' , one be l ieves t ha t m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s d e i i o i e the

essence o f m a t u r e sc ience , t h e n one is u n l i k e l y by h i s t o r i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n to c o m e

across a r e f r r t a t i o n o f one ' s v i e w , Ibr the h i s t o r i c a l ex i s l i ' n ce o f i r u u m i e r a b l e

I p e r sons w h o h a v e l a b o u r e d i n e a r l y t imes in n a t u r a l h i s t o r y o r g e o l o g y can be

' • ' d i s p o s e d o f s i m p l y by c l a s s i f y i n g t h e i r l ab t ju r s as i n u n a t u r e science, p r o t o -

s c i e i u ( V i j r i iv Ru the r iu rc | ^ s express i ( )n ,_ ' ' s t amp-c ( j | l ec ' t ing ' ' .

B i i t t e r l i t ' l d j i i s i ' c h a r a c f e r i z e c l W h i g hisiucv^as.an ' ^ ' a b r i c l g e n i e n j ^ i i i cor i i ras t . lo

h i s t o r i c a l ( £ c ^ ' a r c h ; w h e r e a f u l l r e v i e w o f the a v a i l a b l l T i n f o r m a i i o n is m a d e d u c c i

I f o m the sources . H e m a k e s the essence o f t r u e h i s t o r y consist i n th i s

c o m p l c t i ' i u ' s s ; the a m p l e r the s t a t e m a r i o r t h e r e c o r d 4Tie l i e t i e r the h i s t o r i a n

f u l l i l s h is t a s k . | l ' h e a b r i d g e r m u s t necessar i ly ^ e l e c p a i u l o f i en s(4cct I r o m o l l i e i '

m e i r s p r o d u c t i o n s , no t the r a w m a i / - r i a l . The m o m e n t a n y g i \ e n sub jec t has k f l

the h a n d s o f t h e s t u d e n t i n r e sea rch , H u t t e r l i e l d w r i t e s , the g rea t e r the elfeci o f ihe

i n h e r e n t t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s W l i i g g i s m : " I b r the m o r e w e are d i scuss ing , a n d n o i

m e r e l y i n c i u i r i n g , the m o r e w e are m a k i n g inferences ins t ead o f researc lies, i h c n

the m o r e W h i g o u r h i s t o r y becomes i f we have no t severely repressed o u r o r i g i n a l

e r r o r . " * I n l a t e r pages o f his b o o k , h o w e v e r , B u l t c r f i e l d c o n s i d e r a b l y ( a n d as I

t h i n k w i s e l y ) m o d i f i e d th i s s t a r k c o n d e m n a t i o n . H e n o w a d m i t s t ha t i f " h i s t o i A

c o u l d be t o l d i n a l l i ts c o m p l e x i t y a n d d e t a i l i t w o u l d p r o v i d e us w i t h s o m e t h i n g

as c h a o t i c a n d b a l l l i n g as l i fe i t s e l f " , a n d l l i a l " t h e r e never was a w o r k o f h i s t o r y

t h a t d i d n o t g r e a t l y a b r i d g e . . . . T h e a r t o f the h i s t o r i a n is p rec i s i4y ihe a r t o f

a b i ' i d g c i n e n C his p r o b l e m is th i s p r o b l e m . ' " ^ I n fact , as l U i i t c r f i c k l n o w pu t s n ,

the h i s t o r i a n w h o is a n h o n e s l a n d s t h o l a r l y a b r i d g e r conveys c ( / i r c c t l y ihe

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d e t a i l a n d the c o m p l e x i t y o f events w h i t h he c a i m o i ana lyse

s e i ' i a l i r n , so t h a t the t r i u ' p a t t e r n o f the h i s t o r i c a l process is t o n v e y e d :

( J r e a l w o r k has been d o n e in th i s f o r m o f a b r i d g e d h i s l o r y w h e n the i na s i e r o f

s o m e h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d has condensed i n t o a few pages his a [ )p r (4u-ns ion o f

t h e w o r k i n g o f even ts , his e x p o s i i i o n o f t h e i r i n i e r ] ) l a y ; and has m a n a g e d l u

c o m m u n i c a t e to the r eade r those w e a \ i n g s o f the h i s t o r i c a l | )roccss w h i c h

m a k e the l e x i u r e o f the p e r i o d . ' "

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e x a m p l e s o f a class o f l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h H i i t t c r f u d d had at f irst seemed l o c o n d e n m

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b i o g r a p h i c a l , p e r i o d a n d p r o b l e m a t i c s tud ies o f some b r e a d t h ) c .ui b<-. issemble.!

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a d d r e s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s to a l a rge t h e m e m a k e use o f r e l evan t a r i i c l e s a n d

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u s u a l l y f i n d s t h a t ihe c o n t r i b u t i o n s to it t a k e n f r o m a n t e i e d e n i ' s p e c i . i l i s i

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l i i s t o r i c a l s t u t l i e s as i n the n a t u r a l sciences ( t h o u g h i t m u s i b e s a i d w i t h less s o u n d

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t w e n t y yea r s o l d . H e assumes t h a t w h a t was o f rea l w e i g h t in the o l d e r speciahs t

l i t e r a t u r e w i l l have r e a c h e d h i m i n d i r e c l l y , a n d ( l i : i l the les l can be s a l i | \

n e g l e c t e d save, p e r h a p s , for a few j j a r t i c u l a r j ewels to w h i c h la te r l e l e r e i u e V M I I

l e a d h i m . M o s t ' s p e c i a l i s t s t u d i e s ' are s c a n n e d i n the j o u r n a l s o f t h e i r

| ) u b l i c a l i o i i a n d t h e n , e f f ec t i ve ly , l i i r g o l t e n ; they d o no t c o n t r i b u t e , as l i u l l e r i u i d

s u p p o s e d , lo s o m e m o r e s w c e | ) i n g an t l t r e m e n d o u s mo.saic o f h i s i D i y.

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u a l u r a l sc ience a c o m p i h i l i o i i o l l ac i s a n d i n d t u l i v e genei . d r / . i l i o i i N . ( h e !

a r g u m e n t s o f l ' ( j [ )per ( a n d o t h e r s ) aga ins t such a u idca_( i f s c i e i u e aj)plv e q u a l K i n

h i s t o r i o g r a p h y . H e r b e r t B u t l e r f i e l d , h i m s e l f a n ; i d e a l i s l ) i n l a te r l i fe , k n e w i b i s i

p e r f e c t l y w e l l even t h o u g h i n the e n i h u s i a s m o f h i s a t t a c k o n W h i g g i s m . i i r i j

s p e c u l a t i v e h i s t o i d he chose to under |7 ray the Ibrce o f h i s i o r i c a l ideas.

r i i c j ' a c t i - ^ t l i a l T / i f Wliiii inlerpretalion, w i t h i ts c o n s p i c u o u s lac k o f d e i a i l :ui<l

e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n —- fiuTrrJTThHTTfli' b ( H ) k T o i u l e i n n s i n h i s i o r i c a l w r i t i n g — l i i i l s l u

giv(> a n y [posi t ive idea o f w h a t r e a l , n o n - W h i g h i s t o r y m a y be, exce | ) l t h a i i l is u ;

be f o u n d i n ' s j j e c i a l i s t s t u d i e s ' a r ; ' the ' : . :w pages by g rea t mas te rs a l r e a d y n o t e d .

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l ; i s c i n a l e d H u t t e r l i e l d in the lO.'iOs, a n d he c a r e f u l l y wen t i h r o u g h . A r i n i f s

m a t e r i a l s i n the ( l a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , b u t i n th is b t x i k he is m e r e l y

b r o u g h t i n as a w l i i p p i n g - b o v l i u ' i h e i n l i o d u c l i o n o( p r e i o i i c c i v e d i i i i i r : i l i i v i n i o

i i i s i o r v :

A. K U I ' I ; K I ' I I A I . I .

. \ f i o i i h e l d u v e r y a t i r ac - t ivc t h e o r y e o i i e e r i i i n g the m o r a l r i m e i i o i i o l h i . s t o r y .

I l i-s perhap.s the h i g h e s f pos.sihie f o r m o f the W h i g l e f ideney to e.xalt

h i s t o r i i a l s t u d y . ' I ' o B i s h o p C l r e i g h t o i i . 'Vetoii w r o t e t ha t w h e n the h i s t o r i a n

m a k e s a c o m p r o m i s e o n the q u e s t i o n o f m o r a l [ ) r inc i [ ) l e s , h i s l o r y ceases to be

a n " a r b i t e r o f c o n t r o v e r s y , the u p h o c l e r o f t h a t m o r a ' s t a n d a r d w h i c h the

p o w e r s o l ' e a r t h a n d r e l i g i o n i t s e l l ' t e n d c o n s t a n t l y to depress" . ' - '

' . L 1 o B u t t e r f i e k l in* l 9 3 l j t h e idea o l Cho lonanswds i n i o l e r a b l c , t h o u g h his o p i n i o n s

w o u l d be v e r y d i l l e r e n t l a t e r . A r e there t h e n n o r e a l l y g rea t n o n - W h i g h i s to r i es o l '

m a j e s t i c scale a n d l i t e r a r y m e r i t ? I f s u c h there be, B u t t e r f i c i d d i d no t i n d i c a t e w h e r e t h e y m i g h t be f o u n d .

The Whig i/ilerprelalion is a n e g a t i v e essay. I t te l ls us w h a t h i s t o r y s h o u l d no t be,

n o t w h a t i l m i g h t be. I n its v e r y last sentences B u l t c r f i e l d dec la res r h e l o r i c a l l y

t h a t w e m u s t n o t suppose h i s i o r i c a l s t u d y to be c a p a b l e o f [ j r o n o u i i c i n g ve rd ic t s^

R a t h e r w e m u s t say to ou r se lves : " S h e w i l l l ie to us t i l l t l i e v e r y e n d o f the lasit^'"* ' i

c r o s s - e x a m i n a t i o n . " T h i s is the goddess the W h i g w o r s h i p s w h e n he c l a i m V '

to i n a k e h e r the a r b i t e r o f c o n t r o v e r s y . She cheats us w i l h o p t i c a l i l l u s i o n s ,

s l e i g h t - o f - h a n d , e q u i v o c a l p h r a s e o l o g y . I f we m u s t confuse counse l by

p e r s o n i f y i n g h i s t o r y at a l l , i t is best to t r ea t he r as a n o l d r e p r o b a t e , whose

tr ie ks a n d j u g g l e r i e s a r e i h i i t g s l o be g u a r d e d a g a i n s t . ' ^

Less e x t r a v a g a n t l y expressed , the s a m e l o w - k e y v i e w o f the [ jo s s ib i l i t i e s bc l i i r e

the h i s t o r i a n penru-a tes the h ' . o k . So l o n g as I k n e w h i m , B u t l e r f i e l d was s co ru f id

o f s u c h g r a n d i o s e , ' p h i l o s o p h i c a l ' s\vcc2S^^J\jiyuJ[wc^s__^ hi.s,jry a n d

; l o u b t f u l o f the p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e a l l y c o n t r o l l i n g one 's sources a n d one 's t h o u g h t s in

s u c h a vas t e n t e r p r i s e as N e e d h a m ' s Science and civili.uilion in China — a v i e w no i

i n c o m p ; i t i b l e w i t h p e r s o n a l es teem for its a u t h o r , l i e w o u l d n o t , I b e l i e \ c , l u i \

r e g a r d e d K u h n ' s Struclure oj scienlijic reuohilions as a w o r k o f h i s t o r y , i n his o w n

sense, at a l l . The IVhig inlerpreiatiim makes p l a i n tha t d i s t r u s t o f p a t t e r - s in l u s l o i y

w h i c h he r e t a i n e d a n d expressed t h r o u g h o u t his l i fe . T h e exis tence o f p a i t c m s , ^ ,

w h e t h e r o f T o y n b e e ' s o r o l K u h n ' s t y p e , e n t a i l e d a loss o f i n d g ^ e n d c i u e M t i the

i c i o r s i n h i s t o r y i n t o l e r a b l e to l i i m , l u i d a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f ideas tha t he f o u n d

l o c d i y a - h i s l o r i c a l . R e p e a t e d l y i n llie Whig inlerprelalion he tel ls us t ha t to w r i t e

' u s t o r y is to s t u d y t r a n s i t i o n s t h r o u g h t i m e , o r r a the r , to use a f a v o u r i t e

.••xpi e ss ion , to s t u d y the process o f m e d i a i i o n by w h i c h one g e n e r a t i o n o r j i e r i o d '\

H o w s i n t o the n e x t . T h e d r a w i n g s o f l ines o f filiation t h r o u g h t i m e , the t r a c i n g o f ;

d i s i i n g t i i s h e d ideas O r i n s t i t u t i o n s t h r o u g h a n a u t o g e n o u s his . tor ica l e v o l u t i o n , I

a n d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s o m e h i s t o r i c a l a n t e c e d e n t as the cause o r | ) re i -ursor or / \ , " )

w h a t e v e r o f s o m e p o s t e r i o r even t w e r e a l l to h i m g r a v e f a l s i f i ca t ions o f t rue | \

l i i s t o i y . f o r , i n his o w n w o r d s , " f r o m the w o r k o f a n y h i s t o r i a n w h o h a s -

c o i u c n t r a t e d h i s researches u p o n any c h a n g e o r t r a n s i t i o n , the re emerges ;\h

o f h i s l o i y w h i c h seems to c o m b i n e w i t h a t r u t h o f p h i l o s o p h y ' . .And l i i i s l i i i l h is a

ON \ v i n c ; ( , i . s . \ . ' ) !

k i n d o f h i s t o r i c a l h o l i s m , a d e n i a l o l i i u c l l e c t u a l a l o m i s m or. c a l e g n r i z a t i u n or

s | ) c c i a l i o n :

I .N | o t h i n g less t h a n the w h o l e o f the past , w i t h its c o m p l e x i t y o f m o v e n i e n i ,

i l s e n l ; i n g l c m e n l o f issues, a n d its i n i r i c a i e i n t e r a c t i o n s , [ h a s ] p r o d u c e d ihe

w h o l e o f the c o m p l e x [ ) rcsent ; a n d th i s , w h i c h is i l s c l l an a s s u m p t i o n a n d not

) a ' c o n c l u s i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y , is the o n l y sale piece o f c a u s a l i o n i h a i : i

h i s t o r i a n c a n p u t h is h a n d L i [ )on , the o n l y t h i n g w h i c h he can p o s i i i v e l y

; i s se r l a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i | ) b e t w e e n [ last a n d presen t .

W h e n t h i s a s s u m p t i o n is m a d e , the " t r u t h o f h i s l o r y " nu i s t necessar i ly f o l l o w

t h a t a n y h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y o f c a u s a t i o n , a n y c o n t i n u o u s e l f o r i at h i s t o r i c a l

e x p l a n a t i o n , a n y e m p k j y m c n l i n d e e d o f c o n v e m e n t labels such as "Renaissance '

o r ' d r c a t ( . ' h a i i i o f B e i n g ' o r ' .Arisurfe l i a n i s m ' , m u s t lead lo w h a t is f i l s c : i i i d

u n j u s t i f i a b l e :

W h e n the need arises to sor t a n d d i s e n t a n g l e f r o m t in- present one l a d o r

f e a t u r e t h a t is r e q u i r e d to be t r aced back i n t o h i s t o r y , the h i s t o r i a n is l;ice(l

w i t h m o r e u n r a v e l l i n g t h a n a m i n d can d o , a n d finds the nel-.vork ol

i n t e r a c t i o n s so i n t r i c a t e , t h a t i t is i m p o s s i b l e to | ) o i n l l o any one i h i i i g In d ie

s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y as i h e cause o f a n y one t h i n g in the i w e n l i e i h , I , is as m u c h

as t h e h i s t o r i a n can d o to t r ace w i t h some p r o b a b i l i t y i h c s e ( | u c i K c o f <>.cMis

f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n l o a n o i h e r . . . . / T h i s s ( |ua res w i l h the v i e w t h a t the l i a i i t o f the W h i g h i s t o r i a n has been , in evci \

w a y , t o o v e r b u r d e n the h i s t o r i a n to expect h i m to p r o d u c e a v ; ' . l i d i l i c i i l i i i i i ni

t he l i b e r a l , r a t i o n a l w a y o f t h i n k i n g w h i c h , in B u t t e r f i e U I ' s v i e w ( i n I 9151^ h i s u u y

c a n n o t y i e l d , a n y m o r e t h a n it c an y i e l d a v a l i d i l i c a l i o n o f a n y o i l i e r w a y o f

t h i n k i n g o r l i v i n g i n the past . I I is I o r y is sun p i v a s l i i u j n c n l o l \sT. ii o( ( l u i c d , :i m i

B i i l l e r l i c l t l f r c ( | u e n t K in s i s t ed i h . i l i he h i s t o r i a n c o u l d o n l y dest r i be a n d ( i i i . i

v e r y r e s t r i c t e d m a n n e r ) t r ace piecTse c ( i i i i ux t i (Mis a i u f r c j a i i i i n s h j l i s :

I n the last resor t the h i s t o r i i i n ' s c x | ) l a n a l i o n o f w h a i li . is h i q j p e n e d is iu)i . i

p iece o f g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g at a l l . f i e e x p l a i n s ihe I V e n c h Re\i b \

^ d i s c o v e r i n g e x a c t l y w h a t i t was t ha t o c c i u r e d ; a i u l i l : i l a i i \t we i i c i ' d

7 ' f u r t h e r e l u c i d a t i o n a l l t ha t he can d o is to t ake us I n l o i ; re :uer d e u i l l , a n d

m a k e us see m s t i l l m o r e d e f i n i t e concre leness w h a l r ea l l v d u l u ike p l a c e . ' '

I 'Dr m v s e l f , I Wwd g rea t d I H i c u l l y in this a i u i l o g y b e i w c e n i l i e l u s i o i i c ; i l process

a n d a m i c r o s i ' O j i c w i l h a z o o m - l e n s s y s i e m , not leasi in d i e f i c i e< |ua l l \f o p i i i

; m d h i s t o i ' y t h a t incrc ; i se o f m a g n i f u a i i o n en ta i l s r e d n c l i o i i nl d ie f ie ld n l \u

.And I a m n o t c ( m l i d c n l d i a X J i i e ' r o n c r e l e facts ' seen l l m i u g h i h c n i i i l o scope

^ a s s e m b l e i h e m s e l v e s ; i - t h c o r c t i c a l l V ; i n t o ' e x p l a n a t i o n s ' , w h e i h e r one e x . i i i i u i c s

cel ls ( H ' t he l ' ' r enc l i R c x ' o l i i l i o n . Mere : i g a i n _ B u H e r l l e l ( l seems e i i i r a p p i - d b \e

spec ious i n d i i c l i v i s n i I I K I I I l i a ce a l readv n o u - d .

\ K L U ' I ' . K I ' I I A I . I .

S c i i i n t i l h a i ] ) r o l ) l c m as ide as less c e n t r a l to t l i e c h i e f issue o f W h i g g i s m , it i l l s t l i a t the B u l t c r f i e l d o f 19!i 1 c o u l d acce |) t n a r r a t i v e h i s t o r y as : )nly a m o r e o r s i ; . i n l e d ' a b r i d g e m e n t ' o f e p i s o d i c h i s l o r y . F o r g r ea t e r c l a r i t y I sha l l c o n t r a s t l i g g i s h linear h i s t o r y w i t h a - W h i g g i s h cross-\eMmial\ns{ory. L i n e a r h i s t o r y l udes s u c h b o o k s as L o v e j o y ' s Great chain of being as w e l l as D i j k s l e r h u i s ' s

•ihanisation of the world future { a i m ' s Anatomy of an institution, a ' swcf fasTnany ) ! ' • o b v ' i o i i s l y c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y o r g a n i z e d s t u d i e s . ' * l ' , .xamples o f c ross -sec t iona l ,().>• on i l i e l a r g e scale a r e h a r d to find (a t least o n m y shelves) unless th . ' y are v o t e d to a n i n d i v i d u a l o r cons i s t o f a loose ly c o m p a c t e d g r o u p o f papers by . ( • f i c h a n d s . O f co u r se , m a n y l i n e a r j i i s t o r i e s — i n c l u d i n g those ju s t c i t e d as a i ' i p l e s — d o c o n c e r n themse lves , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h B u t t c r f i e l d ' s | ) re-i p t i o n , w i t h " t h e s t u d y o f cn 'ective m e d i a t i o n s g e n u i n e l y l e a d i n g f r o m

m e t h i n g o l d to soiTictl i ing w h i c h the h i s t o r i a n m u s t r e g a r d as n e w " , ' ' ' o u t in ( h case t r a n s g r e s s i n g those ru les a b o u t t i m e - s p a n a n d filiation w h i c h he g a r d s as c a l e g o r i c . I n eve ry such case" the h i s t o r i a n has to some •.'xtenT~~ t i l l c i a l l y i s o l a t e d a n idea f r o m the i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d soc ia l c o n i e x t i n w h i c h it was iTHcdcTt'd, ancTby t lu i s~ j3e r somlyrng i ro in^mTTgiTTTnihenTu^e a n d i r i e n t i l i c a t i o n \ r o u g l i l i i n e has i n t r o d i i c e d ^ l i c i T h i r s h a d e o f t h a t d i s t o r t i o n w h i c h l U n i e r l i e l d

i l l c d W h i g g i s h .

11 is o f c o u r s e o b v i o u s t h a t the m o r e p a r t i c u l a r a n d r e s t r i c t e d the events w i l h l i i c h a p iece o f h i s i o r i c a l w r i t i n g is c o n c e r n e d , the^less l i k e l y i t is to be shaded i n lis w a y . I k i i i t is n o t s e l f - c v i d e n t l y t r u e t h a t an ex tens ive c ross -sec t iona l su rvey h i s t o r y is neces sa r i l y m o r e free f r o m consc ious o r u n c o n s c i o u s t enden t io t i sness

o n e o f s i m i l a r scale t h a t moves i h r o u g h t i m e . I f tlie d a t a chosen l()r m s i d c r a t i o n i n a j j i e ce o f l i n e t i r h i s t t ) ry are chosen a c c o r d i n g t o s o i r e p r e -

( i m n m e d p a t t e r n — a l l , let us .say, [ ) r e s u m p t i v e i y re la te to iHe7 ) roblem o f v i t a l riti 'rrncl c v c r y l l i i n g i r r e v e l a i i t to t h a t i i r o b l e m is e x c l u d e d by the h i s t o r i a n — it is ( p i a l l y i r n c tha t the d a t a chosen for a c ross - sec t iona l s l u d y It icussed o n this issue ( ' t w e e n ( s a y ) K i i i D a n d I ()7() h a v e l o be chosen a c c o r d i n g to some p a t t e r n . Fo r in i i h c r case the pos s ib l e r a n g e o f d a t a is i n f i n i t e ; se lec t ion m u s l be m a d e , a n d since > w o u l d be^a^ljsurd for s e l e c t i o n to be r a n d o m , i i m u s t be m a d e in a c c o r d vAi\\ e r i a i n p r i n c i p l e s , t h a t is a p a t t e r n . I 'he l i n e a r h i s t o r i a n m i g h t t h i n k i l needless to l i t e r i n t o B o y l e ' s r e l i g i o u s v i e w s w h e n d i s c u s s i n g his ideas a b o u t v i t a l h e a l . ' I h e 1 O S S - s e c t i o n a l h i s t o r i a n i n i g h l c o n s i d e r one o f r e l evance to tlu' o t h e r , no t o n l y i n he I use o f l i o v i c b u t i n t r e a t i n g the w r i t i n g s o f D i g b y , H o o k e , . M a y o w a n d o the r s , i i i i o t h e r c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s p rese i i i themselves i n endless r o w s ; i n v l i a i w c w o u l d now c a l l n a i u r a l science a lone , v i t a l heat relates to a l l o t h e r i spec t s o l hea t a n d a l l o t h e r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f l i fe , to e h e m i s l r y a n d phys ics i n i p i - n - c n d e d p e r s p e c t i v e s , to the t h e o r y o f m a t t e r a n d c o r n l a l e d v i ews o f K " . i i i i i s m i n the u n i v e r s e , to the c o m | j o s i l i o n o f the a t m o s p h e r e a n d p n e u m a t i c s , I ) . i n i i n a l p l u s i o l o g y a n d n u t r i t i o n , lo disease a n d the s l u d y o f m e d i c i n e in

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c o n d i t i o n ) — i n s h o r t , p i c k u p a n y [p ro b l e m, suc:h as v i t a l h e a l , a n d the l i i s i o r i a i i IS i n e l u c t a b l y l e d to eve ry o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y p r o b l e m , not l ( ) r g e l l i n g those o' m e t h o d o l o g y a n d p h i l o s o p h y . T h u s the p a r t i c u l a r w a y i n w h i c h a cross s i -c t ion is e x p l o r e d m a y be as ' W h i g g i s h ' as a n y process o f a l i n e a r h i s t o r i a n , because it is j u s t as s u r e l y p r e - d e t e r m T i i t - d : i l i e answers are e n t a i l e d by the f juest ions to the s a m e d e g r e e i n e i t h e r case, n e i t h e r m o r e n o r less, p r o v i d e d the c;ises are c o m p a r a b l e .

H o w e v e r , i n m y v i e w i l is p r o b a b l y m i s t a k e n a n d c e r t a i n l y needles,'; to g r a d e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e d u r e s i n th i s w a y . I t is a f a v o u r i t e a n d fu t i l e a c a d e m i c g a m b i t to say t h a t o n l y o n e k i n d o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , o r o n l y one schoo l o f h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g , o r o n l y o n e m o d e l o f t h e o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n l , is v a l i d a n d p e r m i s s i b l e ' I ' h a i each s u c h a t t e m p t e d p r o s c r i p t i o n is s h o r t - l i v e d a n d y i e l d s to a n o t l i e r p ro se l e tyzed \ v i t h e q u a l c o n v i c t i o n is a m e a s u r e o f the v a r i e t y a n d i n s t a b i l i t y o f h u m a n p u r p o s e . I . o g i c a l l \ ) s i i i v i s m a n d Scrutiny, once such fearful forces, have h a d t h e i r d a y . F o r t u n a t e l y , t he re are a l w a y s a c a d e m i c s as w e l l as o the r s r e s i s t an i tO diese s h e e p - l i k e n i o v c m c n t s , a n d l i t e r a t u r e , h i s t o r y , o h i l o s o [ ) h y a n d i l i c o l o g ) a rc c t i l t i v a l e c l w i t h o u t as w e l l as w i t h i n a c a d e i n i a . P a r t i c u l a r l y , the r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g o l h i s t o r y l l o u i i s h e s a m o n g non- t eache r s , a n d i t is a r easonab ly safe bet t h a t f ew B r i t i s h h i s t o r i a n s h a v e been m o r e w i d e l y rea t i t h a n D a m e \ ' c r o i u c a W e d g w o o c i a n d L a d y L o n g f o r d . I t is m e r e l y o s t r i c h - l i k e to p r e t e n d tha t w r i t i n g w h i c h is s e r i o u s , w e l l - i n f o r m e d a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y respec tab le , in any subjcc t, does n o t e x i s t because it fai ls l o m a t c h a c u r r e n t a c a d e m i c prescripNii<in. .Some h i s t o r i a n s o f sc ience m a d e themse lves look a l i t t l e Iciolish by t h e i r a t t acks o n . A r t h u r K f j e s t l e r ' s The .deefntmlkerx; l i k e mos t a c a d e m i c s tudies this b o o k h a d l a i i l t s , b u t i t w a s f u l l y se r ious , l i i u n d e d o n t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e o f the d o c u m e n t s , a n d w a s j ^ e r h a p s the m o s t w i d e l y read w o r k o n the h i s t o r y o f science p u b l i s h e d in i b i s c e n t u r y . I n m y v i e w i t is po in t l e s s l o l abe l such books as The shepiralkers as ' p o p u l a r ' a n d M a x C a s p a r ' s b i o g r a p h y o f K e p l e r as ' a c a d e m i c ' , e spec ia l ly i f the e p i t h e t s a r e su |3posed to c a r r y b l a m e a n d | )raise. 'Fha t 11 U M T _ a r r d J X l i w o f h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g , a n d d i O e r e n t degrees o f i n t e l l e c l u a l ( | u a l i l y w i t h i n i h e i n , is p e r f e c t l y o b v i o u s b u t ITiTnishes no reason l l i r d e s [ ) a i r i i i g o f h i s t o r y as m o r e t h a n t r a n s c r i b e d facts . ' I ' h e ex i s tence o f ' c h o c o l a t e b o x ' a n d ' cheese i ake ' is no a r g u m e n t for the p a l t r i n e s s o f a l l a r t . .And it is su rcK ' no t t l u ' least oWhi- irahison de\ clercs t o r e a s o n t h a t because the a n s w e r to a -ues l ion is d i l l i c u l t , n ay i m a l l a i n a b l e w i l h c e r t a i n t y , t h a t C | i i e s l ion is n o t ' : i t to be asked . ' I ' he need in the h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s to search l i i r ances t ry a n d c o n t i m h l y is Tfeep. I n the w o r d s o f a d i s l i n g u i s h e d n o r t h e r n n o v e l i s t :

' i ' h e W e s i R i d i n g w;is w l u i t it w; i s i n HKSI, w i t h a l l i l s rifts a n d delects a n d < ' o n l l i c t s , i ts s t r e n g t h s a n d its we:iknesses, i l s \s a n d its v i r t u e s , bc i :uise o f t h e a c t i o n s o f the m e n a n d w o n i en o f I )i I L' ( d u ' y<'ar o f d ie l . i i d d i i c i ii iis |. ; i n d