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17-09,HOORCOLLEGE 2
Between Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Sociology is the mother of anthropologyHuman beings are social being. A human being is also a
cultural being.
Rules of social behavior change between different societies.
Culture: Differences in behavior, custom, cognition, belief, values, attitude, art, morals, language
Every year new definitions are added.
Culture differences between societies, but also within a country.
Maori:
A lot of tradition
People press each other noses. This originates from the very beginning of human kind. The first mancame to life by sneezing(sharing each other breath)
Meeting house:
A lot of rules of behavior
People in different societies have different rules of behavior and communication.
Goal of anthropology
To describe, to interpret and , possible, also to explain the cultural customs and een that have been
observed
Not to focus on the difference only, but also on similarities.
Object
o Custom (actions, behavior, interactions)o Events (activities, situations, processes)o Concepts (opinions, perspectives, visions)o Objects (ethnographic artifacts, documents)
Theres a difference between what people say and what people do.
Cultural Anthropology(by Toon Meijl)
o The study of the obvious in order to demonstrate that nothing is obviouso by making the strange familiar and the familiar strange. (after Clifford Geertz)
May be seen as a cultural exchange during which customs, attitudes, vision, perceptions, norms and
values are translated .
Ethnographic field research:
Ethnos = A group of people
Graphic = (writing)
A research method used for the description, interpretation and explanation of behavior>>
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Participation/observation
From the viewpoint of self: ethnocentrism ( only understand people from your one viewpoint)
From the viewpoint of others : Cultural relativism.
Ethnocentrism:
o The emotional attitude that ones own race, nation, or culture is superior to all others.o From the perspective of Selfo Stereotypingo Superiorityo Belief in evolutionary differences: from primitive to civilizedo Development: from the past to the present
CannibalismThe belief that other people are always cannibals, but they had no proof for this.
Even in our own societies it happens very rarely
Exo cannibalism: from another community (very small scale, very incidental, for example after war)
Indo cannibalism: from their own community
Characteristics of cultural relativism
o From the perspective of Othero Understandingo But approving opproving of the other cultural customs?o Self in second placeo Ethical relativismo Should we be willing to abandon our won values?o Universal declaration of human rights.
Dialogue
o Self othero Ethnocentrism cultural Relativismo Observation participationparticipant observation is situated in exchanges between self and other
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Intercultural competencies
o Insight into your own cultural baggageo Insight into other cultural customso Any sacred cows, you dont have to except it/think its okay, but you have to TRY to
understand it.
oChanging perspectives
o Hidden dimensions
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24-09,HOORCOLLEGE 3,
HOOFDSTUK 4&6
Humanity and personhood
Human character is not inborn; it must be acquired through learning. A process primarily influenced
by the social and cultural world we live in.
Nature and society
Why is race so irrelevantIf you look at genetics people are very much the same, its not
interesting to look at different races
Differences are not due to biological differences!
4 dimensions of human existence
Culture
1 cultureuniversals,
The shared cultivated,
social dimension of
humanity
2 culturalvariation,
Nature
3 genetic universals,
length, weight,
brainvolume
4 geneticdifferences,
All humans have 99,8 %
genes in common
sharing variation
Margeret Mead: People are worried about the differences between generation(puberty). Margeret
said that there was not so much to worry about. It depends on culture whether you worry about
these things.
Anthropology divides two kinds of nature:
External nature, ecosystem
Inner nature, human nature
these two concepts are the opposite of culture.
Status and role
Status: a socially defined aspect of a person which defines a social relationship and entails certain
right and duties in relation to others. People also have a certain role, this is your actual behavior. If
you break the rules connected with your role and status other actors may react by imposing
sanctions. This causes regularity and predictability in society(not total)
Power
This description of status and roles does deal with power. There are two principal ways of
conceptualising power:
1. The actor perspective, an aspect of social relationship, the ability to make someone dosomething he otherwise would not have done
2. The systematic perspective, how power differences embedded in the fabric of societyWhy is personhood cultural
o Human being: Embodied Conscious
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language and moral agencyuniversal
o Language, you can interact with people and not with animalso I as opposed to others, humans have the ability to develop different kinds of personhood,
you can discuss about this
o Its hard to decide whether someone is a person or not(depends on culture): ancestral spirits,slaves, childrenAre there alternative ways of understanding personhoodDividual of fractual personhood
Dividual(other definitions of personhood)
o made from different things, A gives something to B, B becomes a part of Ao You consist of a bundle of relationshipso To become a person you must interact with others (Papua New Guinea)o Persons rely on relations with others, people change each other (India)o Your person extends beyond your skin, with death of a body, the person might stay a life.
Individual personhood
o Dualistic, Body and mind. 19thage they said these were separate thingso People are a hole, you cant separate it
Depending on how you manage your relations ships you become a person
Giftexchange
Important in the anthropology, not just economic en political.
Obligation to give
Obligation to receiveObligation to repay
Individuality: humans have a certain body, which are different, universal
Individualism: what people like, not universal
Wrong:
Two global tendencies
Biometric identification of persons
Corporate invention of persons
Structural functionalism
Social structure may be perceived as a pattern of social arrangement, emptied of humans. Within
society different social institutions exist, they all have a function and work together in the same way
as body parts do. This suggests that people act predictably according to a pre-established system of
norms and sanctions. Individualism was not seen as interesting but as a side-effect of societys
reproduction.
Critics:
o You cant really explain human behavior with the pre-established system of norms and sanctions.People break the rules, make exceptions ets.
o Social organization could be seen as the dynamic aspect of social structure. What people actually do.o Promises to explain cultural variation but only describes interrelationships between institutions.
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Social systems: A set of social relations which are maintained through a system of interaction. There
are many different levels of interaction. The boundaries of the system lie in the points where
interaction decreases dramatically
Group and grid: a classification system of persons and society
Grid,
degree of shared classifications or knowledge
Ego Group, degree of social cohesion
Private system of classification and knowledge
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01-10,HOORCOLLEGE 4
H7,8 EN 9
Relationships and comparisons
Kinship systems: how people relate to each other
Anthropological comparison:
Understanding the differences and similarities
About comparing individuals
Generalization and generalizations
WEIRD people:
Western
Educated
Industrial
RichDemocratic
Most studies were done with WEIRD people. At some point they realized they should include others
as well.
How to compare WEIRD people with all the other folks around the world?
Successful strategy:
Develop a metalanguage
For instance for describing kinship.
Kinship may not matter so much to WEIRD people but it does for the rest of humanity. Kinship has alot of influence in non WEIRD societies.
Kinship:
o May be biological and/or constructedo Its broader than just family: kinsmen lead common lives, they partake each others sufferings, joys
etc.
o Constituted nattily and/or post-nattily, not just birth, but also thing that come aftero Not pure biology or pure performance, its a combinationo Within kinship systems many rules exist about whom to marry, incest, exogamy, how to interact with
others and whether the society is matri- or patrilineal.These rules are not always followed
correctly!
Kinship vs. descentDescent = afstamming, reference to common ancestors
Kinship = network; the people, the rules, everything involved with kinthe system
Kindred = collection of actual people. The actual people who are important to me.My kindred
Kinship:
Reference to an individual(ego)
Universally important
Involves both sides of kindred
Status is relative to another person
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Descent:
Reference to an ancestor
only in some societies recognized
connects only one side/a limited set
Status is absolute as member of group
Lineages and clans
Lineages: people who are related by shared ancesters and can proof this.
Clan: people who assume they are related to each other but cant proof it.
Principles for the transmission of kin group membership and other resources:Patrilineal: Everyone becomes a member of their fathers kin group and transmission of resources
take place through the fathers lineage
Matrilineal: Everyone becomes a member of their mothers kin group and transmission of resources
take place through the mothers lineage. Society is often still dominated by man.
Double: Some resources are transmitted through the fathers lineage, others through the mothers
lineage. The two lineages are kept separate.Bilaterally/Cognatic: No difference between the two sides. Resources van be transmitted though kin
of both mothers and fathers side
Parallel: Man transmit to their sons and woman to their daughters(rare)
Crossing or alternating: Man transit to their daughters and woman to their sons
this doesnt mean that in patrilineal society, people are not related to their mothers relatives.
Practically all kinships organise kin relations on both mothers and fathers side. Being part of a group
is not the end of the system. Its very dynamic and there are many different levels.
Difference between patrilineal and matrilineal descent
In both systems man usually dominate politics and inheritance often follows man.
In patrilineal societies these right are transmitted from father to child(most of the times son)In matrilineal societies these right are transmitted from mother brother to daughters son(van
oom naar neefje)
Marriage and relatednessNot necessarily based on love
A relationship between groups
Maasai see it as a business relationship
Dowry: bruidschat, you get money for giving your daughter away
Bridewealth: Bride-price, you have to pay money for getting a husband for your daughter
Different clans sometimes exchange woman. The formation of society occurs when a man gives his
sister away to another man, thereby creating ties of affinity.
Kinship in anthropology todayThree assumptions
1. Kinship constitutes one of the institutional domains which are conceived to be universalcomponents or building block of every society. The others, are an economic system, a
political system and a system of belief
2. Kinship has to do with the reproduction of human beings and the relations between humanbeings that are the concomitants of reproduction
3.
Every society utilises for various social purposes, the genealogical relations which it assumesto exist among people
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Kin do not come not come naturally; they must be crated socially, and this at least partly fashioned
so as to facilitate tasks to be solved and to create order in an otherwise chaotic social world
Gender and Age
Why do man have political and economic supremacy, when it is not true that men necessarilycontribute more than woman to the physical survival of the group.
of course this is not the case in every society
This is a ethnocentric approach
Its not certain that man and woman understand the samething about power
Culture-nature dichotomy: Woman are closer to nature than man and there for have les power
Age: Young people are seen as sexless. They both grow up in different ways and this turns them in to
man and woman. Its different in every society but often the older you get the more respect you get.
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08-10,HOORCOLLEGE 5
HOOFDSTUK 2 EN 3
Ethnography
According to Eriksen and Delaney Anthropologists are:
o oscillating(going back and forward)o Making the familiar exotic en making the exotic familiar
Je moet kunnen zeggen wat de verschillen tussen armchair anthropologie en ethnographny zijn en
wat de voor en nadelen van beide zijn.
Ethnography
Ethnicity: A persons cultural identity formed on the basis of race, religion, language or national
origin
Ethnography:o Literally, writing about peoples, not necessary about ethnicity of ethnical groupso The funnel(trechter) approach. You start very wide and you go into more and more specificsThe old questionnaires where asking a lot about things that are important in their own society. But in
the current anthropology capturing the natives point of view is more important. You try to get the
perspective of people involved.
Ethnographic present an the past:
o The practice of using the present tense in an ethnographic description. It implies a timeless state,with changes since the of fieldwork not taken into account.
o Since the 1980s history of societies has become more important when we describe them But, is there good and written information available?
o Often anthropological studies are snapshotsEthnographical research
o NOT the opposite of comparison.o A difficulty with ethnographic research is that people dont always do what is expected from themo Its very important to be present and see what people do.Emic and etic dichotomy(tweedeling)
Etic: The scientists point of view(certain aspects are not important)
Emic: Life as experienced and described by the members of society themselves. The natives point ofview.(Is an aspect important from the locals view, even though it doesnt seem to be important from
the perspective of the speaker(scientist)
The pragmatics of sharing,
Taking in specific presence
Taking in specific references
Highlight situational and communicative clues
Why you share and with who
Sharing studied througs experiments:
Cutting out physical presence of
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Armchair anthropology in Victorian BritainCharacteristic:
o The belief in social evolution: The European societies are the end product of a developmental chain which begins with
savagery
o Dichotomies(tweedelingen): Status societies: community based on myth and kinship Contract societies: society based on individual merit and achievement
Morgan, ancient society:
Seven stages from savagery to civilization
Taylor(1832-1917):
Culture or civilization, taken in its widest ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society.
Taylor and frazer: from mythical tot religious to scientific
Researchers didnt get their own data or did their own research. But they let other people do this for
them. At home in their armchair they collected data from other people, on this data the research is
based. The quality of the ethnographic data they could use was variable and the need for met
reliable data began to make itself felt.
Modern anthropology is associated with 4 important scholars:
Franz Boas USA 1858 1942 - German immigrant
- important research among Inuit and Kwakuitl Indians
- 4 field approach: Cultural & social, physical,archaeological(oudheidkunde), linguistic
- cultural relativism
Radcliffe
Brown
UK 1881 1955 - strong short-term influence
- admirer of Durkheim
- structural functionalism (Social and cultural
phenomena are functional and can be contributed to the
maintenance of the overall social structure _
- wanted to develop "general laws of society"
British anthropology:
orientated toward
kinship, politics and
economics
Bronislaw
Malinowski
UK 1884 1942 hailed as founder of modern British social anthropology
Marcel
Mauss
Fr 1872 1950 - armchair anthropology
- wrote on many different topics such as gift exchange,
the nation, the body, sacrifice and the concept of
personhood
- admired writer
Participant observation
Getting some basic information can also be important but it isnt ethnography.
Malinowski was not the first one doing field work, but he was one of the first one making it into a
policy.It wasnt normal to interact with the locals, Malinowski was one of the first ones doing this.
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You have to be right there where action happens.
Locals most of the times are okay with doing interviews and come over for short times. But if you re
staying for a longer time, people are aware you get more insight and you might report stuff.
Everyone is just doing what is economically good for them. Malinowski showed that its not money or
productive items society drives on. For example shells from the aborigines in new guinea. Nobody is
only driven by every day needs.
Lvi Strauss(1908 2009) Structuralism:
o Emerged after second world waro Social and cultural phenomena are functional and can be contributed to the maintenance of the
overall social structure.
o Formal way of thinking about kinship, with particular reference to systems of marriageo Big influenceo Criticism that it is improvableHolistic view
Instead of looking at different subjects separately, you should get a view of how things hangtogether.
Fieldwork and ethnography
Case study Kula and malinowskis study is important for the test!
Kulaexchange system from the aborigines.
Fieldwork
o Most important source of knowledgeo You have to stay for a long time
Your presence will become natural
You will always stay a strangero Role of the clown or role of the expert
Most of the times somewhere in the middle Risk when you are to much the expert:
Never seeing aspects of society which locals are ashamed of showing to high-ranking strangers
o Principal requirement is taking part in the local life as much as possibleo Most anthropologists depend on a combination of formal techniques and unstructured
participant observation.
o People explored must have the right to refuse to be subjected to anthropological analyseso The self is the most important scientific instrument and influences the experience in thefieldworko Not one simple recipe for fieldworko The relationship between theory and empirical material, or data is fundamental(in all empirical
sciences)
The challenge lies in saying something significant about culture and social life with yourempirical data.
o The choice of an accurate topic is important. Otherwise you end up with knowing too little about to much rather than knowing
enough about something.
Problems:o Limited knowledge of the field language
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o Gender biaso Ones main informant fails to be representativeo Time intensive(not capital- of labour-intensive)In the present societies are often studied from within, do anthropologists will have to join the
debate. They are not the only researchers anymore.
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15-10,HOORCOLLEGE 6
Anthropology, History, change and Traditions
Proto-anthropology, from when originates anthropology?
Certain very important proto-anthropologists
Herodotos, a greek
traveler
5th century
Before Christ.
He wrote about the people as barbarian
Iban Khaldun, Tunisian 14th century Anticipated social sciences, wrote about law, history, anthropology etc. He wrote
about different societies and customs. He developed a theoretical framework,
about cultural variation and how this developed. He was the first one who wrote
about doing fieldwork.
Michel de Montaigne
Thomas HobbesGiambattista Vico
16th, 17th,
and 18thcentury
These people are all important thinkers in the 16th
17th
and 18th
century. (They are
not really anthropologists, but they did have some important theories.)
Jean-jacques Rousseau His influence on the emergence of anthropology is very significant. He used the
stories from travellers to create some sort of utopia as an reaction on the
modernization. In other word, he looked at other societies to create an idea of
what he thinks would be an utopia(perfect world)
Johann Gottlieb von
Herder
Each society has his own soul, and there for has its own rights to develop rules and
customs. He was one of the first people he was against ethnocentrism.
There are two ways of looking at societies:
Universalism: accounting the similarities between societiesRelativisme: accounting on the differences between societies
19th
century
o 1859 Evolution theory by Charles Darwin. No matter how different people are, they must have one ancestor in common. He argued that biological development was more important than cultural
development. Biological development was universal en cultural development
wasnt.
Sociocultural evolution
From savagery to barbarism to civilization
Leading anthropologists
Edward Taylor(1832 tot 1917)
o cultural evolutionism.o He defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the evolutionary
theories.
oHe believed that there was a functional basis for the development of society and religion, whichhe determined was universal
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o He believed that "research into the history and prehistory of man could be used as a basis for thereform ofBritish society."
Henry Maine(1822-1888)
Ancient Law(1861)
o Status societies, operate mainly on bases of kinship and myth. Your status is ascribed by birth.o Contract societies, they operate more on the basis of achievement. The individual achievement
gives you your status.
in this you see the difference between traditional and modern.
Lewis Henry Morgan(1818-1882)
Ancient society:
o Evolutionary schemeo Seven stages, from lower savagery to civilization.
Based on technological development.Arm Chair anthropology
The first anthropologists never travelled. They used the writings from other travellers to compare
and contrast and tried to explain the evolutionary
o Evolutionairy anthropology, From the lower stage of life to civilisation.o Comparartive, search for universal regularitieso Objectivistst, they were not interested in the differentiation between groups they
researched.(generaliserend)
o Quantitiveo Top Down...
Cross-cultural comparitive research
o ...?o Holocultural analysis?
You are looking for common features in different societies. Advanteges:
Overview of cultural variation
Disadventages: Limited to small-scale societies Disregarding cultural diversity within societies Deductive rather than inductive
- Inductive: theories made behind the desk(arm chair anthropology)- Deductive: theories created by field work
o ...?From the evolutionary approach
How is it possible that there is (very big) difference in cultural, even if the other aspects influencing
societys, like climat, are the same.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History7/28/2019 Anth Notes
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20th
century
Malinowski is the founder of ethnographic research.
Difference between old-fashioned culture and the contemporary concept of culture
o Old fashioned culture Bounded, small scale You can describe culture by a checklist of features
Kinship, politics, world view, society ... Unchanging, the belief that culture doesnt change.
Society reproduces itself with every generation. Underlying system of shared meanings
People from the same culture have the same opinions Identical, homogeneous individuals People still look at culture this way(not within anthropology)
o New concept of culture Culture is an active process of meaning making
We realize that culture involves multi vocality, so different people have differentopinions about their culture
(There is a debate about what Dutch culture is.) People might say they do certain thing which are important for their culture, but
saying you do something is not the same as doing something.
Culture and power and interconnected Cultural sites are not bounded: global linkages Cultural discourses are historically specific and never coherent Distinction between cultural ideology and practice
Most anthropologists would agree with the new concept of culture, but some are still hanging
between the new and the old! Besides that there are many different description of culture. Not only
these two. And there is not 1 definition on culture that everybody agrees on.
(Holistic: you have to see a culture in its context and not just look at features from a checklist)
Paradox of globalisation
Globalisation: The process of increasing integration from societies around the world.
Homogenization: cultures are becoming more and more the same. 30 years ago people believed that
within a few years all cultures would be the same.
As a result of globalisation people didnt want to become the same so they started to point out the
differences in culture an revive traditions. So globalisation did not cause homogenization.
Paradox : there is more and more contact but as response culture and identity has become more
important. Globalisation didnt cause homogenization but cultural renaissance(de heropleving van
verschillende culturen).
TraditionmodernityIn the past tradition was seen as a bad thing. In order to become modern you had to get rid of
tradition. This was caused by the belief that you could only change in one direction. Changing in this
direction would make you lose your traditions, because traditions cant change.
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Dichotomy between tradition and modernity??? Powerpoint
Filtering out the modern
Anthropologists are known for filtering out the modern aspects of culture. They were looking for the
traditional culture, which they expect to be the same as hundreds of years ago.
Invention or reinvention of tradition
Traditions are not just passed on from generation to generation but people also invent and reinvent
tradition. But it is said that you cant invent tradition, because you van only change it, so you should
say reinvention of tradition.
Conclusion
Traditions have acquired more meanings/people look at it in different ways. Negative and positive
ways.
Traditions cannot only be lost, but they can also change.
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22-10,HOORCOLLEGE 8
(OFFICIEEL HOOFDSTUK 5)
Space and culture
Space: humans largest cultural artifact
By looking at space you can have an indirect look at peoples culture.
What Is culture in the first place/how to deal with the many different terms of culture:
o Read the different descriptions of culture in the different books.o The different concepts of culture Is getting on with studying the cultural dimension of human life.o Ladder:
Higher and lower culture. Evolutionary theory. Everything leads on to the finalindustrialisation.
Problems: What is the standard Where do you put them in regard to their religion or mythology
o Humans come up with different solutions for different problems. So every culture is different andlooks the same
o Thin king of culture as social institutions.o Interaction between people: Culture is something that happens to you, that you yourself would
never do.
When we talk about culture its not preliminary.
But why do they still keep changing it all the time
Through the notion of culture you can understand differences between group.
Terms of culture should been seen as tools. There is not a good or a bad definition, they are just used
for different things.
There is a core of culture which people do agree on:
Culture is useful as a term for process, for example cultivating and cultural variation
We need a new culture of..
We need a new culture of Positive aspects problems
WE need a new culture of Culture is a public thing you can have many identities
and have many cultures
We NEED a new culture of So culture is usefull/adaptive People use the notion of
culture itself, for example to
discriminate of to keep power
away from certain groupsWe need A new culture of Culture is shared by a number Culture was only used in
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Conclusie op pp
How, (why) to use the term culture as a tool
People use culture as a short hand for summarising ways of life.
Vraag die waarschijnlijk op het tentamen komt
For which purpose is the word culture in this sense used?
Answer this question like this:
Its culture in the sense of and than why you think it is culture
SAMENVATTING(KJE) VAN HOOFDSTUK 5
Local organisation
Norms and social control
In this chapter social life is being seen from the viewpoint of society. Every social system requires the
existence of what is permitted and what is not. These rules are called norms and they are connected
with positive and negative sanctions. The system of sanction applied when norms are violated can
de called social control. But norms and sanctions cannot explain why people act the way they do.
Socialisation
Socialisation is the process whereby one becomes a fully competent member of society. Child raising
is, by many anthropologists, seen as an important factor of socialisation, namely the shaping ofmember of society. The personalities of humans are created through the dynamic interplay between
individual and society. The ultimate goal of socialisation is to ensure that the actor internalises the
values, norms and forms of behaviour to upon which society is founded.
Life stages and rites of passage
In different life stages you have to obey different rules, norms and obligations. Young girls dont have
to do the same as elderly man. Often people pass to other stages through rites of passage.
The household
of people singular. Only later it became a
culture. So not just what is
shared but also what is not
shared
We need a NEW culture of Culture changes all the time,
its dynamic.
Temporal delimitation. Ideas
about thing always change.People try to make one version
that might work for a longer
time
We need a new CULTUREOF Culture of this, culture of that.
So everything is shaped by
humans with their culture,
We dont know what human
culture is. We can only say
what it is true at this moment.
This makes it more complicated
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The household is the smallest and most easily accessibly social system where intensive and important
interaction takes place. The consistence of a household can change and whom are part of the
household is different in many societies.
Village
The household is not self sufficient. A number of problems have to be solved outside of the
household. The household is always related to other households and to social institutions. There are
many different ways in which villages exist.
Social integration in villages
Kinship has a privileged place in the social institutions. The role of the village council often consists of
mediating between kin groups with opposing interests.
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