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Dr. Marzuki Hj. IsmailDr. Marzuki Hj. Ismail
Semester I 2009/10Semester I 2009/10
ENTECHENTECH
Dr. Marzuki Hj. IsmailDr. Marzuki Hj. Ismail
Semester I 2009/10Semester I 2009/10
ENTECHENTECH
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Ambient air is the air to which the general publichas access, i.e. any unconfined portion of theatmosphere.
The 2 basic physical forms of air pollutants areparticulate matter and gases.
Criteria pollutants - most common air pollutants inMalaysia
I
ntroductionI
ntroduction
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Primary pollutants - CO, SO2, NOx, HC, VOC, PM
Secondary pollutants - O3, nitrates, sulfates
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3 major sources of air pollution in Malaysia:3 major sources of air pollution in Malaysia:
Mobile sourcesMobile sources
Stationary sourcesStationary sources
Open burning sourcesOpen burning sources
Major Sources of Air Pollution
Open Burning
Stationary
Mobile
Mobile Stat ionary Open Burning
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Threshold level The pollutant level below which no ill effects are
observed
Dose The concentration multiplied by the time of
exposure
Synergistic Effect Combination of two things to produce a greater
effect than one.
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Sites in human body showing symptoms of air pollutioninclude:
Eyes, nose, throat and lungs
3 categories of impact:-
1. Chronic Pollutants cause gradual deterioration of a variety of
physiological functions over several years
2. Acute Pollutants cause life-threatening reactions within a period of
hours or days
3. Carcinogenic Pollutants initiate changes in cell that lead to uncontrolled
growth/ divisions of cancer
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1. Sources of CO
2. Effects of CO
3. CO standards for Malaysia4. Formation and fate of CO
5. CO emission control
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1. Natural Sources:
Anaerobic decomposition of carbonaceous material releases
methane (CH4)
Methane is oxidized by hydroxyl radical (OH) to form alkyl
radical (CH3)
CH4 + OH* CH3* + H2O
The reaction is followed by a complex series of reaction, which
can be represented as:
CH3* + O2 + 2 (hv) CO + H2+ OH
*
v = frequency of light
h = Planks constant
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2. Anthropogenic (man-made) sources:
Mobile sources automobiles (~ 60%)
Stationary sources (~ 40%) Burning of fossil fuels
Industrial processes
Solid waste disposal
Biomass burning
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Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas p Silent Killer
Nodetrimental effects onmaterial andplants.
High concentrationofCO cancause physiological
andpathological changesandfinallydeath.
CO isapoisonousinhalant.
CO reacts with hemoglobininthe bloodtoform
carboxyhemoglobin (COHb).
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People with cardiovascular disease, such asangina, are most at risk from CO.
People with marginal or compromisedcardiovascular and respiratory systems, fetusesand young infants, may also be at greater riskfrom CO
In healthy individuals, exposure to higher levelsof CO can affect mental alertness and vision.
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Ambient standard
Averaging time* Standard, ppm
8 h 9
1 h 35* average time is the period over which concentration
are measured and averaged
Emission standard for vehicles (petrol engine)
petrol engine in use (new model): 3.5% CO
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Formation of CO CO is formed as an intermediate product during combustion of
carbonaceous fuels
Co occurs as a final product during combustion of richmixtures
(insufficient oxygen)
The reaction is represented by the following equation:
CH4 + O2 CO + 2H2O
In lean mixtures(excessoxygen) CO is formed because of 2
reasons:
Poor mixing of the fuel and air resulting in some region beingfuel-rich
CO is formed in the high temperature region of the combustion
zone because at T>2000 0K, the oxidation of CO to CO2 is
negligible
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Summary of CO formation
3 main ways:
(i) Incomplete combustion ofcarbon to carbon containing compounds (2C + O2
2CO)
(ii) Dissociation of CO2 to CO and O at very high temperature (CO2 CO +
O)
(iii) High temperature reaction between CO2 and carbon containing compounds
(e.g. in blast furnace)
(CO2 + C 2CO)
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Fate of atmospheric CO
A large percentage of atmospheric CO is removed by biological process through
the action of soil microbes (fungi)
CO in the air may eventually oxidize into CO2 through reactions with free radical
present in the air:
CO + HO + O2 CO2 + HO2
(HO hydroxyl radical; HO2 hydroperoxyl radical)
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Mobile sources automobiles
3 types of engine:
the gasoline engine
the dieselengine
the jetengine
The gasoline engine:
4stroke engine (intake stroke; compression stroke; power stroke; exhaust
stroke):
Mixture of fuel & air is fed into a cylinder by the carburetor & is compressed & ignited
by a spark from the spark plug
1 kg of gasoline can burn completely when mixed with about 15 kg of air. However, for maximum power a lower air to fuel ratio is used resulting in incomplete
combustion.
CO is formed & discharged in the exhaust together with unburnt gasoline &
hydrocarbons
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The diesel engine:
Air supply is unregulated leading to higher air to fuel ratio. No
carburetor is required since fuel is injected directly into the
combustion chamber. No spark ignition is required since the air is
heated by compression.
A well designed, well maintained & properly adjusted diesel engine
will emit less CO hydrocarbons than the four stroke engine because
ofthe diesels high air to fuel ratio.
The jet engine:
Air drawn into the front of the engine is compressed & then heated
by burning fuel. The expanding gas passes through the turbine
blades which drive the compressor. The gas then exits the engine
through the exhaust nozzle.
The main pollutants is emitted are particulates % NOx
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Control of CO from mobile sources In general control strategies fall into 3 categories:
Engine modifications
Fuel system modifications
Exhaust treatment devices
The most significant control is the use of 3-waycatalytic
converter for exhaust treatment. A chemical catalyst made of
noble metals (platinum & rhodium) operating at around 800
C Oxidizes VOCs to CO2 & H2O & CO to CO2 while reducing NOx
to N2 at the same time.
catalyst
HC + CO + NOx H2O + CO2 + N2
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Motorcycle catalytic converter Catalytic converterfor Honda/Acura
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Control of CO from stationary processes
Sources of CO from non-combustion processes:
Steel & petroleum refining.
Co is usually collected & burnt in furnace or waste heat boilers. If CO
concentration is low, it can be catalytically oxidized in an afterburner or removed
by scrubbing in copper ammonium formate solution.
The most practical method of control from stationary combustion sources is by
proper design, installation, operation, & maintenance of the combustion
equipment.
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Nat al
Sea salt, soil dust, volcanic particles, smoke from forest fires, nitrates, sulfates,
terpenes (unsaturated hydrocarbons that give scent to lemon and pine),
photochemical reaction.
Anth p g nic ce (man-made) Fossil fuel burning, industrial processes, automobile, condensable
hydrocarbons, sulfates, nitrates
Reactions:
Conversion of H2S and SO2 to sulfates (SO4)
Conversion of NOx and NH3 to nitrates (NO3) Reaction of hydrocarbons to condensable products that form particulates at
atmospheric condition.
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Primary particulates:
Emitted directly from sources to atmosphere.
Secondary particulates: Formed from reactions with other substances, ex.
Particles formed from photochemical reactions havevery small diameters [< 0.4 microns)
Smoke and fly ash have diameters that range from0.05 to 200 microns.
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Particulates:
Any material, except uncombined water, that exists in the solid or liquid
state in the atmosphere or gas stream at standard conditions
Aerosol:
A dispersion of microscopic solid or liquid particles in gaseous media
Dust:
Solid particles larger than colloidal size capable of temporary suspension
in air
Fog:
Visible aerosol
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Inhalable particles: < 10 mm (PM10)
Coarse particulates: > 2.5 mm in diameter; normallycontain earth crusted materials and dust from industries
and vehicles
Fine particulates: < 2.5 mm in diameter; containsecondarily formed aerosols; combustion particles and
recondensed organic and metallic vapors
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Flyash:
Finely divided particles of ash entrained in flue gas. Particles may contain
unburned fuel
Fume
Particles formed by condensation (vapor to liquid); sublimation (solid to gas
without going to liquid phase), or chemical reaction, predominantly smaller
than 1 micron (tobacco smoke).
Mist
Dispersion of small liquid droplets of sufficient size to fall from the air.
Smoke
Small gas borne particles resulting from combustion
Soot
An agglomeration of carbon particles
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Many compounds are in PMPrim r Particl s(dir ctl mitt d)
c dar Particl s
(fr m r c rs r as s)
Other
(sea salt)
Crustal
(soil,dust)
Carbon
(Soot)
Metals
NOx
Ammoni
a
VOCs
Organic
CarbonSO2
Ammonium
Sulfate
AmmoniumNitrate
Composition of PM tells us aboutComposition of PM tells us about
the sources and formation processesthe sources and formation processes
Ga
s
Particle
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The most important characteristic of aerosol is particle size distribution.
In a typical situation, to reduce health impact, the right thing to do is to
remove and reduce the particulates in the size range < 1Qm which may
make up > 90% of the total number of particles but which mayconstitute only 3% of the total mass.
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Coagulation: Part c s c d and st ck t th r.
Cond nsation: Gas s c nd ns nt a small s lid article
t f rm aliquid dr let.
Chemical Reaction: Gases react t f rm articles.
Cloud/FogProcesses: Gases diss lveina water dr let and chemically
react. A articleexists when the waterevaporates.
ulfate
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Substance Size range (micron)
Said grain 20 to 200
Paper 75
Human hair 50
Particle causing air pollution 0.01 to 10
Typical crushing operation > 10
Combustion, evaporation, orcondensation process
0.1 to 10
Tobacco smoke 0.01 to 1
(Note: 1 micron = 1Qm = 10-4 cm = 10-6m)
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Respiration is gas exchange between anorganism and the environment
Respiratory structures include the nose,
pharynx
, larynx
, trachea, bronchi, bronchiolesand alveoli
Mechanics of Breathing
Respiratory Diseases
Exhalation
Inhalation
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Nasal Passage
Pharynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Larynx
Bronchioles
Alveoli
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PM can accumulate in the respiratory system and areassociated with numerous health effects.
Adverse health effects have been associated withexposures to PM over both short periods (such as a
day) and longer periods (a year or more). People with existing heart or lung are at increased
risk . The elderly also are sensitive to PM exposure. PM can increase susceptibility to respiratory infections
and can aggravate existing respiratory diseases.
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PM increases the risk of respiratory death in infantsunder 1 year, affects the rate of lung functiondevelopment, aggravates asthma and causes otherrespiratory symptoms such as cough and bronchitis inchildren;
PM2.5 seriously affects health, increasing deaths fromcardiovascular and respiratory diseases and lungcancer. Increased PM2.5 concentrations increase therisk of emergency hospital admissions forcardiovascular and respiratory causes; and
P
M10
affects respiratory morbidity, as indicated byhospital admissions for respiratory illness.
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Wheezing and coughing
Heart attacks and death
TSP (Total Suspended Particles)
In presence of SO2, direct correlation betweenT
SP andhospital visits for bronchitis, asthma, emphysema,pneumonia, and cardiac disease
~60,000 deaths from PM (AHA)
1% increase in mortality for every 10 mg/m3 increase in PM(AHA)
Respiratory mortality up 3.4% for the same (AHA) Cardiovascular mortality up 1.4% for the same
(AHA)
Wide Range
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Asthma 14 Americans die/dayofasthma
3x reater than 20 yrs ago
Increased health care costs
Particulateepisodes Inversions
Inpresenceof 2 1930: euse Valleyin elgium- 60 deaths
1948: Donora,PA- 20 deaths
1952: LethalLondon mog- 12,000 deaths
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Cement-dust coating on apple leaves and fruit. The dust hadno injurious effect on the foliage, but inhibited the action of apre-harvest crop spray.
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Viainhalation/respiratoryas well
as eye/skin
Threeparts of respiratory system
Naso-pharyngeal (HAR)
Tracheo- ronchial (TBR)
Pulmonary-Alveolar (GER)
Lungs p portalofentry
Purpose
GER A > 75 m2
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Naturalprotection mechanisms
Naso-pharyngeal (HAR)
Tracheo- ronchial (TBR)
ucociliaryescalator
Bronchial constriction
Pulmonary-Alveolar (GER)
acrophages (phagocytosis)
No ciliaryaction
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Human airways are lined with a ciliarymembrane. These cilia are 5 m in length, andas the cilia beat, they engage with, and propel,
a thin overlying layer of mucus.
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A type of white blood that ingests (takes in) foreign material.
Macrophages are key players in the immune response to foreigninvaders such as infectious microorganisms.
Once a white cell has left the blood vessel and migrated to the
enemy, the next job is to EAT the microbe. This human macrophage, is a professional "phagocyte" or eating
cell (phago = "eating", cyte = "cell").
But eating the organisms is not enough.
To insure that the organisms not grow and divide within the
macrophage, the white cell must kill the organisms by somemeans such as the OXIDATIVE BURST.
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The macrophage is using its internal cytoskeleton to envelop cellsof the fungus Candida albicans.
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