i
AFFECTIVE CONCEPTS IN MUSIC PERFORMANCE EDUCATION:
AN EINSTEINIAN APPROACH
BY
KARYN OI LIM CHAN
B.Mus. (Hons.) (School of Music, The University of Western Australia)
M.Mus. (Eastman School of Music, University of Rochester)
This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at
The University of Western Australia
Graduate School of Education
May 2011
i
ABSTRACT
The current practices of music performance education at the secondary school level in
Western Australia encourage students to develop a competitive driven mindset at the
expense of gaining a deeper appreciation for the music that they are performing. This
study investigates how to integrate affective variables, based on Einstein‟s humanistic
and philosophical approaches to thinking, into music performance education at the
secondary school level, as a way of rebalancing the competition driven mindset of high
school music performance students. The three variables used were gratitude, humility
and wonder drawn from Einstein‟s non-scientific writings. Such an approach is named
an Einsteinian approach. This research uses qualitative data based on the method of
action research from the perspective of a teacher-researcher. Two preliminary phases
and two major action research cycles were conducted to investigate the necessary steps
required to integrate affective variables into the secondary music performance
classroom setting. Data collected were in-class worksheets, expanded worksheets, and
audio and DVD transcripts of classroom interactions. Teacher-led classroom actions
that worked and those that did not work – based on analyses of student responses –
indicated the essential elements for the integration of the Einsteinian approach. The
findings suggest that reflection, understanding student felt-needs, giving voice to
students and guiding students toward self-discovery of these affective concepts are
central for a successful integration of the Einsteinian approach. The study concludes
that students need to be guided to discover these affective concepts for themselves as
these concepts cannot be intellectualized.
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DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my mother, June Chan (1944 - 1997)
You are always remembered.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the following people, all of whom were instrumental in
contributing to the realization of this study:
Andrew Bushell and PhilipVenables, for your support throughout the course of this
research. Thank you.
John Inverarity and Stuart Meade, for your belief in the research topic. Thank you for
having provided me with this wonderful opportunity.
Professor Samuel Leong, for your valuable early support, and giving so generously of
your time and encouragement during the course of this thesis. I cannot thank you
enough.
Professor Keith Punch, for your supervisory insight, patience, kindness and sense of
humour, all of which kept me going. My heartfelt gratitude for all your efforts in seeing
me through to completion.
All of my students who made wonderful discoveries and to those who found it difficult.
Colleagues, friends and family who have willingly given in one way or another – your
kindness will not be forgotten. In particular, Margaret Denham, Robyn Wilson, Bruce
Carstairs, Eddie Khoo, Penny Vincent and Juletta Christensen.
Dr. Dorothy Colclough, for your encouragement and support in the final phase of this
thesis. Thank you for taking the time to read.
To my sister Carolyn Chan, for always cheering all my musical endeavours. I share this
accomplishment with you.
To my amazing grandmother, Tan Phaik Lian, for your constant reminder of how
fortunate I am to be a musician.
Most of all, to my father, for your unconditional support and love. The many sacrifices
on your part have allowed me to achieve this.
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LIST OF TABLES
Page No
Table 1
Affective Education Statements by the Affective Education Commission.............. 44
Table 2
Values Education Good Practice Schools Project, Stage 2 Final Report
-Ten Principles of Good Practice............................................................................. 45
Table 3
Summary Table of Action Research Setting............................................................ 70
Table 4
Analysis of Simon‟s Thinking Pattern......................................................................99
Table 5
Analysis of George‟s Thinking Pattern................................................................. 101
Table 6
Analysis of George‟s Thinking Pattern................................................................. 103
Table 7
Analysis of George‟s Thinking Pattern..................................................................105
Table 8
Summary of Insights Gained in Preliminary
Phases 1 and 2........................................................................................................108
Table 9
Summary of Findings for Preliminary Study
Phases 1 and 2........................................................................................................ 109
Table 10
Analysis of In-Class Worksheet Data (Cycle 1).................................................... 124
Table 11
Analysis of Audio Transcripts (Cycle 1)................................................................ 128
Table 12
Analysis of John‟s Thinking Pattern...................................................................... 130
Table 13
Question 1 from Questionnaire.............................................................................. 131
Table 14
Question 2 from Questionnaire.............................................................................. 132
Table 15
Question 3 from Questionnaire.............................................................................. 132
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Table 16
Question 4 from Questionnaire.............................................................................. 133
Table 17
Summary of Insights Gained in Cycle 1................................................................ 135
Table 18
Cumulative Summary of Findings
(Preliminary Phases & Cycle 1)............................................................................. 136
Table 19
A Summary of the Interpretation of Students‟ Thinking Patterns.......................... 138
Table 20
Summary of Insights Gained in Cycle 2 Term 1.................................................... 147
Table 21
Summary of Insights Gained in Cycle 2 Term 2.................................................... 154
Table 22
Summary of Insights Gained in Cycle 2................................................................ 166
Table 23
Analysis of In-Class Worksheets (Cycle 2)........................................................... 172
Table 24
Analysis of DVD Transcripts (Cycle 2)................................................................. 174
Table 25
Analysis of Expanded Worksheet 1 (Cycle 2)....................................................... 175
Table 26
Analysis of Expanded Worksheet 2 (Cycle 2)....................................................... 176
Table 27
Complete Summary of the Findings of Teacher-Led Classroom Actions............. 178
Table 28
Toward a General Principle of an Einsteinian Approach....................................... 181
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page No
Figure 1
Initial Conceptual Framework...................................................................................... 7
Figure 2
The Johari Window Model......................................................................................... 31
Figure 3
The Action Research Cycles...................................................................................... 63
Figure 4
Triangulation Process................................................................................................. 75
Figure 5
Overview of Analytical Process................................................................................. 78
Figure 6
Toward A General Principle of an Einsteinian Approach.......................................... 79
Figure 7
Example of Worksheet Data..................................................................................... 126
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Page No
Appendix A
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 1 (Term 3, Session 1)...................................... 221
Appendix B
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 1 (Term 3, Session 3)...................................... 223
Appendix C
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 1 (Term 3, Session 4)...................................... 224
Appendix D
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 1 (Term 3, Session 6)...................................... 225
Appendix E
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 1, Session 1)...................................... 226
Appendix F
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 1, Session 2)..................................... 227
Appendix G
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 1, Session 6)..................................... 228
Appendix H
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 2, Session 5)...................................... 229
Appendix I
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 3, Session 2)...................................... 230
Appendix J
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 3, Session 3)..................................... 231
Appendix K
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 3, Session 6/1).................................. 232
Appendix L
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 3, Session 6/2)................................... 233
Appendix M
Expanded Worksheet 1........................................................................................... 235
Appendix N
Expanded Worksheet 2........................................................................................... 236
Appendix O
PowerPoint Summary of Student Problems and Issues.......................................... 237
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Appendix P
Data of Student Issues and Problems..................................................................... 238
Appendix Q
Graph of Student Issues and Problems................................................................... 239
Appendix R
Unsolicited Letter from Instrumental Teacher....................................................... 240
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................i
DEDICATION.............................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................iv
LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................vi
LIST OF APPENDICES............................................................................................vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................ix
CHAPTER 1 PURPOSE AND RATIONALE
Performing Music......................................................................................................... 1
Purpose of Research...................................................................................................... 3
Research Questions.................................................................................................. 4
Context and Background of Research.......................................................................... 4
Current Practices of MPE at the Secondary School Level...................................... 5
Music Auditions................................................................................................ 5
Music Scholarship and Bursaries..................................................................... 5
Music Performance Examinations.................................................................... 6
Issues in MPE.......................................................................................................... 7
Renewed Emphasis on Affective Variables............................................................ 9
An Einsteinian Approach...................................................................................... 10
Why Such an Approach May be Useful to the Student Performer.................. 11
Overview of the Research..................................................................................... 13
Overview of the Australian Education System..................................................... 13
The Study‟s Original and Substantial Contribution to Knowledge........................... 17
Structure of Thesis..................................................................................................... 18
Introduction to the Literature Review........................................................................ 19
CHAPTER 2 A REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE (PART 1)
Competition in Music................................................................................................. 20
On Excellence and Motivation through Competition............................................ 25
Issues of Music Assessment and Creativity.......................................................... 28
Performance Related Injuries................................................................................ 32
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Music Education Philosophies and Ideals, and Outcomes of MPE....................... 35
Music Education Philosophies................................................................................... 36
MPE and Music Education Ideals.............................................................................. 38
CHAPTER 3 A REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE (PART 2)
Literature on Affective Education.............................................................................. 43
What is Affective Education?................................................................................. 44
Literature on Affective Aspects in Music............................................................... 46
Affective Learning in Education............................................................................. 49
Affective Variables in Moral Education versus the Einsteinian Approach............ 51
Einstein‟s Humanistic Thoughts.................................................................................. 51
Gratitude................................................................................................................. 52
Humility................................................................................................................. 54
Wonder................................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER 4 METHOD
Overview of Action Research.................................................................................... 61
Music Education Research and Action Research.................................................. 63
Relevance of Action Research to this Thesis........................................................ 65
Research Setting......................................................................................................... 68
Preliminary Phases................................................................................................ 69
Two Major Action Research Cycles...................................................................... 69
Data Collection........................................................................................................... 70
In-Class Worksheets.............................................................................................. 70
Expanded Worksheets............................................................................................ 71
Transcripts of Audio and DVD Recordings........................................................... 71
Student Emails........................................................................................................ 72
Teacher-Research Journals..................................................................................... 73
Ethics Consent............................................................................................................ 73
Data Analysis.............................................................................................................. 73
Overview of the Analytical Process...................................................................... 74
Conceptual Framework for Organizing Data............................................................. 75
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CHAPTER 5 PRELIMINARY STUDY
Overview of Preliminary Study.................................................................................. 81
Toward an Einsteinian Approach............................................................................... 81
Preliminary Study Phase 1......................................................................................... 82
Preliminary Study Phase 2......................................................................................... 89
Preliminary Study Phase 2a – Year 11.................................................................. 89
Preliminary Study Phase 2b – Year 10.................................................................. 93
Preliminary Study Phase 2c – Year 11.................................................................. 96
Summary - Preliminary Study Phases 1 and 2.......................................................... 106
Events leading up to Action Research Cycle 1......................................................... 110
CHAPTER 6 ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE 1
Background.............................................................................................................. 111
Purpose of Action Research Cycle 1........................................................................ 112
Overview of Classroom Sessions in Cycle 1............................................................ 113
Data Collection......................................................................................................... 118
Overview of the Analytical Process......................................................................... 120
Observations during Cycle 1............................................................................... 121
Analysis of In-Class Worksheet, Audio Transcripts and
Questionnaire – Cycle 1...................................................................................... 123
Worksheet Administered During Session 6 of Cycle 1................................. 129
Feedback Questionnaire................................................................................ 131
Findings for Cycle 1................................................................................................. 134
An Interpretation of Students‟ General Thinking Patterns....................................... 137
CHAPTER 7 ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE 2
Purpose of Action Research Cycle 2........................................................................ 139
Overview of Classroom Sessions............................................................................. 139
Data Collection......................................................................................................... 167
Overview of the Analytical Process.......................................................................... 169
Observations during Cycle 2.............................................................................. 169
Analysis of In-Class Worksheets, DVD Transcripts and
Expanded Worksheets – Cycle 2 ....................................................................... 171
Findings for Cycle 2................................................................................................. 177
Toward a General Principle of an Einsteinian Approach......................................... 179
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CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary................................................................................................................... 183
Summary of Research......................................................................................... 183
Summary of Methods......................................................................................... 184
Summary of Research Findings.......................................................................... 186
Conclusions............................................................................................................... 187
Discussion................................................................................................................. 188
Teaching Approach in Music Performance........................................................ 188
Mismatch between Music Education Philosophies and Ideals, and MPE.......... 190
The Lack of Affective Approaches within MPE................................................ 191
Education as Therapy......................................................................................... 191
Classroom Size................................................................................................... 192
Recognizing the Importance of Looking within the „Self‟................................. 193
Recommendations..................................................................................................... 194
Recommendations for Practice........................................................................... 194
Recommendations for Further Research............................................................ 196
Concluding Comments............................................................................................. 198
REFERENCES......................................................................................................... 200
APPENDICES.......................................................................................................... 220
1
AFFECTIVE CONCEPTS IN MUSIC PERFORMANCE EDUCATION:
AN EINSTEINIAN APPROACH
CHAPTER 1
PURPOSE AND RATIONALE
Music performance lies at the core of music education. In Western Australia,
for example, the performance component constitutes 50% of the total music
examination mark in the high-stakes Tertiary Entrance Examination (TEE)1 during the
period in which this research was being conducted. A similar emphasis is also found in
other states of Australia where the performance component forms a substantial portion
of the school‟s music syllabus. Elliott (1995) an eminent music educator, underscores
the importance of performance when he says, “Music is not simply a collection of
pieces, products or objects. Fundamentally, music is something that people do” (p. 39).
Performing Music
Music remains simply a symbol on a page until a performance is generated and in
order for a performance to take place, a performer is required. The performer‟s role is
to interpret and transmit the written work of a composer for the listener. In other words,
the performer acts as a medium between the composer and the listener. In acting as a
medium, several factors come into play. These factors involve a complex integration of
an entire set of motor skills as well as psychological factors that pertain to the context of
a musical performance. In addition to being highly skilled in all aspects of their
instrument as well as managing aspects of their psychological makeup related to
performing music, performers are also required to go beyond the technical demands and
into the aesthetic and interpretive design of the musical score. All of these demands
1 TEE refers to the standard academic entrance examination in Western Australia for high school
students planning to pursue their tertiary studies at the end of their twelfth year of schooling.
2
need to take place simultaneously during a performance, which requires an immense
amount of concentration on the part of the performer. As such, the act of performing
music is complex. Clarke (2002) captures these complexities in terms of the physical as
well as psychological demands required of the performer through this descriptive
account:
Musical performance at its highest level demands a remarkable combination of
physical and mental skills. It is not uncommon for pianists to play at speeds of
ten or more notes per second in both hands simultaneously, in complex and
constantly changing spatial patterns on the keyboard, and with distinct patterns of
rhythm, dynamics and articulation. Equally, a performer has to have an
awareness and understanding of the immediate and larger-scale structure of the
music itself, an expressive “strategy” with which to bring the music to life, and
the resilience to withstand the physical demands and psychological stresses of
public performance (p. 59).
Furthermore, apart from these complexities, the ability to transcend the self is also
an important requirement expected of the high level performer. According to Kendall
(1976), the renowned musician-educator, Nadia Boulanger once said, “To me the
greatest objective is when the composer disappears, the performer disappears, and there
remains only the work...” (p. 115).
Therefore, the dual nature required of the music performer in being able to
transcend the self, as well as needing to be fully present in order to attend to the many
technical requirements whilst performing a musical instrument, makes performing
music for high school music students, a highly complicated task.
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Ultimately, in conquering the before mentioned complexities in any given music
performance, the general aim of a performer is to transmit a deep and meaningful
expression of music in order that the audience may be treated to an uplifting and
memorable experience of the performance. However, when the notion of competition is
introduced into a music performance, it is likely that the goal to win takes on a higher
priority in place of the aspirations originally esteemed by the performer. As will be
discussed, the current practices of music performance education (MPE) are competitive.
Therefore, the many demands placed on the music performer contain an added
challenge for the high school music student performer, who not only has to contend
with the complexities of the act of performing music, but also the inherently competitive
environment of MPE. As such, the student performer is constantly being subjected to
an enormous amount of stress while performing. Chapter 2 further considers the
implications that such stress can have on the student performer. Issues of assessment
and creativity as well as how such a competitive mindset results in creating an
incongruity with the philosophy and ideals of music education, will also be discussed.
Purpose of Research
In light of the global changes within the educational domain highlighting the
renewed use of affective variables in education in general (Gardner, 2000; Haglund,
2004; Palmer, 2006), the purpose of this study is to investigate how an approach based
on affective variables can be integrated into MPE within a secondary music classroom
setting to promote a deeper and more meaningful approach to music performance. As
will be described, this approach is based on a practical application of Einstein‟s
humanistic attitudes and approaches to thinking, drawn from his non-scientific writings.
Such an approach will be referred to as an Einsteinian approach.
Given that competition continues to thrive, as evidenced through the current
practices of MPE, it is possible that stakeholders may not be aware of the negative
4
effects of competition. In promoting a deeper and more meaningful approach to music
performance based on the Einsteinian approach, this study hopes to provide better
balance within the competitive culture of MPE and to enhance students‟ learning
experience in music performance overall.
Research Questions
The central research question is: How can an Einsteinian approach be incorporated
into a competitively driven music performance education culture at the secondary
school level?
The three guiding questions are:
1. What were Einstein‟s attitudes and approaches to thinking?
2. How can Einstein‟s attitudes and approaches to thinking address issues of concern
experienced by music performance students?
3. In what ways will high school music performance students benefit from an
Einsteinian approach in MPE?
Context and Background of Research
This section describes the context and background for this research. The context
is described in five parts: The current practices within MPE; issues found in MPE; the
renewed global emphasis placed on affective variables within education in general,
evident at the start of the millennium; what the Einsteinian approach entails and finally,
why such an approach may be useful to high school student music performers.
Following this, a background of the research covering the method employed and an
overview of the research setting are outlined. The study‟s original and substantial
contribution to the current knowledge base of MPE and an overview of the thesis
structure along with an introduction to the literature review concludes this chapter.
5
Current Practices of MPE at the Secondary School Level
As will be shown, the current practices of MPE within the school environment
place emphasis on competition. During any given school year, high school music
performance students are likely to encounter activities such as auditions for orchestral
seating placements, music festivals and eisteddfods, and internal as well as external
music performance examinations. Such activities are common for high school music
performance students. Observations based on a substantial number of years of teaching
experience as a secondary school music educator, specialist instrumental tutor and an
examiner for the Australian Music Examination Board indicate how some educators, as
well as parents, tend to perceive these activities to be of educational value to high
school music performance students. A belief commonly held by some parents and
music educators is that these activities can provide music performance students with a
source of motivation and performing opportunities.
Music auditions. Auditions for orchestral seating placements are important
annual events for the music student. Being placed on the first desk in any section of the
orchestra has always been highly esteemed and sought after by music students. Parents
are proud to see their child attaining such a status within the orchestra particularly as
such a position becomes visibly prominent during school music concerts. However,
such an activity requires students to out-perform their peers in an attempt to gain such
placements. As such, the auditioning process is inherently competitive.
Music scholarship and bursaries. Music scholarships and bursaries are school
based monetary awards offered to students who exhibit potential for high achievement
in the subject of music. Students applying for these scholarships or bursaries are
required to go through an audition process where they have to perform a selection of
pieces on their instrument as well as being interviewed. Here, students are competing
6
amongst their peers in order to attain these awards. Therefore, these events are also
competitive.
Music performance examinations. Music performance examinations provide a
form of measuring student proficiency in terms of instrumental performance. These
measurements are conducted through a grading system based on a pre-selection of
musical criteria and are held at the end of each school semester. Apart from this, it is
not uncommon for a performance student to be also involved with external music
examination bodies such as the Australian Music Examinations Board, Associated
Board of the Royal Schools of Music or Trinity Guildhall, all of which have continued
to thrive and expand over the recent years. These external examination bodies offer
extended opportunities for music performance students to demonstrate their performing
abilities. External examinations are highly valued by both students and parents as they
are considered a means of exhibiting further evidence of achievement, in addition to the
school music performance examinations. Such successes are often used as added
verification of students‟ competence in order to create a competitive advantage when
applying for a music scholarship or bursary offered by a school.
Each of these activities found in the current practices of MPE involve some form
of an assessment. These assessments revolve around a selection process. To select
denotes an ordering which creates a hierarchy of placements. These placements
produce a ranking order of students‟ abilities as music performers. In ranking music
students‟ abilities, a comparison is made between students. When comparisons are
made, students become aware for a need to be placed in the best possible position.
Seeking to be placed in the best possible position implies intent to be placed ahead of
their peers. This ultimately sets up a competitive situation where each student tries to
out-do the other in order to be placed in a better position. Music activities found in the
7
current practices of MPE are structured around such a selection process and are,
therefore, considered to be competitive.
These competitive structures woven into the musical life of high school music
student performers have been given much prominence by both parents and students. As
a result, the current practices of MPE force high school music performance students to
place greater value on achievement at the possible expense of gaining a deeper
understanding and appreciation for the music that they are performing. Figure 1
provides an illustration, showing the initial conceptual framework of this thesis.
Figure 1 Initial Conceptual Framework
Issues in MPE
As mentioned, experiences in performing music for high school music student
performers are structured around participation in events such as concerts, music
festivals, music examinations or music auditions. In addition, it is not uncommon for
high achieving music performance students to seek out various other opportunities to
Music Performance
Student
Deep and Meaningful
Approach and
Appreciation for Music
Current Practices of
MPE
Music
Competitions/
Festivals
Music Auditions
Music Scholarship
Auditions
School Performance
Examinations External
Performance
Examinations
8
extend themselves, for example, through participation in national or international music
competitions.
The researcher‟s years of experience and observation indicate how these
activities, usually being accorded prominence by both parents and educational
institutions, teach students from an early age to value “winning.” Thus, it is instilled in
the student‟s early adolescent years that success in music is measured by the number of
trophies that one can accumulate. This is likely to cause students who were not placed
first to become disheartened with the learning process as a student performer.
In preparation for a music performance examination, many teachers struggle to
nurture depth of musical understanding in their students. However, due to students‟
general focus in gaining higher marks, efforts made by teachers toward engaging
students in developing further appreciation for the music they are performing are often
not perceived to be important by students. This is possibly due to students‟ typically
held belief that areas in relation to improving technique are the stronger contributor to
the attainment of higher marks. However, consider the situation where a student has to
perform a musical composition requiring tenderness of expression at a music
competition. Even when the teacher is successful in nurturing a deeper musical
understanding in the student, the notion of competition itself is at odds with what is
required of the student, as on one hand, the student is expected to express tenderness
and on the other, being driven to win. Therefore, in such an instance, the act of
competing can produce incongruities between the intent and outcome of both teacher
and student.
Therefore, the competition driven mindset in the current practices of MPE
embeds within the student from an early age, the importance of achievement at the
expense of gaining a deeper and more meaningful approach as part of their music
education. This thesis will show how to integrate a practical approach through the use
9
of affective variables as an intervention in addressing the issues raised in the current
practices of MPE, in order to rebalance the competitive driven mindset of high school
music performance students.
Renewed Emphasis on Affective Variables
Global changes in education leaning toward a renewed affective outlook can be
evidenced from nearly one and a half decades ago. At the start of the millennium,
Gardner (2000) advocated that K-12 education should encompass an approach based on
a deep understanding of the three principles - truth, beauty and morality - declaring
these as “an education for all human beings” (p. 19). The introduction of the outcomes-
based Curriculum Framework of the Education Department of Western Australia in
1998 shares Gardner‟s vision in its inclusion of the five clusters of core-shared values.
These values underpin the overall broad-based outcomes approach framework seen as
essential for holistic education to occur. Briefly, these five clusters are as follows: A
pursuit of knowledge and a commitment to students achieving their potential, self
acceptance and respect of self, respect and concern for others and their rights, social and
civic responsibility and lastly, environmental responsibility (Government of Western
Australia, 1998). During this time, The British National Curriculum Council and the
Office for Standards in Education, in the area of Children‟s Services and Skills, gave
unexpected prominence to the moral and spiritual aspects of education, which took most
educators by surprise (Lang, 1996). In music, Palmer (1995) had long been concerned
with “the dimensions of music beyond the printed page” (p. 91) and stressed the need
for music education to incorporate the spiritual aspect of music as part of the music
educator‟s teaching knowledge. A second part to this exploration was added by Palmer
(2006) which demonstrates a continued emphasis in giving consideration to the spiritual
aspect of music education. Recently, studies conducted in the area of spirituality within
music education are also becoming more apparent (M. Anderson, 2009; Matsunobu,
10
2009; Mell, 2010). These global changes in education seemed to indicate a renewed
shift from the prescriptive and technical syllabus-based framework that often
emphasized a cognitive approach, to that of a more meaningful outcomes-focussed
education giving more prominence to affective variables.
Given the renewed interest in the use of affective variables in education in
general, it would seem appropriate that consideration also be given to the exploration of
affective concepts within MPE. In line with that, this study investigates how it is
possible to integrate the use of affective variables into MPE through the practical
application of an approach based on Einstein‟s philosophical and humanistic writings,
termed an Einsteinian approach.
An Einsteinian Approach
The renowned physicist, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) is well known for his
many scientific contributions to humanity. However, matters of concern apart from
science, which revolved around philosophical and humanistic issues, can also be found
in Einstein‟s writings (Einstein, 1956; Einstein, Dukas, & Hoffmann, 1979). These
non-scientific writings provided the basis for this development of an Einsteinian
approach.
The thinking processes of Einstein have created an interest for authors such as
Thorpe (2000), Newbold (1999) and Gardner (1993). Whilst these studies have touched
on Einstein‟s thinking processes in one way or another, the authors have chosen to
represent his thinking through descriptive accounts and the use of cognitive approaches.
For example, Thorpe (2000) offers ways of how to think like Einstein through an
emphasis on strategic approaches that go against one‟s conventional thinking patterns
while Newbold (1999) and Gardner (1993) offer insights into Einstein‟s thinking
processes through a descriptive account of the creative aspects found within his
11
thoughts. However, no practical approach based on affective variables as suggested in
this thesis is provided.
McNeill‟s (2001) PhD thesis entitled A State of Preparedness, has demonstrated
a relationship between students‟ innermost attitude and their learning abilities. The
findings from her research show that “students claimed to be able to learn better by
adopting innermost attitudes of gratitude” (p. 109). Furthermore, according to Bond
(2004), the Inhelder-Piaget experiments found no difference in the level of operational
thinking between a nuclear physicist and that of an adolescent, apart from the content of
the thought. Therefore, in this context, it seems appropriate to investigate the adoption
of Einstein‟s thinking, based on his humanistic and philosophical writings within MPE
at the secondary school level.
Why such an approach may be useful to the student performer. As
mentioned, the activity of performing music is complex. Such complexities impose
heavily on the student performer who also has to contend with the competitive
structures that are found in the current practices of MPE. A competitive mindset is
likely to place emphasis on an outcome where students are taught to value winning and
the attainment of high marks over the importance of gaining a deeper understanding and
appreciation for the music that they are performing. In other words, the competitive
mindset encourages high school music performance students to trade-off the value of
searching for what it means to develop deeper meaning in the music that they are
performing. Instead, greater value is placed on winning.
The Einsteinian approach may be useful to high school student music performers
as such an approach may assist in rebalancing the competitive driven mindset of these
student performers and enhancing their learning process. As will be demonstrated,
students who have successfully engaged with the Einsteinian approach have
demonstrated the ability to regain such a balance. As a result, a keen sense of searching
12
for greater depth and meaning in the music that they perform becomes a part of their
learning process. In addition, they were also found to exhibit qualities of becoming
better musicians by paying closer attention to the quality of the sounds that they were
producing on their instrument while performing. On particular instances, students were
also able to apply such an approach within the context of their everyday life.
Subsequent chapters will report on these benefits that high school music performance
students experienced through the integration of the Einsteinian approach.
Students‟ ability to value and deeply appreciate the music that they are
performing does not form part of the standard assessment structure of a music
performance. Knowing this, students who focus on winning or attaining high marks are
likely to overlook such aspects in their development as a musician. Adler and Fagley‟s
(2005) research into the effects of being appreciative, indicates that the act of
appreciation promotes positive emotions that result in “feelings of well-being” (p.79).
Research in the area of positive psychology acknowledges the importance of building
on the theory of positive emotions as it has been found that positive emotions are also
related to generating positive outcomes in cognitive aspects (Fredrickson, 2005).
Correspondingly, the domain of cognitive neuroscience has also verified how areas of
the brain that involve emotional processing are intricately linked to other areas
involving cognitive learning (Phelps, 2006). Based on this, it is likely that nurturing
music students‟ ability to deeply appreciate the music that they are performing may also
enhance their cognitive skills as musicians.
Therefore, in rebalancing the competition driven mindset of the music
performance student through the use of affective variables, it is believed that high
school music student performers are likely to gain a better sense of well-being thus
aiding their ability to cope with the detrimental effects of a competitive music
performance culture as well as positively influencing their cognitive musical skills.
13
Overview of the Research
This is a qualitative piece of research, employing action research as its method from the
perspective of a teacher-researcher. Action research from the teacher-researcher
perspective requires that the teacher assume the role of educator as well as that of a
researcher. An overview of the literature on action research and its growing usage in
education will be provided in Chapter 4.
As reported in Chapter 5, a preliminary study involving two phases was
conducted. These phases served as a catalyst in framing the central research question,
which is: How can an Einsteinian approach be incorporated into a competitively
driven music performance education culture at the secondary school level?
Two major action research cycles followed the preliminary study that inquired
into how the Einsteinian approach could be integrated within the secondary school
classroom setting. Data gathered throughout the research cycles included student in-
class worksheets, student expanded worksheets, a detailed teacher-researcher journal
and transcripts of audio and DVD recordings. With this database, an analysis was
conducted at the end of each of the research cycles, findings from which provided the
basis for the planning of subsequent cycles. Details of the analysis conducted are
provided at the end of each of the preliminary phases and at the end of each of the two
major action research cycles with a suggested general principle toward an Einsteinian
approach included at the end of Chapter 7.
Overview of the Australian Education System
The Australian education system consists of two sectors – government schools
(also known as public schools) and non-government schools (also known as
independent or private schools). The schooling system in each state is regulated and
funded independently by each state government and territory. As such, the curriculum
14
offering is likely to differ from state to state. However, the learning areas remain the
same throughout the entire country. There are eight key learning areas across the
nation. These learning areas are as follows: Arts, English, Health and Physical
Education, Languages other than English, Mathematics, Science, Society and
Environment, and Technology and Enterprise, with music education assuming its role
under the learning area of the Arts (Australian Government Department of Immigration
and Citizenship, 2006; Government of Western Australia Curriculum Council, 2010).
In Western Australia, secondary school education encompasses Years 7 to 12.
Students are in their early adolescent years of approximately 13 years old upon entering
their first year of high school in Year 7. In general, private schools are often perceived
as being more elitist than public schools as private schools are full fee paying schools
that offer a wider choice of specialized courses, for example, psychology, law,
astronomy or even aviation, in addition to the core subject requirements. Parents who
enrol their child into a private school often hold high expectations for their child‟s
success. Such expectations from parents inadvertently add to the overall
competitiveness between students.
Music is offered as an elective in both government as well as non-government
schools. However, there are some differences between these two systems of schooling.
For example, the Department of Education of Western Australia provides instrumental
tuition services for students in public schools through the School of Instrumental Music
(SIM) (Government of Western Australia Department of Education, 2011b) and in
private schools, specialist teachers are employed as itinerant staff of the music
department to provide instrumental tuition for students at the school. Apart from this,
students also have the choice to engage private studio teachers outside of school as their
instrumental tutors. Overall, music programmes offered in public schools tend to run on
a smaller scale to private schools apart from two public schools that are reputed as being
15
specialist music schools offering the Gifted and Talented Music Program as extension
programmes (Government of Western Australia Department of Education, 2011a).
The structure of how Music as a subject is offered varies from school to school
with some schools providing a stronger music programme than other schools. The
amount of time allocated for the study of music as a subject also differs from school to
school. The school in which this research was conducted offers Year 7 music students
the choice of semester length or year-long course. Typically, four hourly periods per
week are allocated to classroom music in Years 7 – 10. This is extended to six hours
per week in Years 11-12. Instrumental music is generally held once a week lasting for
an hour. Music students are also required to participate in an ensemble such as choir,
chamber music, band or orchestra.
It is typically found that the number of students who elect to study music in the
final two years of schooling tends to be smaller in the private schools compared to the
public schools that offer specialist programs such as The Gifted and Talented Program.
The number of students who enrol to study Music as a subject in Years 11 and 12 at the
school in which this research was conducted, generally ranges from six to ten in any
given year. Such small numbers are also reflected in other private schools within
Western Australia. Students in their final two years of study who elect to study music
as a subject are required to complete written examinations as well as performance
examinations during the course of these two years. During the academic year, music
students are required to complete both written and practical music examinations at the
end of each of the semester. This culminates in a final examination at the end of the
year known as the TEE. The TEE result is considered high stakes, as the marks gained
in this examination will determine students‟ acceptance into tertiary studies. Students
who elect to study Music at a tertiary level are required to complete an audition prior to
admission into tertiary studies at the university. Therefore, high school music
16
performance students encounter several tests and assessments in the course of their
music studies at the secondary school level. Such practices contribute to encouraging
students to cultivate a competitive driven mindset.
General music studies are offered in the classroom while instrumental music
studies are offered on a one-to-one setting. Classroom music covers the study of music
history, aural skills, music theory and composition. Students who enrol to study Music
as a subject are also required to enrol in instrumental music lessons, as playing an
instrument is part of the general music curriculum requirement. Instrumental lessons
are taught by instrumental specialists who are often professional musicians employed as
itinerant staff. The above description is typical of how music as a subject is structured
at an independent school in Western Australia. A similar arrangement is offered by the
public school system with the exception of instrumental lessons, which take place at
SIM.
Students participating in this study were Year 10, Year 11 and 12 music students
from a private all-boys school in Western Australia. Typically, students, parents and
educators place great emphasis on achievement in these final years of schooling.
Therefore, these senior students provided an appropriate setting for this research as such
an environment contains highly competitive structures.
As will be described in subsequent chapters, the school in which this research
was conducted encouraged teachers to be innovative in their teaching approaches. This
was very much the culture and ethos of the school. Also, the administrative staff as well
as teaching colleagues provided much support for the implementation of new teaching
ideas. Therefore, conducting such a study was made possible due to the
broadmindedness of the school culture.
17
The Study’s Original and Substantial Contribution to Knowledge
Einstein has become an inspiration to humanity in the way he transformed our
understanding of the universe in which we live. Apart from science, Einstein was also
known to have been a competent musician having learnt to play both the violin and
piano. In an excerpt taken from an interview, Einstein was quoted to have said the
following about music, “If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I
often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music…I
get most joy in life out of music” (Calaprice, 2000, p. 155).
Also, when discussing the development of his Theory of Relativity with Shinichi
Suzuki, the renowned developer of the Suzuki Method for violin playing, Einstein was
reported to have said the following, “It occurred to me by intuition, and music was the
driving force behind that intuition. My discovery was the result of musical perception”
(Fryer, 1985, p. 42)
Thus, it appears that Einstein‟s thinking was a combination of two opposing
perspectives: That of the objective scientist, alongside that of the creative artist. In
keeping with Einstein‟s two worlds of thought, the focus of this thesis is to integrate the
current practices in MPE that tend to accentuate the technical aspects that require
cognitive reasoning together with affective variables. Hence, this study aims to inform
practitioners of how it might be possible to integrate a practical application of such an
approach in the secondary music classroom setting.
A search of the literature through relevant databases revealed that student learning
and growth in the performance of music is presently considered predominantly from the
cognitive perspective, and that the affective domains have been generally unexplored.
Therefore, this study aims to generate a new approach within MPE in the hope of
contributing to the future learning and teaching of music education in general.
18
Competitive structures have been entrenched within the educational practices of
MPE for a considerable length of time, thus it is likely that this study can be potentially
challenging to the current mindset of the stakeholders involved. However, this research
is not suggesting that current competitive practices of MPE be replaced. Instead, it is
seeking to consider how it might be possible to integrate an Einsteinian approach with
the current structures found in MPE. As mentioned, this integrative approach hopes to
promote a means of addressing the negative issues that are present within MPE, and
aims to enhance the learning process of the high school music performance student
through a rebalancing of their competitive mindset.
Structure of Thesis
This thesis comprises eight chapters with this introduction being the first.
Chapter 1 provides the context and background of the thesis. The review of relevant
literature is divided into two parts and will span Chapters 2 and 3. Chapter 4 describes
the research approach and method employed, including data collection and analysis
procedures. The next three chapters (Chapters 5, 6 and 7) report the two phases of the
preliminary study and the two major cycles of action research conducted. Details of the
background to each cycle along with a description of the classroom sessions that took
place during each of the cycles are also provided. A report of the analysis conducted at
the completion of each cycle is provided at the end of each of these chapters with a
general principle of the Einsteinian approach suggested at the end of Chapter 7.
Chapter 8 provides a summary of the research and its conclusion, and contains a
discussion and recommendations. This final chapter draws together the findings of this
research and outlines the key elements required in the integration of an Einsteinian
approach within MPE at the secondary school level.
19
Introduction to the Literature Review
The literature review is provided over the next two chapters. Chapters 2 deals
with literature relevant to the key issues of this research in the following areas:
Competition in music; performance related injuries linked to competition affecting the
physical and emotional health of the music performer; issues of assessment and
creativity, and philosophy and ideals of music education. Chapter 3 deals with literature
relevant to the key issues of this research in the following areas: The resurgence of
affective variables and values education in general, and Einstein‟s humanistic and
philosophical approaches to thinking found in his non-scientific writings that were used
in the Einsteinian approach.
The decision to present the literature review over two chapters was done in order
to allow for a clearer division between materials that relate to the context and
background of this research involving competition and music performance, and
materials that relate to affective education and the use of affective variables in relation
to the Einsteinian approach. The review is based on monographs, academic journal
articles, published and unpublished theses, and documents pertaining to the relevant
areas.
20
CHAPTER 2
A REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE (PART 1)
The extent to which the competitive culture has permeated MPE at the
secondary school level has possibly gone unnoticed by the stakeholders given that a
competition driven mindset continues to be evident in the current practices. As will be
demonstrated, several concerns arise from such a competitive mindset.
This study investigates how to rebalance the current competitive mindset
through the use of affective variables. In line with the renewed interest for the use of
affective variables evidenced at the start of the new millennium (Gardner, 2000; Palmer,
2006), an investigation into how such an approach may be integrated into MPE at the
secondary school level was conducted.
A systematic search of all relevant databases was done in conjunction with this
review of literature. The SuperSearch gateway of The University of Western Australia
was used to access the following databases: JSTOR, International Index to Music
Periodicals, ProQuest 5000 International, ERIC (1965-2010), Education Full Text,
Trove, Bibliography of Australian Music Education Research and PsychINFO (1806-
2010).
Competition in Music
The World Federation of International Music Competitions, a member of the
International Music Council of UNESCO, has a register of over 120 members
(International Artist Managers' Association, 2011). However, this represents a listing of
only the major international music competitions and does not include the various
national or state competitions that also exist. The large numbers of competitions that
are being held attest to the fact that music competition remains a strong institution and
is a major part in the social structure of music.
21
As mentioned, at the secondary school level of education, music performances
often take the form of concerts, music festivals, examinations or auditions. These
events typically define the musical milieu of the student performer. Whilst each of
these types of events provides students with an opportunity to perform, they also place
considerable emphasis on achievement. For example, students are taught to always
strive to be the best and so the main goal of student performers participating in any
music festival is to be placed first. Similarly, the desire to outshine their peers becomes
evident during music auditions where students continuously vie for the position of first
desk in the school orchestras or bands. Also, emphasis on achievement forces high
school music performance students to become “marks-oriented” during music
performance examinations. In addition, some students even feed on a false sense of
accomplishment by seeking gratification through applause and publicity within a
concert situation. In other words, high school music performance students are often
placed in a position where they are required to compete in the musical activities that
they engage upon. However, as will be discussed later in this chapter, a competitive
mindset raises several issues for the high school music performance student, which
often results in negative outcomes. For example, in sharing their perception of their
time at school, a written reflection provided by a Year 11 TEE student said the
following:
I find that school is not a place where one goes to learn or to pursue any real
educational goal, rather, it‟s more about getting the scores which enables us to go
to university. Therefore, many of us drop out of the higher ranking subjects, in
order to do easier subject, pass well and achieve an overall higher score in TEE.
For example, a student doing literature, finding he was eligible for ESL, dropped
the literature course in order to do the ESL course and pass with minimal effort.
22
Therefore, it is also possible that in trying to do well, students may possibly end up
underachieving as a result of competitiveness.
In education in general, an extensive review of literature from nearly two decades
ago into the effects of competition conducted by Kohn (1992, 1993), urges educators
and parents to steer away from the competitive mindset and to be mindful of the
detrimental repercussions generated by such an approach to education. Kohn (2000)
subsequently invited educators to rethink their fundamental assumptions about
education such as standardized testing, which emphasized achievement and fact-based
knowledge rather than gaining a genuine interest in understanding the material taught
and the ability to synthesize what was learnt. Furthermore, the educational deficits that
result from a standardized testing based on the “No Child Left Behind” Act of 2001 in
the United States has inadvertently caused concerns in other areas of class and race
(Hunter & Bartee, 2003). A recent study on the effects of envy between music students
added to the body of knowledge that expresses how the inherently competitive
structures found in the current practices of MPE continue to produce negative outcomes
in both the emotional and behavioural aspects of students (Kim, 2008). These studies
share a common ground in pointing to the disadvantages that are likely to occur when
students engage in a competitive environment. Therefore, the disadvantages articulated
by these scholars in their findings suggest that the act of competing is likely to prevent
students from gaining a deep and meaningful educational outcome. Music performance
students involved in this study were found to show a lack of awareness in terms of how
a competitive mindset is the likely cause of issues voiced by them in relation to their
music performance studies. The following is a reflection written by a student who says:
My last performance was the Semester 1 exam. As always, I felt that whilst I
played better than in many class situations, my mark for set pieces could never
reach above 13 out of 15 because I was too tense and nervous which led me to
23
“thinking” about the music rather than “feeling” it.
In this reflection, the student attributes his nerves and tension during a
performance as an inhibitor in gaining a higher mark and also states how he performs
better in situations where no formal assessments are involved. It is also clear that this
student strives to achieve a mark beyond 86% in his performance examinations.
However, this student appears to be unaware that his constant striving for a higher mark
may also be a possible factor that is preventing him from progressing further, as his
focus on achieving higher marks is likely to take his attention away from the music that
he is performing.
Music educators remain divided in their opinion regarding the effects of
competition in music (Rohrer, 2002). The proponents of competition, as a way of
encouraging better student performances, often cite benefits such as increased
motivation and technical excellence gained through the act of competing. On the other
hand, the opponents of competition tend to voice their concerns in seeing students
placing greater emphasis on extrinsic needs at the expense of the intrinsic values of the
music itself (Austin, 1990; R. E. Miller, 1994, 1995; Scheib, 2006) as well as pointing
to the neglect in the development of musical skills that may promote lifelong interest in
the study of music (Rohrer, 2002; Schoene, Adam, & Richmond, 1995). Given such
diversely opposing opinions, it is possible that music educators who possess a strong
view for competition in music are unaware of the detrimental effects of competition on
the development of the high school music student performer. A search of the relevant
databases in relation to research into music competition in the past decade found that the
majority of studies conducted were done in relation to band music competition (Chou,
2001; Groulx, 2010). A study on the social aspects of music competition by
McCormick (2009) confirms the scarcity of research from the sociological perspective.
It is possible that the paucity of research in this area may be a reflection of how
24
competition is accepted as a cultural norm within the music domain. Therefore, the
detrimental effects of competition have possibly gone unnoticed.
A recent article, publishing an extract from a journal of a musician, outlines the
quandary that competition places on her as an educator. On the one hand she says,
I know why I bother with music contests in the first place. The bottom line is that
it makes me a better teacher to work with and coach students on that higher level,
with the degree of care and attention demanded to be competitive. I also know
that it makes the students better to have to prepare carefully and to learn to handle
issues of pacing for performances and the nerves of competing. (Greer, 2009, p.
10)
But on the other hand she also voices the following conundrum,
I sense an internal conflict these days between turning out musicians who are
well-trained but generic, and helping to develop creative, uniquely musical little
people. You see, preparing students for contest puts me in danger of becoming
narrow-minded, of missing the forest for the trees. It makes me less willing to
take risks in students' interpretations. It makes me overly focused on the music
and less focused on the person sitting on the bench. (Greer, 2009, p. 10)
A recent case study by Scheib (2006), conducted from the perspective of a student
musician, inquired into the reasons influencing why a student might choose to remain
involved as well as succeed in instrumental lessons. The findings of the study
conducted through a series of interviews revealed that the student‟s motivation for
remaining in the band revolved primarily around competition and achievement. For
example, the student who was named Lindy, would often cite reasons for practising her
instrument in order that she could gain a better chair placement in the band. However,
25
the case study findings also reported that Lindy showed “lack of musical, artistic, or
emotional language in her description of band experience” (Scheib, 2006, p. 35). It was
also noted that during one of the interviews that was conducted to inquire into what she
enjoyed most about the band, Lindy never once mentioned the term music during the
entire interview, noting how her responses focused instead on “statements that were
non-music-specific” (Scheib, 2006, p. 35). Furthermore, it was also pointed out how
her motivation was derived “solely from the extrinsic qualities of the traditional band
program, such as competition and achievement, rather than from attributes specific to
music or fine arts, such as the qualities associated with performing or creating music”
(Scheib, 2006, pp. 34-35). Such findings prompted the researcher of this thesis to
encourage MPE educators to re-evaluate their viewpoints and current practices against
their principal belief that they hold regarding the intrinsic and extrinsic values of music.
Therefore, although motivation may be spurred on by a competitive
environment and may induce students to demonstrate a positive behaviour in their
learning, unfortunately, an apparent lack of a genuine internal desire to learn and
understand may result. It is hoped that this study can provide a rebalancing of such
competitive and extrinsically motivated mindset through the Einsteinian approach and
thus enable high school music performance students to become well-rounded
intrinsically motivated music performers.
On Excellence and Motivation through Competition
Excellence through achievement and increased motivation are two main benefits
often cited by proponents of music competition (Graff, 2008; Malone, 2006). The
following section will further consider these purported benefits gained through
competition.
26
Malone (2006) sees the processes of competing in a competition as a means of
fostering excellence. He qualifies this by saying, “Even if the person or group does not
take home the top prize, a victory has been achieved by having made a valiant effort to
perfect one‟s performance… Competition is a step in the right direction, a step toward
excellence” (p.52). However, extensive earlier studies on motivational behaviours
found that “when people try to compete at an activity, they begin to see that activity as
an instrument for winning rather than an activity which is mastery-oriented and
rewarding in its own right” (Deci, 1981, p. 82). A similar conclusion was found in a
later study (Vansteenkiste & Deci, 2003). Also, an earlier work on the effects of
competition by Kohn (1992) clarifies the confusion clouding the issue on excellence in
achievement through competitive means by making the distinction that “trying to do
well and trying to beat others are two different things” (p.55), which supports the stand
taken in this thesis. Furthermore, Austin (1990) points to a possible hidden agenda that
may be present in music educators that are predisposed toward a competitive framework
when he says:
Competition oriented teachers tend to view students in a dichotomous fashion
(low ability or high ability) and often gear their efforts toward validating their
own egos rather than toward accomplishing educational goals. They invest a
majority of instructional time in high-ability students who, from the teacher‟s
perspective, represent the ticket to competitive success. Because these teachers
focus on maintaining a performance image rather than on employing specific
instructional strategies to help students improve, low achievers find themselves
trapped in a catch-22 situation - neither talented enough to help the teacher‟s
cause nor equipped with the tools for progress. (p.24)
27
Therefore, negative effects of competition are not a recent assumption, but have
created a genuine concern in the minds of educators and scholars for quite a while
(Austin, 1988; Kohn, 1993; R. E. Miller, 1994, 1995; Schoene, et al., 1995).
The selection of a winner is the end-result of any competitive event with the
primary objective of each participant being to win. The winning status can only be
attributed to one person during this event. This inevitably results in consistently
producing a larger number of losers in comparison to winners. Thus, the dynamics of
competition possess an in-built bias toward sifting out a winner from the rest of the
group, who will automatically be assigned to the status of losers. Such was the concern
voiced by leading education psychologist Martin Maehr, in his presentation at the third
session of the Ann Arbor Symposium on Motivation and Creativity in 1983, where he
was quoted by Austin (1990) to have said the following:
There is a tendency in music education to place elites and regulars on the same
track, designing the system in such a way that most would inevitably fall by the
wayside with only the cream of the crop surviving. Competitions, contest and
recitals all seem to revolve around that end…. One does not create enduring
motivational patterns by showing people that they are incompetent. Insofar as an
activity is structured to do that, it will be a motivational failure for the large
majority of the participants. (p.23)
The above statement suggests that if students who are better ranked in the
competition were better musicians to start with, then success in a competition may add
no real educational value for these students, as the purpose of competition is to only sift
out the “cream of the crop.” Furthermore, findings from a meta-analysis by Deci,
Koestner & Ryan (2001) on the relationship between extrinsic rewards and intrinsic
motivation conclude that “...expected tangible rewards did significantly and
28
substantially undermine intrinsic motivation...” (p. 15). Such a view continues to be
maintained and was recently expanded by Deci and Ryan (2008) with further
consideration being given to assist in generating optimal motivation across various
domains in life from education to health as well as parenting, sports and relationships.
Other studies were also found within this area which continues to support the
importance in promoting intrinsic motivation as “the attainment of an intrinsic rather
than an extrinsic goal promotes deeper processing of the learning material, greater
conceptual understanding of it, and both short-term and long-term persistence at
relevant learning tasks” (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006, p. 28). Within the context
of instrumental music, Schmidt (2005) also found that “students responded best to the
intrinsic and cooperative aspects of instrumental music, rather than its extrinsic or
competitive aspects” (p.144). This was further reinforced by another study specific to
performing arts students, where intrinsic goals, such as having a deep sense of
enjoyment for the music while performing, produced a more positive outcome than that
of the other more traditional goals based on achievement (Lacaille, Koestner, &
Gaudreau, 2007).
Therefore, by perceiving the virtues of excellence through winning as a source of
motivation for the student, it would appear that there is a body of work on motivational
research where the results run contrary to such assumptions. In other words,
competition does not necessarily produce the benefits claimed by its supporters.
Furthermore, it appears that not only can competition produce detrimental effects, but
also that the claimed benefits themselves may well have been wrongly perceived.
Issues of Music Assessments and Creativity
Unlike a sporting event where the criteria used in determining the outcome of any
game are based on a set of clearly defined and tangible rules, the parameters used in
29
identifying the winning performance in music cannot be universally determined due to
the more intangible qualities that surround a music performance.
The assessment of a musical performance hinges on several aspects ranging from
the technical such as accuracy of rhythm, intonation, articulation or dynamics to the
aesthetic dimensions such as the interpretation of style and expression of music. Whilst
the technical categories may be somewhat easy to rank, the aesthetic and creative
components are often more difficult to assess due to factors such as individual
preferences and personal interpretations afforded by the performer. Therefore, the
judging of a musical performance is likely to be laden with inconsistencies. However,
even when the notion of the best music performance is not quantifiable by any
commonly accepted benchmark, it remains a requirement that a mark or grading be
given during the assessment of a music performance. In an attempt to address such an
issue, specific categories are often set-up to assist in enhancing the objectivity of the
outcome, and to provide structure to the assessment process. However, Swanwick
(1998) makes the point that even when such measures are put in place, the issue of
accurately measuring a performance can still persist. He explains how such
inaccuracies can result:
…it does not make sense to identify several different dimensions and assess them
giving a separate mark for each – say for technique, expressiveness and stylistic
awareness – adding them up to a single figure. When we conflate several
observations we lose a lot of information on the way. For instance, in competitive
ice-skating one performer might be given six out of ten for technique and nine for
artistry, while another contender gets nine for technique and six for artistry. The
sum of each set of marks happens to be the same – 15 – but the actual
performances will be quite different. (p.6)
30
As such, the many intangible aspects inherent within any creative endeavour
make the assessment of an event such as a musical performance an arduous task. From
over a decade ago, McPherson & Thompson‟s (1998) review of the research literature
identified the issues and influences surrounding music performance assessment,
pointing to the inherent difficulties that lie in this area. They concluded by drawing
attention to pertinent questions regarding inter and intra-judge reliability showing how
these issues, “plus a host of others remain unanswered despite 30 years of research in
this area” (p.22). Following on from that, a re-examination of this topic by McPherson
and Schubert (2004) identified further areas through the use of the cognitive
psychological model known as the “Johari” window, to bring attention to other areas of
complexities that may be contributing to generating flaws in the assessment process of a
music performance.
Based on the cognitive psychological model known as the Johari window created
by Luft and Ingham in 1955, the four areas of interaction between the performer,
audience and adjudicator, which were termed public, blind, secret and hidden, were
used to point out how these further areas can also affect the assessment of a music
performance. In such a model, the public area refers to anything overtly known to both
the performer and the adjudicator such as the musical values of technique, interpretation
or feedback given about the performance. However, awareness in relation to the three
other areas of blind, secret and hidden may also contribute to influencing the final
assessment of the performance and is often not realized due to the covert nature of how
these elements function. Figure 2 displays examples provided by McPherson and
Schubert, of elements that are contained within each of these three areas. The arrows
extending outward from the public area is a graphical representation of the hope that
more attention be given to the public area in relation to the other three areas of the
Johari window model during the assessment of a music performance, thus lessening the
31
possibility of incurring further errors in the adjudication process from the other three
areas.
Figure 2 The Johari Window Model
An example of a study involving the hidden aspects of a performance can be
found in an analysis conducted by Glejser & Heyndels (2001). This study was based on
(Adapted from McPherson and Schubert, 2004 p.76)
32
all piano and violin contests between the period 1956-1999 from the Queen Elisabeth
Contest held in Brussels, considered to be one of the most prestigious in classical music.
The findings concluded that strong evidence of bias was found within the competition
itself. For example, one of the biases listed in the findings of this analysis is that
contestants performing recently composed concertos were often ranked higher than
those who chose to perform the better-known repertoire of the great classics. Similarly,
the identification of other biases that pertain to the three areas of blind, secret and
hidden such as the order of players, performer attractiveness as well as various other
music performance variables have also been considered in other studies (Ryan & Costa-
Giomi, 2004; Ryan, Wapnick, Lacaille, & Darrow, 2006; Wapnick, Mazza, & Darrow,
2000). All of the above examples reinforce the covert aspects of the assessment
structure based on the Johari window model as outlined by McPherson and Schubert.
It would seem that music performance assessment procedures are laden with
issues of reliability and contain an element of uncertainty as well as ambiguity.
Inaccuracies in the assessment of music performances are still being noted (Newman,
2008). Therefore, this raises the question of whether music students performing in a
music competition are receiving a fair assessment of their ability.
Performance Related Injuries
The high incidence of performance related medical issues amongst professional
musicians have been noted in several studies (Brandfonbrener, 1990; James, 2000;
Parry & Christopher, 2004). Well-known figures such as Leon Fleisher and Gary
Graffman are examples of artists who have suffered from injuries associated with the
performing of their musical instrument. Furthermore, the development of “performing
arts medicine” as an area of research, provides a sense of acknowledgement and
recognition for how such injuries experienced by musicians are a source of distress
33
affecting performing artists. All of the above indicate that physical and emotional
injuries sustained by musicians performing a musical instrument are very real.
Upon the identification of medical issues relating to the performing arts in the
early 1990s, awareness for the prevention of such injuries continues to be promoted
(Berenson, 2005; Guptill & Zaza, 2010; Williamon & Thompson, 2006). For example,
courses relating to performance wellness are becoming part of the music performance
students‟ education at the tertiary level. This is to heighten student awareness relating
to injuries both physical and psychological that are associated with performing a
musical instrument. Also, journal publications on topics relating to performing arts
medicine such as the Medical Problems for Performing Artists and International
Journal of Arts Medicine are now a basic resource found in databases of many tertiary
institutions. Such research demonstrates a growing interest in the development of
knowledge in this area. Therefore, these debilitating injuries sustained by musicians are
being addressed. However, according to Grant (2008) the “ongoing lack of effective
and across-the-board mechanisms to prevent and manage injury within Australian
tertiary music institutions is striking” (p.2). Also, a recent study investigating the
prevalence of playing-related musculoskeletal disorder amongst the majority of piano
players in Western Australia found that 42% out of the 505 participants surveyed
reported experiencing some form of performance related disorder (Allsop, 2008, p. 70).
Therefore, although medical researchers have demonstrated much concern and
awareness for the physical injuries sustained by musicians, it appears that music
performance students in Australia may not be sufficiently informed in terms of the
management of such issues. It may be possible that the lack of awareness and
understanding of such issues is a result of the current competitive practices of MPE,
where emphasis on achievement may be compromising students‟ physical well-being.
34
High frequencies of performance-related impairments have been linked to a
number of causes, one of which is the virtuoso world of the performing artist aspired to
by young musicians (Blackie, Stone, & Tiernan, 1999). Such an aspiration is witnessed
through the constant participation in demanding music competitions. Typically, music
competitions are known to act as a stepping-stone for young performers seeking their
dream of attaining the virtuoso status. In striving to realize such a dream, young
performers often experience high levels of emotional and physical stress brought on by
the competitive environment of music competitions. During these competitive events,
these young performers are often required to produce note-perfect performances through
demanding repertoire, requiring an extended amount of practice time involving constant
repetition of passages of music. Research into performance related disorder has linked
such intense levels of demand and practice, with an emphasis on speed and accuracy, as
a cause of musculoskeletal disorders affecting these elite musicians (Bragge, 2006;
Ostwald, Baron, Byl, & Wilson, 1994).
Medical issues of performing artists caused by physical and emotional stresses
linked to music competitions, provide very tangible evidence of the negative effects
caused by the competitive music culture found in the current practices of MPE. Given
that such competitive practices are likely to produce negative effects on the health of the
music performer, it would be educationally imprudent for educators to continually
subject music performance students to such competitive practices without some means
of recourse. As such, current assumptions regarding the positive benefits generated by a
competitive structure in the current practices of MPE warrants reconsideration.
As will be demonstrated, when students become more aware of what it means to
align themselves with greater depth of meaning and appreciation for the music that they
are performing, they seem better able to approach a competitive situation with less
stress, thus reducing the negative effects associated with performing during a music
35
competition. Therefore, by integrating the Einsteinian approach into MPE, it is hoped
that music performance students can learn to rebalance their competitive mindset to
assist them in softening the detrimental effects linked to the stresses of music
competitions.
Music Education Philosophies and Ideals, and Outcomes of MPE
The current practices found within MPE are highly competitive, as has been
shown. Under such competitive conditions, it has been observed that students tend to
focus on the end result of the activity. For example, during the annual orchestral
placement audition, students are continually vying for the position of the first desk.
Similarly, while performing during a music competition, students are likely to have their
goals set on attaining the first prize. Also, during a music performance examination,
students continue to focus and strive for the „A‟ grading. In other words, the current
competitive practices of MPE encourage students to value an outcome-oriented
approach. In each case, when value is placed on the end-result of the music activity,
consideration for developing a deeper appreciation for the music being performed is
likely to be compromised. In such an instance, the priority of the student is to win or
attain a high grade. Therefore, the current competitive practice of MPE is likely to steer
students away from developing a deeper and more meaningful approach to performing
music.
As will be explained in the following section, the two main philosophies of
music education, that of music education as aesthetic education and the praxial
approach to music education, also work on the premise that is based on an outcome.
However, the concept of an outcome, as envisaged in these two philosophical pillars of
music education, differs from that of outcomes that are based on a competition driven
music performance culture.
36
Music Education Philosophies
The on-going debates and discussions of the two major philosophical
perspectives in the field of music education, that of Reimer‟s (1970) music education as
aesthetic education and Elliot‟s (1995) praxial philosophy of music education, are well
documented (Alperson, 1991; Daugherty, 1996; Goble, 2003; Koopman, 1998;
Panaiotidi, 2003; Plummeridge, 1999; Westerlund, 2003). Burnsed (1999) makes the
distinction between these two main philosophical pillars in music education by pointing
to how music as aesthetic education is essentially to do with “[knowing] about
something” while the praxial approach is about “[knowing] how to do something” (p.5).
In considering music education as aesthetic education, music educators are
encouraged to develop students‟ aesthetic sensitivities to music. Acts of perceiving and
reacting to music are central in developing such sensitivities that inevitably tap into
students‟ ability to engage with spheres relating to their imagination, expression and
emotional reactions. Therefore, such a philosophy aims at capturing the importance of
attending to music as it is occurring. In Reimer‟s own words, “aesthetic education can
be taken to symbolize a process rather than an entity” (Reimer, 1991, p. 213). On the
other hand, the praxial approach concerns itself with finding musical meaning whilst
engaging directly with the act of performing music. Furthering this concept, Elliott
(1995, p. 40) even goes as far as developing the term musicing thus making music a
verb. In detailing the philosophical principles of a praxial approach, Elliott makes
steady references to Csikszentmihalyi‟s (1990) concept of “flow.” Briefly stated, the
concept referred to as flow is an experiential mental state, which occurs when a person
becomes deeply engaged with the present moment. In gravitating toward such concepts
as “flow” and generating terms such as musicing, there is a sense that Elliott is placing
emphasis on the process of music making. Therefore, even when the two philosophical
37
perspectives of Reimer and Elliot differ to one another, the central premise of both these
philosophies attends primarily to the processes involved in music learning.
In giving emphasis to process, needless to say, resulting outcomes are still
important to consider. For example, in learning to appreciate music for its aesthetic
qualities, the outcome is to gain deeper appreciation for the music itself. Similarly,
although Elliot places emphasis on a praxial approach to music education, performing
music results in producing a performance as an outcome. Therefore, in both cases, a
product is produced at the end of the learning process, which is musical in content. This
is also true, for example, of the music composer, who produces a piece of composition
as an outcome of the process of composing. In other words, the two major philosophies
of music education engages in a process which looks toward producing a musical
product as an outcome; be it a written piece of music, as in the case of a composer, a
musical performance in the case of the praxialist or gaining a deep sense of appreciation
for the music through the act of listening, in the case of the aesthetician, a musical
outcome results. However, the outcome of a competition driven music culture results in
focussing on “winning” as an outcome. Music education outcomes are never about
winning. Instead, music education outcomes are concerned with the development of the
musician in order to produce a musical product. In other words, music education is
about educating for a musical outcome and not about educating to “win.” Reinforcing
this notion, it should also be noted that the word “winning” or “win” cannot be found in
the definition and rationale provided by the Curriculum Council of Western Australia in
the Learning Area Statement for The Arts (Government of Western Australia, 1998).
Therefore, contrary to the desired practices of music education, the competition driven
environment of MPE instills in the music performance student the notion of “stardom”
and “winning,” instead of a search for greater depth and meaning in the music that they
are performing.
38
While it is important to have an attitude of wanting to achieve in the different
stages of development as a musician, it is likely that the drive to “win” can lead to an
unbalanced educational outcome for the music performance student. Therefore, as
already mentioned, given the highly competitive structures that are embedded in the
current practices of MPE, a rebalancing of perspective may be useful. It is hoped that
this study can provide the stakeholders involved with a new perspective to address the
imbalance in the way MPE is currently practised.
As the current competitive practices of MPE lean toward emphasizing
“winning” as an outcome while the aim of music education is to produce well-rounded
musicians, it would appear that the philosophy of music education and the current
practices of MPE are mismatched at this point. A further incongruence can also be
found between the current practices of MPE, and the ideals espoused by scholars of
music education. The following section will outline the presence of such incongruence.
MPE and Music Education Ideals
The winner of a music competition is generally regarded as being “special”
compared to the rest of the competitors. Such a perspective is likely to encourage the
audience to perceive music as being an elitist art, reserved only for the talented few,
thus tending toward the notion of exclusivity. However, the ideals of music education,
as endorsed by distinguished music scholars are at odds with such a perspective, as
ideals put forth by music scholars are fundamentally inclusive by nature.
A broad perspective in important matters relating to music education can be
found in Jorgensen‟s book entitled Transforming Music Education, where she seeks an
all encompassing approach to music education. She finds that this may be possible
through a transformation of music education to one that “respects and listens to the
other and draws on reason, intuition, imagination and feeling” with the hope to “create
a space where many voices heretofore silenced can be heard” (2003, p. 18). Such a
39
wide-ranging invitation toward facilitating greater development and understanding
within music education ideals clearly demonstrates an inclusive outlook.
Another instance of an ideal in music education which aims to include rather
than exclude can be seen in Regelski‟s (2005) notion of music as praxis.2 The notion of
praxis as proposed by Regelski, grounds itself in the pragmatic criterion which attends
to the importance of “making a difference” in its application. In explaining this, he says
the following:
Basic to the idea of pragmatism is that value and meaning are seen in the actual
(or at least potential) difference made when whatever is at stake is actually put to
use – for example, a thing, idea, theory, hypothesis, claim or supposition.
(Regelski, 2005, p. 7)
In proposing such an outlook, the long-established premise that the classical
music tradition is superior to that of pop music is questioned by Regelski. He insists
that “distinguishing „musicians‟ as trained professionals from „amateur‟ enthusiasts as
dilettantes or dabblers will no longer do” (Regelski, 2007, p. 26). Here, Regelski is
stressing the importance of giving credence to the value and meaning found solely
through the activity of music-making itself. This view acknowledges the validity of the
musical process and experience as being of value and meaning to whomever engages
with music. As such, he aims to restore an equal standing to the activity of music
making by placing the amateur musician on the same level as the professional music
performer. Thus, in eliminating the distinction between the amateur and professional
musician, Regelski is exhibiting an inclusive approach in his ideals about music
performance. Therefore, the ideals espoused by distinguished scholars of music
2 The similarities and differences to Elliott‟s perspectives of praxis will not be covered in this
thesis but can be found in a discussion by Goble (2003).
40
education appear to be at variance to the ideals of a competition driven music culture of
MPE, which tends to promote an exclusive outlook.
Efforts made by ethnomusicologists to restore the division between Art music
and Folk music is another example of an inclusive ideal found echoing as far back as
nearly half a century ago (Jones, 1962). In a short article advocating a multicultural
approach to music education, Dodds (1983) makes the point that “[although] music is
not an international language, it is a universal medium of expression for the deepest
feelings and aspirations that belong to all humanity.” He concludes his article by saying
that “music is not just an art to be practised within the education of a multicultural
society. It is in itself, a truly multicultural education” (p.33-34). Once again,
importance is placed on promoting a musical ideal that is inclusive, as opposed to
exclusive. Such inclusivity is still evident today from Stobart‟s (2008) collection of
essays on ethnomusicology. For example, in Chapter 2, Cook (2008) continues to call
for a blending of historical musicology and ethnomusicology (p.61) thus emphasizing a
more interdisciplinary approach. In Chapter 5, the title chosen by Baily (2008),
Ethnomusicology, Intermusalibity, Performance Practice showcases the coming
together of scholarship and music performance, highlighting the importance of the
integration between these two areas in ethnomusicology. Also, the emphasis to connect
with e-fieldwork by Wood (2008) in Chapter 7 demonstrates the inclusion of current
technological advancement into the discipline of ethnomusicology. Thus, it is evident
that the contemporary views of ethnomusicology seen through the collection of essays
by Stobart (2008) show a continued emphasis on a broadening of the discipline to
include rather than exclude other areas of study. Thus, the sentiment of inclusivity
echoed from the previous generation of ethnomusicologists continues into the present
century. Such inclusive ideals also continue to be fostered through international music
bodies such the International Society for Music Education, where its vision and mission
41
statement aims to be all-embracive in relation to the music community of educators and
participants (International Society for Music Education, 2010). Therefore, the ideals
held by eminent scholars of music tend to be inclusive by nature as opposed to the
current practices of MPE, which encourage music to be perceived as being exclusively
seated within the grasp of the talented few. Furthermore, researchers in the area of
giftedness and talent are gradually discrediting such a notion.
The notion of giftedness and talent is often associated with performers of music.
According to Haroutounian (2002), “prodigies occur most often in the field of music,
exceeding the total of all other fields combined” (p.86). However, counter-arguments
for talents have been demonstrated by Howe, Davidson & Sloboda (1998) suggesting
that the real determinants of giftedness and talent result from various elements such as
habits, training, practice, differences in early experiences and opportunities. This is
further reinforced by the analysis of expert performance, which attributes the role of
deliberate practice based on a minimum of 10,000 hours (over an approximately 10 year
period) to be the contributing factor to the presence of talent (Ericsson, 2006; Ericsson,
Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993; Ericsson & Lehmann, 1996). Therefore, researchers in
the field of music performance have already begun building an argument toward
demystifying the role of talent in music. However, within Australia, the current
perception of music as being reserved for the gifted and talented still persists. A range
of responses gathered from the stakeholders of music in the recent National Review of
Australian School Music Education (Pascoe et al., 2007) found that, “…music is still
not seen and considered as a core part of the curriculum, but instead a „frill‟; some see it
as extracurricular or non-essential or only for those with gifts and talents in music”
(p.107). Therefore, a disparity is apparent between the ideals of music education and
the current practices of MPE.
42
In summary, the first part of this literature review considered the values resulting
from a competition driven mindset evidenced through the current practices of MPE.
Issues of performance assessment and creativity were also considered. The review
noted the various inconsistencies and ambiguity underlying the music assessment
process. Major benefits such as excellence and added motivation as a result of
competitive structures, were also discussed. It was posited that these claimed benefits
made by music educators who support the notion of competition in music, may well
have been wrongly perceived. The importance of understanding how performance
related injuries are linked to competition was also examined. The chapter concludes by
showing how the current competitive culture of MPE is mismatched with the main
philosophies of music education and the ideals held by distinguished scholars and
educators of music.
43
CHAPTER 3
A REVIEW OF THE RELEVANT LITERATURE (PART 2)
This chapter provides the second part of a review of literature that is relevant to
this study. The areas considered are as follows: A review of the literature on affective
education and relevant literature on Einstein‟s humanistic and philosophical thoughts
based on his non-scientific writings.
Literature on Affective Education
Affective education has been subjected to hostile debates in the past (Armer,
Yeargan, & Hannah, 1977). Even when educators were supportive of the inclusion of
such an approach into education, the lack of clarity in terms of a definition as to what an
affective education means, resulted in a less than warm reception (Heath, 1972).
However, educators in favour of such an approach believed that affective education
forms an important part of the child‟s overall education in terms of offering a more
complete and holistic approach to the learning experience (J. P. Miller, 1976).
Literature on affective education from the 1980s and the 1990s (Combs, 1982;
Cove & Love, 1995; Elias et al., 1997; Newberg & Loue, 1982) has generally taken the
perspective that affective education is important. In the present decade, affective
education is not only considered important, but essential to the education of the whole
child (Cohen, 2006; Devaney, O'Brien, Tavegia, & Resnik, 2005; Ragozzino, Resnik,
Utne-O' Brien, & Weissberg, 2003; Weare, 1999). In addition, positive findings from
an expanding body of research literature in the area of affective education reinforce the
important role affective education plays in our schools today (Payton et al., 2008; Zins
& Elias, 2006; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004).
44
What is Affective Education?
Affective education is often referred to in the literature as “social and emotional
learning.” In the forward to the monograph published in partnership with the
Association of Teacher Educators3, the Affective Education Commission Resolution of
February 2006 states that, “affective education seeks to enhance students‟ growth in
attitudes, interests, character, values and other areas within the social-emotional
domain” (LeBlanc & Gallavan, 2009). In contrast to how affective education is
generally practised through programs such as moral education, character education,
conflict resolution, social skills development or self-awareness, the mandate provides a
list of six statements in terms of how affection education needs to be practised. These
have been assembled and reproduced in Table 1.
Table 1
Affective Education Statements by the Affective Education Commission
1. We believe that teacher education programs should impart the knowledge, skills,
and dispositions that all educators need for affective education, in support of state
and national standards.
2. We believe that development of the knowledge, skills, and dispositions is a process
that requires support at all levels within the cultural milieu.
3. We believe that modeling the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of affective
education must be provided by teacher educators who demonstrate a high
commitment to the education of the whole person, in the cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor domains.
4. We believe that affective education is manifested through formal and informal
actions and interactions evident in all content, process, and contexts essential for
teaching the whole child.
5. We believe that through attentive practice and reflection, educators should employ
prosocial affective characteristics and curriculum, including but not limited to:
respect, responsibility, flexibility, resiliency, collaboration, commitment, self-
awareness, and self-efficacy.
6. We believe that quantitative and qualitative assessment of affective knowledge,
dispositions, and skills must occur in real world settings.
(Adapted from Affective teacher education p. xii, by P.R. Le Blanc & N. P. Gallavan,
2009, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.)
3 An individual membership organization, whose interests primarily centre on improvement of
teacher education at the secondary as well as tertiary levels in the United States.
45
The Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations of the
Australian Government (2005) has put forth the Stage 2 Final Report on the Values
Education Good Practice Schools Project, where ten principles of good practice were
identified. These have been assembled and reproduced in Table 2.
Table 2
Values Education Good Practice Schools Project, Stage 2 Final Report - Ten
Principles of Good Practice.
1. Establish and consistently use a common and shared values language across the
school.
2. Use pedagogies that are values-focused and student-centred within all
curriculum.
3. Develop values education as an integrated curriculum concept, rather than as a
program, an event or an addition to the curriculum.
4. Explicitly teach values so that students know what the values mean and how the
values are lived.
5. Implicitly model values and explicitly foster the modelling of values.
6. Develop relevant and engaging values approaches connected to local and global
contexts and which offer real opportunity for student agency.
7. Use values education to consciously foster intercultural understanding, social
cohesion and social inclusion.
8. Provide teachers with informed, sustained and targeted professional learning and
foster their professional collaborations.
9. Encourage teachers to take risks in their approaches to values education.
10. Gather and monitor data for continuous improvement in values education.
(Adapted from Australian Government, 2005)
Based on these two sets of statements proposed by the Affective Education
Commission and the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations
of the Australian Government respectively, there is a sense that affective education has
made a transition from being a values based education to be inculcated into the student,
to an education that calls for a deeper involvement of the self where such values can be
introduced and effected on a practical level. However, ways in which how such values
may be made more practical are often not considered or discussed. This study offers a
46
possible practical approach to how affective values based on Einstein‟s humanistic and
philosophical thinking into MPE may be used by the teacher and student.
As is well known, Maslow‟s (1970) hierarchy has contributed to the knowledge
and importance of how our development as a person constantly requires paying
attention to our affective self. Also, studies in the area of cognitive neuroscience have
begun establishing links between the two domains of cognition and emotion. According
to Phelps (2006), investigations into the neural systems demonstrate how the
“…mechanisms of emotion and cognition are intertwined from early perception to
reasoning…” suggesting that “…the classic division between the study of emotion and
cognition may be unrealistic and that an understanding of human cognition requires the
consideration of emotion” (p. 27).
Although much theoretical and research literature exists in the educational
domain which supports the notion that affective education is integral to the development
of the child, a search of the relevant databases show that no research has been conducted
to inquire into how affective variables, based on the perspective of this thesis, might
impact on high school music performance students. Therefore, it is hoped that the aim
of this research to investigate into how affective variables can be integrated into music
performance at the secondary school level, will be useful.
Literature on Affective Aspects in Music
There exists a body of literature on how music affects human emotions. This
area of study is known as “music and emotion” based on the seminal work of Leonard
Meyer in the 50s entitled Emotion and Meaning in Music (Meyer, 1956). This area of
study continues to develop significantly, led by researchers such as Juslin and Sloboda
who recently published A Handbook on Music and Emotion (2010). In addition, the
Special Interest Research Group of the National Association for Music Education has
dedicated a section to Affective Response, in recognition of its relevance to music
47
education (The National Association for Music Education, 2011). All of these suggest
that literature involving affective aspects in relation to music forms an important corpus
in music education. However, although affective aspects are considered to be
important, affective studies are less prominent, when compared to the literature on
cognitive-behavioural aspects in music education. This was noted in the National
Association for Music Education MENC Handbook of Musical Cognition and
Development which states how “emotions in general (or, more broadly, affective
response) are difficult to study and much less emotion research has been done than
cognition research” (Colwell, 2006, p. 23).
The research literature in the area of music performance reflects a similar result
where affective studies are less prominent than research involving cognitive aspects.
Early in the new millennium, Gabrielsson (2003) took on the task of reviewing
approximately 200 papers between the years 1995-2002 on research that was conducted
in the area of music performance. The organizational structure of the review comprised
ten different areas. These areas are as follows: Performance planning, sight-reading,
improvisation, feedback in performance, motor processes in performance,
measurements of performance, models of music performance, physical factors in music
performance, psychology of music performance and social factors of music
performance. In this review, Gabrielsson (2003) states that “measurement of
performance has dominated performance research” (p. 225). An earlier review
conducted by Palmer (1997) in relation to music performance research, concurred with
Gabrielsson in relation to the dominance of measurement in music performance
research. In his review, Gabrielsson outlines a possible connection of such dominance
stemming from the research interests of Carl Seashore (1927) in the 20s and 30s.
However, interest in measuring various parameters of music, although familiar to
researchers, is not necessarily known or easily understood by music educators. Further
48
search of the relevant databases between 2000-2010 identified a continuation of similar
research trends in the ten areas of music performance research as suggested by
Gabrielsson‟s (2003) review, apart from the growing interest in connection to
neuroscience, where investigations to do with understanding how the brain functions in
order to process music are becoming more evident (Meister et al., 2004; Parsons, 2001;
Peretz & Zatorre, 2005).
According to Gabrielsson (2003), the second highest area of research related to
music, next to measurement in music performance, is in the areas of psychology and
social factors. The review showed that 50% of research from these categories is
devoted to the area of music performance anxiety. A systematic review conducted by
Kenny (2005) in the research for treatments of music performance anxiety showed how
the dimensions in which the treatment was conducted were categorized into two broad
areas of psychological and pharmacological treatments. The psychological treatments
were contained within the behavioural, cognitive and cognitive-behavioural, combined
treatments and other therapies. However, according to Kenny (2005) the effectiveness
of these various treatments were found to be “fragmented, inconsistent and
methodologically weak” (p. 206). This reinforces an earlier critical review of current
research on music performance anxiety by Brodsky (1996). A more recent review of
the literature by Taborsky (2007) confirms that research within this area still lies
predominantly within the cognitive and behavioural aspects.
Thus, it appears that the literature in the two major areas of music performance
research demonstrate a predominance of studies being conducted on the cognitive and
behavioural aspects, with minimal consideration being given to affective variables. A
possible reason why research into the area of music performance anxiety has yet to
arrive at a satisfactory solution in addressing the issue of music performance anxiety
may be due to the fact that in dealing with the issue of performance anxiety,
49
considerations need to be placed beyond that of cognitive or behavioural aspects toward
the realm of affective variables.
As the importance of affect appears to be gaining recognition in the field of
psychology through various studies that demonstrate how affective techniques are more
potent and beneficial in facilitating changes than those geared at the cognitive level
alone (Goldfried, Castonguay, Hayes, Drozd, & Shapiro, 1997; Watson & Bedard,
2006; Watson & Rennie, 1994), it is possible that affective variables may also hold new
possibilities for further discoveries in the related areas of music performance research.
An overview of the theory and research within the three parameters of
expression, perception and induction of music and emotion, completed by Juslin &
Laukka (2004), found that studies in the area of music and emotion have been
considered primarily from the perspective of the musician within the controlled setting
of a laboratory and argued that emotional responses to music can be better understood
from a social context of the everyday listener. Thus, the literature on research into the
affective domain in the field of music and emotion investigates the effects of music on
the consumer of music, whether listener or performer. This differs significantly from
the goals of this research, which seeks to determine how affective variables may be used
as an intervention to assist the musician in their interaction with music. In other words,
the current trends of research in the field of music and emotion seeks to understand how
the consumer of music is affected by the music unlike this study, which seeks to
understand how affective variables may be used to assist in engaging the consumer of
music with the music, as a way to enhance their musical experience.
Affective Learning in Education
At the start of the new millennium, prominent educators such as Gardner (2000)
proposed an educational model calling on parents, educators and the general public to
look beyond standardized testing. Gardner (2000) believed that by encompassing an
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education that is based on a deep and meaningful understanding of the three principles
of “truth, beauty and goodness”, a more “humane” education could result. Examples of
how such an education might be realized were proposed, for example, through teaching
students three subjects revolving around the theory of evolution, music and through the
lessons of the Holocaust. These examples of how students might be educated aimed at
educating students to engage with deep and meaningful events.
Similarly, in the subject of Mathematics, educators have also considered a
humanistic approach as a means of engaging student with the subject in a more
meaningful manner. An application of a humanistic approach to teaching Mathematics,
as proposed by White (1993), was used by Haglund (2004) as a means of counteracting
the negative perceptions held by students of Mathematics. The study found such an
approach to effect student learning in a positive manner and suggests that, “perhaps if
humanistic methods were used throughout a child‟s Math education, fewer students
would leave school disliking Math or feeling that they „can‟t do Math‟ ” (p.14).
Therefore, the results of the research suggest that the application of the humanistic
approach to Mathematics was able to change students‟ attitude and perspective of the
subject in a positive way.
Exploration into the subject of spirituality in relation to music education is also
gaining interest as demonstrated in the writings of distinguished scholars such as
McCarthy (2009), Yob (2008), Boyce-Tillman (2006), Palmer (2004, 2006) and
Jorgensen (2003). In music performance, attempts to introduce affective concepts were
evidenced in Gordon‟s (2006) book entitled Mastering the Art of Performance in which
an aspect of a spiritual life is brought to the musician‟s attention. However, the
significance of such a concept is only hinted at intermittently throughout the book with
further consideration given as a postlude in his book. This gives a sense that such an
idea is still a novel consideration in the area of music performance.
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Affective Variables in Moral Education versus the Einsteinian Approach
This thesis employs three affective variables of gratitude, humility and wonder.
The definition of the first two variables of gratitude and humility are values generally
associated at some level with the domain of morality. Whilst this thesis adopts these
affective values as part of the Einsteinian approach, the manner in which this research
utilizes these concepts is distinctly different to how one would expect a moral education
class to teach these concepts. Firstly, as will be shown in the findings, a successful
application of the Einsteinian approach requires that no mention of these values be
made to the student. Instead, students are to be guided to arrive at these concepts
through self-discovery. This is unlike the expectations of a moral education class,
where values are often inculcated into students. Secondly, in this research, these
concepts serve to function as tools to facilitate students‟ ability to engage with a mental
presence that allow them to enhance their learning experience as a music performance
student. Therefore, these affective states are considered as actions. A detailed
description of how these concepts were used in the music classroom will be provided in
subsequent chapters.
Einstein’s Humanistic Thoughts
The idea to apply Einstein‟s humanistic and philosophical thoughts to MPE
originated from the reading of a collection of essays by Einstein entitled The World As I
See It (Einstein, 1956). Here, Einstein touches on several affective concepts, for
example, “peace” (p.43), “truth” (p.31) or his reference to “a cosmic religious feeling”
(p. 26-27) in relation to science and religion.
As mentioned, the three affective concepts chosen for application in this study are
gratitude, humility and wonder. These concepts were chosen as they were found to
occur repeatedly in his non-scientific writings. The concepts of humility and wonder
52
were often mentioned through a direct usage of the exact words, unlike the notion of
gratitude, which was only implied in his descriptive thoughts.
An understanding of how Einstein perceived these concepts were gained through
repeated readings and ruminations as Einstein did not provide any definition to these
concepts, and dictionary definitions were felt to be insufficient in explaining his
perception of these concepts. Over time, the accumulation of personal experiences
through practical applications of these concepts provided the researcher with further
understanding, which resulted in the formulation of an Einsteinian approach. The next
section will provide quotes on the three concepts found in Einstein‟s humanistic and
philosophical writings.
Gratitude
Passages such as these were interpreted as a demonstration of the notion of
gratitude contained within Einstein‟s thinking:
A hundred times every day I remind myself that my inner and outer life depend
on the labours of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order
to give in the same measure as I have received and am still receiving. (Einstein,
1956, p. 1)
In such a passage, Einstein demonstrates a deep sense of gratitude. Another
example of the concept of gratitude is found in an address given to schoolchildren:
Bear in mind that the wonderful things you learn in your schools are the work of
many generations, produced by enthusiastic effort and infinite labour in every
country of the world. All this is put into your hands as your inheritance in order
that you may receive it, honour it, add to it, and one day faithfully hand it on to
your children. Thus do we mortals achieve immortality in the permanent things
which we create in common.
53
If you always keep this in mind you will find a meaning in life and work
and acquire the right attitude toward other nations and ages. (Einstein, 1956, p.
23)
The New Oxford American dictionary defines the term gratitude as “the quality of
being thankful; readiness to show appreciation for and to return kindness.” Based on
this definition, it implies that two parties are involved - a giver and a receiver.
According to the dictionary definition, the notion of gratitude arises when an act
performed by the giver generates feelings of thankfulness in the receiver. Thankfulness
then results in the receiver expressing his appreciation in some form.
Typically, when students are asked to share their understanding of what the term
gratitude means to them, they would often say, “You have gratitude for a person when
they give you something, like a present.” Whilst students are not entirely wrong in their
perception of the concept, their understanding seems to be limited to the idea of
gratitude as receiving. Students‟ replies also suggest that their perception of gratitude
lies in the item received. Therefore, the item, being a gesture of appreciation for the
kindness received, becomes the point of gratitude for the student. The readings suggest,
however, that Einstein‟s notion of gratitude has to do with how it might be possible to
give back in return for having received, thus placing emphasis on the act of giving
instead of receiving. In other words, Einstein perceives the concept of gratitude as
repaying back, instead of being repaid.
The second difference between students‟ view of the notion of gratitude and that
of Einstein‟s lies in how gratitude is experienced. For example, it was observed that
students‟ ability to experience gratitude is based on an event that is directly related in
the present moment, prompting the student to feel gratitude, for example, “…when they
give you something, like a present.” However, for Einstein, a sense of gratitude
54
emerges when he considers how his life is dependent on “the labours of other men” and
through such a realization, feels gratitude, and looks to build upon what is already there.
In other words, Einstein‟s concept of gratitude is based on a lineal succession of past
events, and is not dependent on an act in the present moment.
Therefore, gratitude as experienced by students requires an event to occur in order
that they can be prompted to be in a state of gratitude. However, the writings of
Einstein suggest that for Einstein, gratitude is generated through deep reflection and
takes place from within the self. There is, thus, a significant difference between
Einstein‟s concept of gratitude and that of students in general.
Being in such a state of gratitude as perceived by Einstein requires that one sees
one‟s self as part of the whole. In seeing one‟s self as part of the whole, one becomes
aware of the interdependence that takes place in humanity and the important role played
by one and all. In gaining an understanding for the concept in such a manner, it is likely
for the importance of self to become less accentuated. As the importance of self
diminishes, the possibility for qualities associated with humbleness is more likely to
increase. Therefore, gratitude as perceived by Einstein was also felt to bear some
connection with the concept of humility at some level; a connection not typically
touched upon in dictionary definitions of the term.
Humility
An example of the concept of humility was found in a response to a letter from a
child in their sixth grade written on the 19th
January, 1936, asking whether scientists
pray and if so, what do they pray for, to which Einstein replied:
I have tried to respond to your question as simply as I could. Here is my answer.
Scientific research is based on the idea that everything that takes place is
determined by the laws of nature, and therefore this holds for the actions of
people. For this reason, a research scientist will hardly be inclined to believe the
55
events could be influenced by a prayer, i.e. by a wish addressed to a supernatural
Being.
However, it must be admitted that our actual knowledge of these laws is
only imperfect and fragmentary, so that, actually, the belief in the existence of
basic all-embracing laws in Nature also rests on a sort of faith. All the same this
faith has been largely justified so far by the success of scientific research.
But, on the other hand, everyone who is seriously involved in the pursuit of
science becomes convinced that a spirit is manifest in the laws of the Universe - a
spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our
modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a
religious feeling of a special sort, which is indeed quite different from the
religiosity of someone more naïve. (Einstein, et al., 1979, pp. 32-33)
Below are two further examples of the concept of humility quoted from Einstein‟s
non-scientific writings:
What I see in Nature is a magnificent structure that we can comprehend only very
imperfectly, and that must fill a thinking person with a feeling of humility.
(Einstein, et al., 1979, p. 39)
My religiosity consists of a humble admiration for the infinitely superior
spirit that reveals itself in the little that we, with our weak and transitory
understanding, can comprehend of reality. (Einstein, et al., 1979, p. 66)
The New Oxford American Dictionary defines the term humility as “a modest or
low view of one‟s own importance.” While such a sentiment can be detected through
Einstein‟s writings, more importantly, it was felt that Einstein‟s understanding of
humility demonstrated a thinking that projected a sense of respect and an openness to
the possibilities that exists beyond his current comprehension of the universe that we
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live in. Therefore, Einstein‟s concept of humility extends beyond that of simply
viewing oneself in a modest light. Instead, Einstein‟s concept of humility extends
toward encompassing a sense of deep reverence.
Wonder
Wonder was a concept that was often found present within Einstein‟s
thinking along with that of “awe” and a sense of “mystery.” Below are some examples
of such thinking.
The religious feeling engendered by experiencing a logical comprehensibility of
profound interrelations is often a somewhat different sort from the feeling that
one usually calls religious. It is more a feeling of awe in a scheme that is
manifested in the material universe. (Einstein, et al., 1979)
A letter written by Einstein to his friend, Dr. Otto Juliusburger, on 29 September
1947, captures the concept of “mystery.”
I hear from several friends that these days you are celebrating - I can hardly
believe it possible! - your eightieth birthday. People like you and me, though
mortal, of course, like everyone else, do not grow old no matter how long we live.
What I mean is that we never cease to stand like curious children before the great
Mystery into which we are born. This interposes a distance between us and all
that is unsatisfactory in the human sphere - and this is no small matter. (Einstein,
et al., 1979, p. 82)
Further quotes on the notion of wonder were found in Calaprice‟s (2000) The
Expanded Quotable Einstein. The first two examples below reveal a sense of wonder,
which was found to have often occupied Einstein‟s thoughts:
57
The development of that mental world (Gedankenwelt) is a continual flight from
“wonder.” I experienced such a wonder when my father showed me a compass
and the age of four or five. (p.21)
The ordinary adult never gives a thought to space-time problems… I, on the
contrary, developed so slowly that I did not begin to wonder about space and time
until I was an adult. I then delved more deeply into the problem than any other
adult or child would have done. (p.21)
In engaging with the activity of imagination, a sense of wonder is often involved.
In the following quote, Einstein talks about how important imagination was to him:
When I examine myself and my methods of thought, I come close to the
conclusion that the gift of my imagination has meant more to me than my talent
for absorbing absolute knowledge. (Calaprice, 2000, p. 21)
Einstein‟s constant questioning and conjecturing about the universe is another
way in which a sense of wonder is projected:
What really interests me is whether God could have created the world any
differently; in other words, whether the demand for logical simplicity leaves any
freedom at all. (Calaprice, 2000, p. 221)
Curiosity was interpreted as being a variation to the concept of wonder. Below is
a quote of Einstein, which again demonstrates a sense of wonder:
The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for
existing. One cannot help but be in awe when one contemplates the mysteries of
eternity, of life, of the marvellous structure of reality. It is enough if one tries to
58
comprehend only a little of this mystery every day. (Calaprice, 2000, pp. 280-
281)
Here is another reference to the notion of wonder, demonstrating how strongly he
felt about the importance of the concept of wonder:
The fairest thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the fundamental
emotion that stands at the cradle of true art and true science. He who does not
know it and can no longer wonder, no longer feel amazement, is as good as dead,
a snuffed-out candle. (Calaprice, 2000, p. 295)
A final example of the concept of wonder taken from the autobiographical notes
in Schilpp‟s (1949) Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist:
I have no doubt that our thinking goes on for the most part without the use of
signs (words), and, furthermore, largely unconsciously. For how, otherwise,
should it happen that sometimes we wonder quite spontaneously about some
experience? This wondering appears to occur when an experience comes into
conflict with a world of concepts effect these already sufficiently fixed within
us… The development of the world of thinking is in effect a continual flight from
wonder. (p. 302)
The various sources from which the above quotes were obtained, were gathered
from many different stages of Einstein‟s life. As these concepts were found to be
present in his thinking at various times of his life, this suggests that concepts such as
gratitude, humility and wonder were an innate part of Einstein‟s thinking.
As explained, the concepts of gratitude and humility as perceived by Einstein,
invite the view that one is part of the continuum of a whole, thus tending toward
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diminishing the importance of self. In competition, the opposite occurs where the self
becomes important, as in aiming to win, the importance in standing out and being
different to others is accentuated. Therefore, the integration of these affective concepts
may be useful in trying to rebalance the competitive mindset of high school music
performance students.
Of the three affective concepts highlighted in this literature review, gratitude has
captured the attention of contemporary scholars (Emmons & McCullough, 2004) where
the many dimensions of the concept have been theorised and discussed. Also, the
exploration of the effects of gratitude on the social development of the adolescent by
Froh, Bono and Emmons (2010) shows how gratitude can be a powerful agent in
promoting positive outcomes. Studies in the physiology of emotions (Arguelles,
McCraty, & Rees, 2003; McCraty & Childre, 2002) conducted in conjunction with the
HeartMath Research Centre, also demonstrate another instance of the positive effects
gained from the application of gratitude. In addition, the June issue of the Oxford
Review of Education (2009) published as a special edition, featured a range of
discussion topics related to the affective domain in education. Therefore, the
developing contemporary interest in affective concepts warrants the attention of music
performance educators to further examine how affective concepts can be integrated into
music performance education, which is the aim of this thesis.
The last two chapters reviewed literature relevant to this thesis. Chapter 2
considered literature in relation to competition in music and the various key issues
associated to competition such as performance assessments, performance related
injuries and the philosophy and ideals of music education. Chapter 3 considered
literature in relation to Einstein‟s humanistic and philosophical approaches to thinking
based on his non-scientific writings that pertain to the Einsteinian approach. Affective
education and values education in general were also reviewed in Chapter 3. The next
60
chapter provides the method used in this research, sources of data collection along with
the analytical process used in the research.
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CHAPTER 4
METHOD
This thesis is a qualitative piece of research based on the method of action
research from the perspective of a teacher-researcher. This chapter begins with a brief
overview of action research. Secondly, action research will be considered in relation to
music education research. Following this, the suitability in adopting action research as
a method in relation to this piece of research will be discussed. Sources of data
collection will be described and issues of ethics addressed. Finally, the data collection
procedure along with the analytical process used in the research will be outlined.
Overview of Action Research
The origin of the term action research is generally accredited to the seminal
work of the German-American social psychologist, Kurt Lewin in the 1940s. The
historical background to this is well documented (Adelman, 1993) with
acknowledgment of Lewin‟s influence being found in current publications of action
research (Barton, Stephens, & Haslett, 2009; David, 2008).
In general, action research as a research approach is showing renewed
popularity. In education, publications on action research continue to expand
(Greenwood & Levin, 2007; Hendricks, 2009; Kemmis, 2009; McNiff & Whitehead,
2009; Mertler, 2008; Schmuck, 2008; Somekh & Zeichner, 2009; Stringer, 2007;
Stringer, Christensen, & Baldwin, 2010; Tomal, 2010). A complete chapter was also
devoted to the various aspects of action research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005) in the
third edition of the Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research by Denzin & Lincoln
(2005). Furthermore, publications of action research from the perspective of a teacher-
researcher appear to have transitioned from a literature base that centred in justifying
the appropriateness of such a method in educational research (Cochran-Smith, 1990;
Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999, 1993) to that of reference materials in the form of
62
guidebooks (Altrichter, Feldman, Posch, & Somekh, 2008; G. L. Anderson, Herr, &
Nihlen, 2007; Herr & Anderson, 2005; Lankshear & Knobel, 2007; Mertler, 2008;
Reason & Bradbury, 2008; Taber, 2007) suggesting a growing usage and acceptance of
such a method among educators.
Within the tertiary sector, action research programs and networks continue to
broaden. The widening circle of influence in this area is reflected in the emergence of
centres such as the Collaborative Action Research Network in the UK, University of
Bath Centre for Action Research in Professional Practice, Cornell Participatory Action
Research Network, Deakin University School and the New Zealand Action Research
Network. These activities point toward an increasing acceptance and usage of action
research as a research method across a wide array of disciplines.
Action research exists in many forms. In a journal series launched in 2003
entitled Action Research, Dick (2004) provides a review on the various emerging trends
and themes that can be found within action research while Somekh & Zeichner (2009)
offer a more global perspective of the variety of ways in which action research is being
practised. Cassell & Johnson (2006) take on the challenge of explaining how the
variety of practices found within action research needs to be understood and argue that
such diversity is “not haphazard” but is instead, “an outcome of the varying knowledge
constituting assumptions which legitimize distinctive perspectives and action research
agendas” (p.808). However, despite the many forms that exist in action research, these
variations essentially revolve around a common theme involving the elements of
planning, action, observation and reflection, occurring in an iterative fashion. Figure 3
is a diagrammatical representation of the action research cycles as illustrated by
Coghlan and Brannick (2010).
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Figure 3 Action Research Cycles
Adapted from Coghlan and Brannick (2010) p.10
Despite the evidence of progress in action research as a movement, tension
between the concepts of action versus research within the backdrop of a positivistic
research paradigm is evident. In particular, the issues of validity and generalizability of
knowledge are often subjected to much contention (Checkland & Holwell, 2007;
Feldman, 2007; Schwalbach, 2003; Winter, 2002). However, in music education, Cain
(2010) points to the importance of acknowledging the possibility and potential that
exists within action research in generating knowledge that is capable of being
generalized. Ultimately, such debates and discussions allow for a critical engagement
with action research as a method thus demonstrating a growing strength of the method
within the community of action research scholars.
Music Education Research and Action Research
A review of music education research conducted within Australia at the start of
the millennium by Stevens (2000) points out that one of the common themes surfacing
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from music education research in Australia is for “the need of research to inform
practice” (p.64). Concerns for the lack of applicability of research findings to the daily
practice of music teaching, along with issues relating to the implementation of research
findings in the music profession have been echoed repeatedly by several music
educators from as far back as the early 1990s. For example, Asmus (1992) makes this
clear when he says that “Research fails, or has failed, to make contact with the day-to-
day work of the teacher” (p.33). In another article entitled Going from Incredible to
Credible, Edwards (1992) points out how “Research in music simply hasn‟t produced
enough useful information to merit the attention of practitioners” (pp.5-6). Therefore, it
appears that attention to usefulness in terms of the generation of information that is
applicable on a practical level to the music teaching profession has been an issue from
nearly two decades ago. Similarly, Australian music scholars have long voiced a
similar need in engaging teachers in classroom based-research in view of the knowledge
they hold of the real day-to-day issues that surround their teaching profession (van
Ernst, 1994).
A systematic review of the literature by Hemsley-Brown (2003) on the impact of
research within professional practice found that teachers scarcely use research findings
to inform their teaching profession. The review concludes that “teachers perceive
educational research to be quantitative in nature and frequently challenge the validity of
the research, arguing that their unique situations invalidate the application of its
findings” (Hemsley-Brown, 2003, p. 460). Such issues continue to persist into the
present times, as studies by music educators in several areas within the discipline
continue to emphasize the need and importance of the integration between theory and
practice (Ballantyne, 2007; Parsonage, Fadness, & Taylor, 2007; Rust, 2009).
Although no universal definition of action research has been reached, the
introductory chapter to the Handbook of Action Research by Reason and Bradbury
65
(2001), provides a working definition of action research. Here, action research is
defined as bringing together “…action and reflection, theory and practice, in
participation with others, in the precedent of practical solutions to issues of pressing
concern to people, and more generally the flourishing of individual persons and the
communities” (p.1). Based on this definition, it would appear that action research as a
method can provide a possible platform through which concerns for the rift that exists
between research findings and the implementation of the findings, as expressed by
music scholars and educators, can be addressed. However, despite the growing
attention that action research is now receiving, a content analysis of qualitative research
dissertations in music education between the years 1998 – 2002 conducted by Kantorski
and Stegman (2006), listed only four studies that utilized action research out of the 148
dissertations that were analysed. Similarly, a review of literature by Hartwig (2004)
located only three published papers of action research projects that were conducted
within the music classroom. A further search (as of March 27, 2011) of the following
relevant databases, namely Pro Quest Dissertations and Theses and Trove, using
keywords – action research and music classroom, found six other action research studies
which were conducted within the music classroom (Bernard, 2005; Campbell, 2005;
Djordjevic, 2007; Dudley, 2007; Hasty, 2009; Stone, 2009). It is hoped that the present
piece of action research will contribute positively in addressing the apparent imbalance
that is present and that the findings of this research, conducted within the context and
reality of day-to-day music classroom activities, can be useful to music educators who
may be considering the possibility of integrating affective approaches within MPE.
Relevance of Action Research to this Thesis
The selection of a method should ultimately reflect the need of the research
question. In other words, the function of a method is to serve that of the research
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question. Therefore, in deciding to employ action research as a method, careful
consideration was given to the goal of the central research question of this thesis.
In an overview of qualitative research approaches to music education, Bresler
(1995) writes that “If the central point of ethnography is culture and the central point of
phenomenology is lived experience, [then the central point of] action research is based
on the close interaction between practice, theory and change" (p.16). The central
question of this thesis was then considered in light of the three components of practice,
theory and change as highlighted by Bresler.
As mentioned, the central question of this thesis is:
How can an Einsteinian approach be incorporated into a competitively driven
music performance education culture at the secondary school level?
Practice
To question is to seek for an answer to something. The three customary ways in
which questions can be framed are by asking “what”, “why” or “how.” As such, each
of these modes of questioning carries with it an implication toward a particular
outcome. A question that seeks to ask why is ultimately looking for an explanation in
view of establishing a possible causal relationship, while a question that seeks to ask
what, is more conducive to producing explanatory or descriptive outcomes and a
question that seeks to ask how, carries with it implications of a process based procedural
outcome. In other words, the framing of the research question inquiring into how
something can be done requires a practical approach. Thus, the constant monitoring of
desired outcomes occurring through action and reflection becomes an important
component in the process of answering how questions. Through this process, the
application of an idea through practice is engendered.
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Theory
A relationship exists between question-types of what, why and how. What and
why questions are questions grounded in facts based on past or present events. For
example, when a what or why question is put forth, the outcome to these questions is
based on events past or present. The potential outcomes of these questions are based on
factual events that have already occurred, or are currently present. However, how
questions imply a procedural outcome contained within the notion of possibility, which
has no association to a past or present. In trying to establish an outcome to how
questions, the integration of what and why questions needs to take place. For example,
consider the activity of learning how to cook a new dish. By asking how of the cooking
process, one will inadvertently be also asking what questions at some point. For
example, a typical question might be, “What ingredients would I need in order to cook
this dish?” Further along the way, one might get curious and perhaps extend their
knowledge to learning why certain ingredients are needed in such exacting proportions.
Therefore, what and why questions are often subsets of how questions and are necessary
components in the answering of how questions.
Due to the nature of what and why questions revolving around predetermined
facts, it follows that in order to answer what or why questions, reflection is needed, as
the act of reflection is associated with an activity of pondering deeply on an event that
has already occurred. As what and why questions are subsets of how questions, the
process of reflection also plays an important role when how questions are being asked.
What and why questions also serve another important role once the how
questions have been established. Upon establishing the outcome to how questions, it is
then necessary to return once again to what and why questions in order to verify the
outcomes of the how question. Thus, the cyclical process takes place until a desired
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outcome to the how questions produce results. Therefore, this means that an iterative
process is built into how questions prior to arriving at an outcome.
Change
Because the central question of this thesis is a how question and based on the
premise that how questions are procedural, it follows that the framing of a how question
seeks to progress from point A to point B in order to effect change along the way.
Within the context of this research, the central research question seeks to create change
in relation to the issues that are occurring within MPE by developing an approach based
on Einstein‟s philosophical and humanistic thoughts. Therefore, the research question
seeks to create change through a practical approach, based on a series of progressive
cycles constantly referring back to what and why. Through practical applications and
reflections on what and why questions, planning is required, followed by action and
reflection, to effect change based on a possible theory.
To summarize the above discussion, concepts that stand out in answering how
questions are based on components that involve practice, reflection, action and
planning. These are the central features of the action research process. Thus, these
features, and therefore action research, are required in answering the how of the
research question.
Research Setting
This research was conducted within a private all-boys secondary high school
music classroom setting, situated in Perth, Western Australia. The research involved
two preliminary phases followed by two major cycles of actions research. The
preliminary phases of the research were a catalyst in framing the central research
question while the two cycles of actions research that followed were conducted in
search of answers to the research question.
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Preliminary Phases
The first phase of the preliminary study involved four instrumental students on a
one-to-one basis over the course of five weeks. The second phase of the preliminary
study took place within a classroom setting involving a total of 16 students from Years
10 and 11. Information gathered during the second phase of the preliminary study
served as a catalyst toward the formulation of the central research question.
Two Major Action Research Cycles
Upon formulating the central research question during the preliminary phases,
two major action research cycles followed to assist in answering the research question.
Both of the action research cycles took place within the classroom setting involving two
sets of music students at the Year 11 level, with Cycle 1 spanning over the course of
seven weeks involving four students and Cycle 2 held the following year, spanning over
the course of 18 weeks, involving five students.
In each of the preliminary phases as well as that of the two major action research
cycles, the participating student-base for each phase or cycle was drawn from a set of
new students who had no prior knowledge or experience in applying affective concepts
based on the Einsteinian approach within MPE. This was done to ensure that the
findings would accurately reflect the aim of the research question, which was to inquire
into how such an approach can be integrated within the music classroom setting. This
carries with it an in-built assumption that data collected needed to be based on students
who had no prior knowledge of such an approach. Table 3 provides a summary of the
action research setting as described above.
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Table 3
Summary Table of Action Research Setting
PRELIMINARY
(PHASE 1)
PRELIMINARY
(PHASE 2)
CYCLE 1 CYCLE 2
Instrumental
Student Setting
(5 weeks)
Classroom Setting
(4, 5 and 5 weeks
respectively)a
Classroom Setting
(7 weeks)
Classroom Setting
(18 weeks)
One-to-one
instrumental
students (4 students)
Phase 2a
Year 11 (4 students)
Phase 2b Year 10 (8 students)
Phase 2c Year 11 (4 students)
Year 11(4 students)
Year 11(5 students)
Note. aPhase 2a – Year 11 (held over 4 weeks), Phase 2b - Year 10 (held over 5 weeks) and
Phase 2c - Year 11 (held over 5 weeks)
Data Collection
For the action research project itself, there were three main sources of data – 54
in-class worksheets, 9 expanded worksheets, and two transcripts of audio recordings
and 14 DVD transcripts. In addition, three other types of data were collected to provide
added understanding. They were student emails, teacher-researcher journals and
informal observations. These additional sources of data were collected during the
preliminary phases of the research with teacher-researcher journals being maintained
throughout the entire action research. The teacher-researcher journals were re-read at
the end of each year and an annual summary was made of these journals to bring
together the main insights gained during the course of each research cycle.
In-Class Worksheets
In-class worksheets in this instance are instructional documents with questions
and workspace pre-prepared for students to assist them in the reflective process. In-
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class worksheets were an integral part of this research and were used in Cycles 1 and 2.
In-class worksheets were administered at the introduction of a new topic in relation to
the Einsteinian approach. This was done to allow students to explore, through
reflection, their thoughts about particular aspects in relation to the topic that they were
about to study. Typically students were given approximately 10 - 15 minutes of the
allocated class time to complete these in-class worksheets. A discussion would follow
to allow students to share their written responses. Sixteen in-class worksheets were
collected during Cycle 1 and 38 in-class worksheets during Cycle 2.
These in-class worksheets were designed with three main aims: Firstly, to allow
students an opportunity to explore and reflect on their present understanding of the
various topics in relation to the activity of music performance; second, to provide the
researcher a better understanding of students‟ perspectives about a given topic in the
activity of music performance, and third, to give voice to students by eliciting their
thoughts and opinions in relation to the topic being studied.
Expanded Worksheets
Two expanded worksheets were administered in Cycle 2. These worksheets
were structured in the form of journal reflections to be completed over a specified
period. Each worksheet focussed on one aspect of the Einsteinian approach: The first
expanded worksheet focussed on gratitude and the second expanded worksheet focussed
on humility. These expanded worksheets were designed to provide students with an
opportunity to focus their reflection on a particular concept of the Einsteinian approach.
Further details will be provided in Chapter 7.
Transcripts of Audio and DVD Recordings
Audio and video recordings were chosen as a source of data as these allowed
students‟ in-class discussions to be faithfully captured and recalled at any given point in
the analysis process. The ability to repeatedly review and study the data was an added
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advantage. Two audio recordings were collected in Cycle 1 and 14 DVD recordings
were collected in Cycle 2.
In introducing the video recording to the classroom setting, the positioning of
the camera was given careful consideration. Time was spent in locating an optimum
position prior to the start of each session. This entailed finding the most suitable
position in the placement of the video recorder in order to capture the entire classroom
without being too intrusive on the students. This was done in collaboration with the
Performing Arts Technical team.
Classroom sessions that were captured on the video recorder were later
transferred to DVDs. A summary of the main points as well as verbatim transcripts of
each DVD was completed. This was a labour intensive process. However, while
transcribing these sessions, it became possible to relive the classes again as an observer,
but with the added advantage of having knowledge in relation to the subtleties of the
classroom nuances of student behaviours that would easily have gone unnoticed by an
outsider - a central point made by Cochran-Smith (2005) in advocating a teacher-
researcher perspective.
Student Emails
The use of emails to elicit student responses on a particular topic of discussion
was a source of data in the preliminary phases of the study. These responses allowed
students the freedom to express their thoughts regarding particular topics, thus
providing a means of communication on a level considered to be less formal. While
emails were voluntary, students were encouraged to send them on a weekly basis as a
way of sharing their thoughts after having reflected on the topic discussed. It was
reasoned that such data would provide yet another dimension in capturing further
insight into how students were thinking. Student emails were used only in the
preliminary phases.
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Teacher-Researcher Journals
Teacher-researcher journals functioned on two levels. Firstly, they were used as
a means of recording observations of student attitudes and behaviours at the end of
classroom sessions. Secondly, these journal entries also served as a tool for reflection.
The stream-of-consciousness writing technique discovered through Cameron‟s (1995)
book entitled The Artist’s Way was adopted, and formed part of the entries as a means
of exploring further ideas for future classroom sessions. Two handwritten journals were
collected during the course of the preliminary phases of the study where weekly entries
were made. Subsequently, in Cycles 1 and 2, electronic entries were made at the end of
each session. An annual summary was compiled at the end of each of the major cycles
after repeated readings of these journals.
Ethics Consent
This study was granted ethics consent by the Human Research Ethics Office of the
University of Western Australia (Reference No. RA/4/1/1471). Written permission was
sought from the Headmaster of the participating school and also from parents and
students involved in the study. An outline of the proposed study, and an assurance of
confidentiality and anonymity were provided to all participants in a written document.
Research data remained confidential and participants were free to withdraw from the
study at any time. For secure storage, the data were encoded with passwords for
protection. University regulation dictates that research data be archived for a period of
five years. Therefore, all data will be destroyed upon completion of the research after
the stated period.
Data Analysis
Analysis was conducted at the end of each of the two phases of the preliminary
study and each of the two major cycles of action research. The following section will
provide an overview of the analysis and a description of the process involved.
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Overview of the Analytical Process
Observations occurred constantly throughout the research by observing student
behaviours in relation to the teacher-led classroom actions that were taken. Potential
links made between observations of student behaviours and teacher-led classroom
actions taken were recorded in the teacher-researcher journal. These potential links
were used as interim findings, which formed the initial stages of the data analysis
process.
Due to the cyclical nature of action research method contained within the
framework of planning, action, observation and reflection, a continuous analysis and re-
analysis of the collected data during each cycle formed an inherent feature of the
analytical process. Therefore, analysis in this piece of research was not confined to the
final stages of the research. Instead, it was dynamic and ongoing, with conclusions
arrived at through a cumulative process. Coding, memoing, interpreting and abstracting
were used at each level of the analysis with further levels of abstraction through
induction employed as the analysis progressed. In the interest of triangulation (Miles &
Huberman, 1994), multiple sources of data were used wherever possible and emerging
findings were cross checked between the sources. Sources used were the teacher-
researcher‟s informal observations, student‟s written work during classroom sessions
and student‟s report of their experiences, both written and verbal, the latter obtained
from the audio and DVD transcripts of the classroom discussions (see Figure 4).
Observations recorded in the teacher-researcher journals were checked against
student verbal responses through the transcripts of audio and DVD recordings together
with student written work from the in-class worksheets. Thus, student verbal responses
provided a confirmation of the observations that were made and students‟ written work
gave further clarification of what they had said in their verbal responses during the
classroom discussions. The expanded worksheets provided a longer term view of the
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data collected as these expanded worksheets allowed students more freedom to explore
their thoughts over a longer timeframe compared to the in-class worksheets. Therefore,
students‟ thinking patterns could be monitored for consistency over time. The DVD
transcripts allowed the teacher-researcher to revisit and notate nuances captured through
bodily gestures, which expressed students‟ positive and negative behaviours not readily
found in the written work of students.
Figure 4 Triangulation Process
Conceptual Framework for Organizing Data
It became clear early in the preliminary study that an overall conceptual
framework was required for organizing the data collected. The central research
question asks how it might be possible to integrate an Einsteinian approach into the
music classroom. As the report of the preliminary study shows (see Chapter 5), many
of the early teacher-led classroom actions did not work, in terms of developing and
Observations
(Teacher-Researcher
Journals)
Student Verbal
Responses
(Transcripts of Audio and
DVD Recordings)
Student Written Work
(In-Class Worksheets and
Expanded Worksheets)
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integrating the Einsteinian approach. This suggested the use of a simple dichotomous
framework for organizing the data - teacher-led classroom actions that „worked‟ and
teacher-led classroom actions that „did not work.‟ These two concepts - teacher-led
classroom actions that worked and did not work - emerged clearly from the early actions
and analysis, in the context of the central research question of “How can an Einsteinian
approach be incorporated into a competitively driven music performance education
culture at the secondary school level?”
These concepts emerged clearly during the preliminary study, and were then
applied during the main action research project. Here too, most of the data indicators
were quite clear. However, it is not the case that all data fitted clearly into one or the
other category. When a piece of data was ambiguous, it was given less consideration on
the grounds that more can be learned from data indicators that were clear. This is
consistent with the logic of the action research project which centres on how an
Einsteinian approach can be developed.
The next step was to develop a set of empirical indicators – here called
“response indicators” – to “define” these general concepts of “work” and “did not
work” in this particular research context. The response indicators are as follows:
Response Indicators (when teacher-led classroom actions worked)
1. Students are open to exploring content presented in the classroom that targets the
development of the Einsteinian approach.
2. Students find relevance in content presented in the classroom that targets the
development of the Einsteinian approach.
3. Students contribute well to the classroom activities that target the development of
the Einsteinian approach.
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Response Indicators (when teacher-led classroom actions did not work)
1. Students are not open to the contents that were presented in class that were
targeted at the development of the Einsteinian approach.
2. Students do not find relevance in the contents that were presented in class that
were targeted at the development of the Einsteinian approach.
3. Students did not contribute well to the classroom activities that target the
development of the Einsteinian approach.
Based on these response indicators, data collected were coded into the two categories of
worked and did not work at the completion of each action research cycle. Further
analysis then followed which involved analysing student thought patterns in the
category of did not work. This was done in an attempt to understand the possible causes
as to why certain teacher-led classroom actions had not worked. The analysis of student
thinking patterns produced recurring concepts. These concepts were grouped and
analysed. An analysis of these recurring patterns provided further insight into the
possible elements that were required in terms of how such an approach can be integrated
into the classroom and were used in the planning stages of the following cycle. Figure 5
provides a diagrammatical representation of the overview of the analysis process.
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Figure 5 Overview of Analytical Process
At the completion of the entire action research, which involved two phases of
preliminary study and two major cycles of actions research, further abstraction and
interpretation was carried out on actions that worked and those that did not work, in
view of working toward a general overall principle of an Einsteinian approach. This is
shown in Figure 6.
DATA
RESPONSE INDICATORS
WORKED DID NOT WORK
What were students‟
thought patterns?
Thought patterns
categorised
Findings were fed
into the following
cycle
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Figure 6 Toward A General Principle of an Einsteinian Approach
In summary, an analysis was conducted at the completion of each major research
cycle. Firstly, data were grouped into two categories of worked or did not work based
on a set of response indicators. Following this, data from the category of did not work
were analysed to ascertain students‟ thinking patterns. Over the course of the analysis,
these recurring patterns found in the analysis of students thinking patterns were noted
and categorized. These emergent categories were then analysed further for possible
reasons as to why they occurred. Findings from the analysis of these categories were
then used in the design and planning of the next cycle of the action research. A
comparison was then carried out on teacher-led classroom actions that worked and did
Teacher-led classroom actions taken throughout the
entire action research
Abstraction and Interpretation of the above
actions
Toward a general
principle of an
Einsteinian
approach
Actions that Worked
And
Did Not Work
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not work taken over the entire course of the action research, with the aim to move
toward a general principle of an Einsteinian approach. A detailed analysis is presented
at the end of each of the action research cycles in the following chapters with the
findings reported at the end of each cycle. A suggested general principle of an
Einsteinian approach is also provided.
This chapter has described the method used in this research, including the
overall design, the data collected and the data analysis methods developed. The next
chapter reports the preliminary phases of the research.
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CHAPTER 5
PRELIMINARY STUDY
Overview of Preliminary Study
This chapter reports on the preliminary study conducted where an inquiry was
made into how affective concepts based on Einstein‟s humanistic and philosophical
thinking can be integrated into MPE. The preliminary study comprised of two phases.
Both phases were based on informal observations by the researcher, recorded in detail in
the teacher-researcher journal, and supplemented by emails from students to the
researcher. Preliminary findings of Phase 1 based on four students who made specific
integration of the affective concept of gratitude as part of their music performance
studies produced promising results. This led to Phase 2 where the integration of such an
approach was introduced into the music classroom. However, it was found that
classroom music students did not respond as positively to the integration of such an
approach. This became a catalyst in forming the central research question. How the
Einsteinian approach was conceived and developed along with student experiences and
findings during these two phases will now follow.
Toward an Einsteinian Approach
The discovery of an Einsteinian approach was realized through an interest in
Einstein‟s non-scientific writings and familiarity with McNeill‟s theory of A State of
Preparedness (2001). According to McNeill, a relationship exists between students‟
innermost attitude and that of their learning processes. Based on the above, an initial
curiosity as to how Einstein‟s humanistic thoughts such as gratitude and humility might
possibly affect music performance students, led to an exploration of such concepts with
four instrumental music students.
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Preliminary Study Phase 1
The early stages of the development of the Einsteinian approach took place in an
instrumental music lesson setting. This involved four adolescent students on a one-to-
one basis over a period of five weeks, where private piano lessons were held for an hour
each week. Initially, students were slightly unsure as to how such affective concepts
might be of use to them in their music performance studies. However, over the course
of five weeks, it was observed that the integration of these concepts started to
demonstrate positive outcomes in their music performance studies. One student even
reported on how such an approach benefited him in areas other than his music studies.
The actions taken during these one-to-one sessions in Phase 1 of the preliminary study
are now described followed by four examples of student experiences based on such an
approach during this period. These are presented as scenarios, which are descriptive
outlines of student accounts.
During the lessons, affective concepts were explored in the following manner.
The first ten minutes of the hourly instrumental session was spent discussing with the
student the concept of gratitude. Firstly, the concept of what gratitude meant to the
student was ascertained. This was done to gain an understanding of the student‟s
comprehension of the term. Following that, they were asked to provide an example of a
situation where they might have experienced the concept of gratitude. Here is an
example of what a student said: “You feel grateful when someone does something for
you. Like when they give you a present after you do something nice for them.”
Having ascertained their level of understanding of the concept, they were then
asked if they had thought about how it might be possible for them to have gratitude for
their musical instrument. Such a question typically caused students to display a puzzled
look. However, they were encouraged to think about how this might be possible as part
of their task for the week. In the following week, discussions would continue by asking
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them if they had thought of any further ideas from the prior week‟s discussion. It was
observed that students were unable to have gratitude for their musical instrument.
As explained in Chapter 3, typically, students‟ understanding of gratitude was
limited to that of a gesture of thanks associated with a gift received. However, based on
Einstein‟s humanistic and philosophical writings, the notion of gratitude is not
dependent on an exchange associated with gifts. Instead, his concept of gratitude was
one that was engendered from within the self as a result of reflecting on the efforts of
people that have gone before us. An example quoted in Chapter 3 is again provided
here to show Einstein‟s notion of gratitude:
A hundred times every day I remind myself that my inner and outer life depend
on the labours of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order
to give in the same measure as I have received and am still receiving. (Einstein,
1956, p. 1)
In such a passage, Einstein is seen to be demonstrating a deep sense of gratitude
engendered from within the self. Another example of gratitude provided previously in
Chapter 3 by Einstein is as follows:
Bear in mind that the wonderful things you learn in your schools are the work of
many generations, produced by enthusiastic effort and infinite labour in every
country of the world. All this is put into your hands as your inheritance in order
that you may receive it, honour it, add to it, and one day faithfully hand it on to
your children. Thus do we mortals achieve immortality in the permanent things
which we create in common. “If you always keep this in mind you will find a
meaning in life and work and acquire the right attitude toward other nations and
ages” (Einstein, 1956, p. 23).
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Therefore, students‟ concept of gratitude differed from Einstein‟s who demonstrates
gratitude as an ability that can be exercised from within the self through reflecting on all
the efforts of people, past and present.
In trying to bridge the gap between Einstein‟s display of gratitude and that of
music students‟ understanding of the concept, an exercise was performed. During this
exercise, students were asked to take a moment to reflect on all the efforts that had gone
into the making of their musical instrument, tracing out a possible course of events that
would have transpired from the time of its inception to the present moment. For
example, students were guided to think about what was required in the making of a
piano from its frame to each single key as well as the strings of the piano, its dampers
and all of the other parts of the piano. They were then also asked to consider the efforts
involved in the transportation of the instrument from the factory down to the store
where they had bought their piano. Students were encouraged to reflect in such a
manner prior to each of their practice sessions. It was observed that over time, as
students started to integrate such thinking into their daily practice of their instrument,
positive outcomes would result. The first instance of such a result is shown as Scenario
#1 below. The names of students used are fictitious.
Scenario #1
Frederic (Pianist) – Overcoming social issues and discipline
Frederic, a 13-year old music performance student, was encountering difficulties
both at school as well as at home. He had learned the piano for three years and always
found music note-reading to be a real problem throughout this period. Overall, he
enjoyed the activity of music making through his piano studies, but was experiencing
great difficulty being motivated to practise well.
It was suggested that Frederic actively put gratitude into practice, applying it to
all the difficulties he was facing in his piano studies. This concept was introduced to
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him in an intellectual manner and he was encouraged to put into practice what he had
just intellectualized. His attention perked up to this rather far-fetched concept and it
was observed that bewilderment overcame his entire demeanour. However, he was
encouraged to put gratitude to the test. While no change was evident in the first week,
Frederic reported an interesting experience in the second week. He wrote: “Maths is
pretty hard for Year 8 at first and then I started to practise gratitude for the opportunity
given to me to study Maths and then Maths started to get easier.” Excited at this new
realization, he extended his practice to other areas. He added, “I also started practising
gratitude for my brother because he was very mean to me. After that, he started being
nice to me. Then I also practised gratitude for my parents and they actually started to
praise me for the first time for my piano playing, which they have never done before
and this made me want to do better in my piano practice.” He was perplexed at the
change that was occurring in his life at school as well as at home. The progress in his
musical development was markedly noticeable soon after he incorporated the practice of
gratitude. He found that his level of concentration improved and the speed at which he
was reading music notes increased. Disciplining his practice at the piano was no longer
a problem for him. From then on, Frederic had the joy of experiencing the benefits of
gratitude in his piano studies. As his ability to focus improved, he became more
motivated to maintain his practice to a good level. His piano studies took on a positive
turn and he became intrinsically motivated. This resulted in a major improvement to his
overall achievement level as a piano student.
Curious that such an approach could result in such an outcome led to further
investigations. Therefore, the approach was introduced to another student.
Observations made on Student B demonstrated similarly positive results, as shown in
Scenario #2.
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Scenario #2
Andy (Pianist) - Dissipating frustration and anger
Andy was a talented 17-year old piano performance student who was often
frustrated to the point of anger when he was unable to execute certain passages of
music. Being of a rather reserved nature, he never sought to articulate his frustration.
For two years, his technical improvement at the piano had been minimal. Although
Andy managed to overcome certain technical issues during lessons, he often found it
difficult to apply what he had learnt during lessons whilst in the practice room.
Andy was introduced to the idea of applying gratitude to his instrument. Similar
to Frederic, he was taken through the process of integrating gratitude into his practice
sessions. His initial reaction was similar to Frederic. However, he began to show signs
of improvement in his technical abilities after two weeks. When asked what effected
this positive change, he reported the following: “When I sit at the piano to practise, I get
really impatient and frustrated when I can‟t get things right. I would then get up and
slam the piano lid and walk away. But learning to have gratitude for my instrument has
helped to lessen my frustration and anger. I find that I am able to actually sit and do
some practise.” Clearly, his frustration and anger prevented him from committing an
appropriate amount of practice time at the piano as he never saw this as a legitimate
problem that needed to be addressed in relation to his piano playing. He allowed his
feelings of inadequacy to take over and consequently remained caught in this quandary.
Andy was astonished at how gratitude had enabled him to remove the barrier of
frustration and anger and thus facilitate improvement in his piano practice. He was also
able to grasp more of what was taught after this and remained excited with such a
breakthrough.
As a better understanding of Andy‟s problem was realized, a much deeper level
of communication resulted. The teacher-student relationship started to improve as Andy
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started to open up more about his anger and the negative impact such an attitude had on
his progress during his practice sessions. His reserved nature was soon replaced by a
brighter and more cheerful demeanour. He started to communicate better and his
playing gradually improved. The positive outcome from this experience encouraged a
similar outlook to be applied with another one-on-one private piano student. The next
example shows how the attitude of gratitude brought about a change in a student in the
area of performance anxiety.
Scenario #3
Mandy (Pianist) - Resolves unnecessary nerves
Mandy, a 15-year old piano performance student, had a terrible time controlling
her nerves. Nerves affected her badly. This made her very despondent about her piano
playing. As a result, Mandy did not do as well as she would like to in her music
performances.
Once again, Mandy was taken through the same exercise to help her incorporate
gratitude into her preparation for her upcoming class performance. It was observed that
Mandy was able to adapt to the notion of incorporating gratitude into her performance
routine quite easily. She was due to play in a class performance situation at school a
week after being introduced to this concept. On the day of her performance, Mandy
reported how the integration of gratitude into her performance routine had reduced her
anxiety level by half during the class performance. She was astonished and excited at
her ability to overcome her nerves in such as short time. This allowed her a greater
sense of confidence in her playing overall.
While contemporary research has revealed significant problems encountered by
music performers in the area of performance anxiety, (Arneson, 2010; Randall, 2008;
Taborsky, 2007) most of the issues in this area have sought solutions within techniques
that are based on behavioural and cognitive approaches. Mandy‟s experience suggests
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that the realm of the affective may also provide another possibility as a solution to the
problem of performance anxiety.
Scenario #4
Gary (Cellist) - Heightening a sense of engagement
Gary is a 16-year old cellist who was always complaining about his inability to
focus on the music during performances. He often found that his mind would easily be
distracted whilst performing on stage as well as during his practice sessions.
Instead of the concept of gratitude, Gary was introduced to the concept of
integrating a sense of wonder into his performances. He was encouraged to wonder
deeply about his instrument as part of his daily practice routine. This enabled him to
engage with his instrument at such a level where he became physically attached to his
cello. He was observed to be holding on to his cello for the entire forty-minute period
of class music soon after he was introduced to this aspect of Einstein‟s thinking. He
was very reluctant to let go of his cello and reported how he was longing to engage in
some practise soon after. At the end of this class session, he said, “I wish I can stay on
to practise instead of going to the next class.” He was very clearly demonstrating a
strong engagement to his instrument. Gary‟s heightened sense of engagement with his
instrument suggests that affective concepts may provide students with the ability to
remain motivated in terms of practising their instruments.
The psychologist and researcher Csikszentmihalyi (1991) had used the concept
of “flow” to describe “the process of total involvement with life” (p.xi). Through the
integration of wonder, such a state of engagement became evident in Gary. Clearly
Gary was intrinsically motivated to practise even without any external factor such as a
concert performance or examination to influence him. After a recent concert, Gary
reported how he felt “at one” with the music and commented on how he has found it
easier to concentrate fully on his playing.
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Although these sessions only lasted over a period of five weeks, it was observed
that students were able to sustain the behavioural changes to a satisfactory level beyond
the five-week period and maintained the ability to recall these experiences even after a
year.
Experiences gained by students from Phase 1 of the preliminary study upon
integration of two concepts of the Einsteinian approach into their music performance
studies generated mixed emotions of excitement alongside curiosity and disbelief. A
discussion with the Headmaster was held to relay the experiences of these students.
Upon learning of these experiences, the Headmaster suggested that such an approach be
integrated within the music classroom, as he was keen to promote such a learning
experience. This led to a second phase of the preliminary inquiry.
Preliminary Study Phase 2
The second phase of the preliminary study reports on data collected from three
sets of music classrooms over two years labelled as Phases 2a, 2b and 2c. Each year
comprised a new set of music students.
Preliminary Study Phase 2a – Year 11
The second phase of the preliminary inquiry involved integrating the Einsteinian
approach within music history classes. This was initially explored with the Year 11
music students. Year 11 is the second last year of the secondary level of schooling.
Typically in Western Australia, the number of students studying music in the final two
years of schooling is low, as music is not considered a core subject within the
curriculum. Four students elected to study class music at the Year 11 level this year.
The process of integrating the Einsteinian approach into the music classroom
took place for the first time with this Year 11 class. The concepts behind the
Einsteinian approach were introduced to these students in a similar manner to that of the
one-to-one instrumental students apart from tailoring a formal introduction of these
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concepts into the first session. In intellectualizing these concepts, dictionary definitions
of the concepts of gratitude, humility and wonder were provided to students and
explained in detail. Discussions were also held to ensure that students had a good grasp
of these concepts. Following this, students were then asked to put these concepts to
practise. However, the integration of the Einsteinian approach based on these teacher-
led classroom actions did not produce positive results. Instead, such an approach was
met with gruff resistance. Students were unwilling to participate and were rather hostile
toward such an approach. It was observed that while some students were willing to
listen, these students did in fact have blank looks on their faces upon the introduction of
such an approach into the music classroom.
Classroom music students felt that concepts such as gratitude, humility or
wonder had no place in their music studies and could not see how it could possibly
benefit them in terms of gaining higher marks in their music examinations. As these
were the final two years of their schooling, achievement remained a top priority for
these students who found such an approach to be irrelevant. Furthermore, parents of
these students also started voicing their concerns over the integration of such an
approach to the Headmaster, questioning how such an approach could be of benefit to
their child‟s music education. In view of this, a meeting was held with the Headmaster
regarding the negative reception of the Einsteinian approach. The integration of the
Einsteinian approach in the Year 11 music classroom was discontinued after a period of
four weeks due to the many complaints that were received from both parents and
students.
Perplexed at why classroom music students found the Einsteinian approach to be
unacceptable unlike the positive outcomes of the one-to-one instrumental setting, the
following central research question was formulated: “How can an Einsteinian
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approach be incorporated into a competitively driven music performance education
culture at the secondary school level?”
As will be discussed in the final chapter of this thesis, the typical mode of
instrumental music teaching is the one-to-one setting, where the teaching model
assumes a master-apprentice dynamic. It is in such a setting that the first phase of the
preliminary study was conducted with positive results gained in the initial integration of
the Einsteinian approach. However, within a more formalized classroom where a larger
group of students were present, the approach taken did not work. At this point, it was
noted that possibly the one-to-one instrumental setting may be more conducive to the
integration of the Einsteinian approach than the music classroom setting. However,
although the findings up to this point support such an observation, awareness for certain
biases that exist within the one-to-one setting were considered.
In the one-to-one setting, it is easier for the student to be influenced by the
teacher as an imbalance of power is more apparent within such a dynamic than in a
more formalized classroom situation where students as a group tend to engender a
greater sense of autonomy. Against this master-apprentice model, it is possible for
students to be easily persuaded with the ideas put forth by the teacher without too much
question. Although students in the first phase of the preliminary study were not coerced
into accepting the Einsteinian approach, and were given much flexibility to reflect on
these concepts over an extended period of two weeks, nonetheless, such a bias exists to
unintentionally influence the student.
According to Daniel (2004), the literature in the area of instrumental one-to-one
teaching versus group teaching indicates that the “group model offers a more holistic
learning environment than the one-to-one approach” (p.35). Characteristics cited from
the findings which support a better learning environment within a more formalized
instrumental group model setting, such as critical analysis between peers and
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opportunities for further interaction between students, indicate the possibility of a less
biased environment for the exploration of the integration of the Einsteinian approach.
Therefore, whilst more individualized and undivided attention of the teacher within the
one-to-one setting may be more conducive to the integration of the Einsteinian
approach, the more formalized classroom dynamic, comprising of a larger number of
students, may provide a stronger foundation for the findings of how to integrate the
Einsteinian approach based on a less biased setting.
What Happened When Things Did Not Work
Informal observations regarding how the introduction of the Einsteinian
approach was not received in a positive light by classroom music students led to an
exploration of several approaches in search of how it might be possible to integrate the
Einsteinian approach within the music classroom. As noted, a detailed teacher-
researcher journal – including observations, student comments and reflections – had
been maintained during all of these class sessions and were supplemented by emails
from the students. The teacher-researcher journal, in particular, served as a means of
reflecting on teacher-led classroom actions taken as well as a place where further ideas
were explored in relation to the classroom integration of such an approach.
Teacher-researcher journal entries during this period explored the notion that
central to the three chosen affective concepts of the Einsteinian approach, was that of
reflection. For example, the notion of gratitude in accordance with Einstein‟s thinking
requires that the person be able to reflect on all the efforts of people both past and
present. To wonder requires a person to think as well as reflect about the event or thing.
In order to have humility it is also necessary for one to reflect in order to engage with
such a concept. Having observed how teacher-led classroom actions based on the
intellectualization of affective concepts produced a negative outcome, it seemed that the
act of being reflective may be worthy of further exploration as these affective concepts
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necessarily contain within them the component of reflection. As a result, teacher-led
classroom actions taken in the next phase of the preliminary study (Phase 2b) adopted a
reflective component. Preliminary Phase 2b took place within a Year 10 music history
class.
Preliminary Study Phase 2b – Year 10
Five weeks were spent with the Year 10 classroom music students implementing
the revised approach. Firstly, students were introduced to a stream of consciousness
writing as outlined by Cameron (1995) in her book The Artist’s Way where students
were required to write without a break for approximately ten to fifteen minutes while
focusing on a particular topic. This was used as a means of getting students to reflect.
Two examples from the Year 10 music history class are provided.
Example 1
Year 10 music history class studying the structure of Stravinsky‟s music
Music as a subject at the Year 10 level was offered as an elective, and eight
students were enrolled in the class. The music history course for this class revolved
around 20th
century history of Western music. In order to combine reflection with a
philosophical outlook, a worksheet containing instructions on how to reflect using the
stream of consciousness technique along with the topic for reflection was prepared for
students. As noted, a worksheet is an instructional document with workspace provided
where students are required to complete in class. In this worksheet, two pages were left
blank where students were required to reflect and explore their thoughts.
The aim of the class was to study the score to Stravinsky‟s Rite of Spring in
terms of its structure. A portion of the music that was to be studied was firstly played to
students from a CD recording. During this time students would follow the music score.
At the end of this activity, students were then required to write using the stream of
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consciousness technique for 15 minutes, without a break, on the given worksheet,
noting any thoughts that came to their mind regarding the music that they had just
heard. At the end of this time, students were then asked to read what they had written
and to select what they would consider to be main points of interest. A discussion
followed based on this portion of Stravinsky‟s music. Every student had something to
say about the music being studied. For example, one student noted how the structure of
Stravinsky‟s music was block-like while another student noticed Stravinsky‟s use of
ostinato being referenced continuously in the passage. Another student commented on
aspects of the composer‟s rhythmic structure while another made comments on the
dissonant harmonies that they had heard. Such discussions would end up providing
students with the knowledge of what they were required to learn of Stravinsky‟s music.
Such an approach created much more enthusiasm in the student‟s learning process than
the traditional approaches where students were provided with the knowledge through an
assigned reading from a music textbook. Instead, by allowing such knowledge to be
discovered through students‟ own reflections, students were exhibiting much more
enthusiasm and depth of understanding of the music during the learning process. An
entry from the teacher-researcher journal during this time noted a student comment
saying the following, “… in other classes, teachers always get you to write what they
want, not what you think.” Furthermore, it was observed that students who were not
usually as interested in the music history class found that they also had something to
contribute during these discussions, which allowed them to feel positive about their
learning. Thus, the level of engagement exhibited by students was encouraging to
observe. This approach was again used in another session with similar results.
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Example 2
Learning about Mendelssohn‟s life as a composer
Another example involved studying Mendelssohn‟s life as a composer. In
studying about the history of a composer‟s life, a certain amount of reading from a
given text is required. Prior to being assigned such a task, students were first asked to
think about life in general. They were then asked to represent how they saw their lives
using lines. Most students drew a wavy line while one student drew concentric circles
to represent their view of how they saw life to be. They were then asked to explain
what those lines meant to them. The general consensus after a period of discussion was
that life essentially involved a series of ups and downs, which seemed inevitable. With
this understanding, they were then asked to locate in their assigned reading task, the
high and low points of the composer‟s life. They were then asked to draw on
experiences of the high and low points from their own lives and to reflect on them. A
discussion involving a comparison between the composer‟s high and low points in their
life and students‟ own experiences of the high and low points in their own lives was
initiated. Reflecting in such a manner allowed students to connect with their learning at
a level which enabled them to perceive the composer‟s life in a more meaningful
fashion instead of accumulating knowledge through reading alone. It was observed,
once again, that students were engaging in their learning with much interest. At the end
of this session, a student remarked on how he felt this to be an interesting way to study
music history, while another commented on how he felt that for the first time, these
composers “were like real people and not just another composer from a history book.”
He also added how such an approach made him feel more confident in his ability to
recall facts learnt from his reading about the composer. In the past, students have often
found learning about a composer‟s life to be tiresome and dull, but would persevere for
the purposes of passing an examination. However, the above process allowed students
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to connect with the learning process at a level that generated much interest and meaning
for the student.
In the above examples, teacher-led classroom actions that took place involved
two components: Reflection and allowing students to be heard. In Example 1, it was
observed that allowing students the opportunity to explore their own thinking through
the process of reflection resulted in students exhibiting positive learning behaviours
such an increased level of interest in what was being taught. Also, comments such as,
“… in other classes, teachers always get you to write what they want, not what you
think,” suggest that students value the opportunity to explore their own thoughts and
allowing their thoughts to be heard. In Example 2, students were again allowed to
reflect but in this instance, the reflective process was linked to students‟ own life
experiences. This also exhibited positive learning outcomes such as students feeling
more confident in their ability to retain knowledge as well as feeling more connected to
what they are learning, based on comments such as how they now felt composers “were
like real people and not just another composer from a history book.”
Preliminary Study Phase 2c – Year 11
The approach taken in Phase 2b with the Year 10 group of students was again
repeated in Phase 2c with a new set of Year 11 class the following year. Phase 2c took
place over a period of five weeks involving four students. The general theme of
reflection combined with allowing students the opportunity to discover knowledge on
their own and listening to what they had to say, was again employed. These sessions
took place at the start of the schooling year.
In the introductory music history class lesson, a question was posed to students
as to why composers that they had learnt about were often referred to as being great.
From this, the notion of great within the context of classical composers in history of
Western music was then explored further. A student said, “for a composer to be great,
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he would need to have made a discovery about something in music that was
recognizable by everyone.” Another student used the word universal to reiterate this
concept. The group was then asked to consider how these concepts might be found to
replicate events outside of music performance. Thus, such discussions often resulted in
these sessions being framed within a philosophical outlook allowing students to gain a
broader perspective on the history of the composer‟s life.
In trying to get students to think deeply, students were encouraged to be honest
and open to the learning process by exploring their own thinking and views about
music. A phrase called “Honest Learning” was adopted as part of the in-class language
used by students when engaging in this line of thinking. Based on such an approach,
students were encouraged to reflect deeply on matters in relation to music as well their
values and life in general. Student emails that were received during this session suggest
that some students were starting to be more open in adopting a new perspective into
their thinking. These preliminary findings provided further ideas of how an Einsteinian
approach could be directly integrated into the music classroom. The following section
shows the analysis process and the subsequent initial findings of this phase of the
preliminary study. Four examples are provided. Again, the names of students used are
fictitious.
Example 1
Email sent by Simon:
Dear Miss Chan,
With the use of "Honest Learning," I'm coming to see a whole new perspective
into how we listen to music, and much deeper philosophical questions. Using the
Stream of Consciousness writing technique, I am almost "Stepping back" from
what I am writing, and asking..."Why am I writing?"
In traditional music teaching, we analyse music in its structure and in the
way the sounds are sorted, but in this new way of thinking, we ask the inevitable
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question of "What is Music?” It is obviously impossible to give an exact and
infallible definition or answer to this question, and so the best I can do to answer
it, is to ask more questions. I find that I learn more from the questions than I
might from an answer. Wasn't this the view Socrates took?
I believe strongly in the philosophy of your teaching method, your
"Honest Learning", for unlike the attitude reflected in Ainsley, [I] hold the view
that we are at school to learn, not just to pass the grades! Mind you, I can see the
direction in which Ainsley is coming from, where he wants musical education in
a box with a certificate saying that "The bearer of this certificate is a certified
musician", but surely that is not the point.
We study music to learn more about it and to understand it, whether or
not we get a piece of paper at the end of it. How can you judge someone's
musical capabilities from a piece of paper?
Personally, I think that music education should be tied closely into a
philosophy course in order to look into a deeper level of understanding.
When we asked those first questions: "What do you mean by Great?" it
became apparent what a strange label Great is in this context. Is there really
some force that lurks inside certain people, giving them the power to write music
in a "higher state" than others? We already know that some people have a lot of
talent, but what if this is taken to a higher level of understanding of what they
are doing, not just how they are doing it.
Regards, and see you tomorrow to discuss,
Simon
Each sentence was analysed to identify and conceptualize the particular thought
pattern that the student was starting to exhibit. Table 4 shows this analysis of the email
from Simon.
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Table 4
Analysis of Simon’s Thinking Pattern
Sentence
Number
Sentence Simon’s Thinking
Pattern
1 With the use of “Honest Learning,” I‟m coming to see a whole
new perspective into how we listen to music, and much deeper
philosophical questions.
New Perspective
forming
2 Using the stream of consciousness writing technique, I‟m
almost “stepping back” from what I‟m writing, and asking…
“Why am I writing?”
Questioning
3 In traditional music teaching, we analyze music in its structure
and in the way the sounds are sorted, but in this new way of
thinking, we ask the inevitable question of
“What its Music?”
Questioning
4 It‟s obviously impossible to give an exact and infallible
definition or answer to this question, and so the best I can do to
answer it, is to ask more questions.
Questioning
5 Wasn‟t this the view Socrates took? Questioning
6 I believe strongly in the philosophy of human teaching method,
your honest learning, unlike the attitude reflected in Ainsley,
holding the view that we are at school to learn, not just past the
grades!
New perspective
forming
7 Mind you, I can see the direction in which Ainsley is coming
from, where he once musical education in a box with a
certificate saying that “the bearer of this certificate is a certified
musician”, but surely that is not the point.
New perspective
forming
8 We study music to learn more about and to understand, whether
or not we get a piece of paper at the end of it.
New perspective
forming
9 How can you judge someone‟s musical capabilities from a piece
of paper?
New perspective
forming
10 Personally, I think that music education should be tied closely
into a philosophy course in order to compete with a deeper level
of understanding.
New perspective
accepted
11 When we asked those first questions:
“What do you mean by Great?” it became apparent what a
strange label Great is in this context.
Wonder
12 Is there really some force that lurks inside certain people, giving
them the power to write music in a “higher state” than others?
Wonder
13 We already know that some people have a lot of talent, but what
if this is taken to a higher level of understanding of what they
are doing not just how they are doing it.
Wonder
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One main thought pattern noted was that of questioning. In sentences number 8
and 9, the questioning thought pattern seem to foster in this student a re-evaluation of
his perspectives about music learning. Simon starts to be critical about his values and
the expectations placed on the study of music based on the current goal-oriented
approaches found within the study of music. This led him to the possibility of adopting
a broader view of music in sentences 11, 12 and 13 through the concept of wonder.
Subsequent emails from other students also started to show a similar thought
pattern with such patterns resulting in the integration of the concept of wonder into their
thinking.
Example 2
Email sent by George after a session discussing Bach‟s music.
Hi,
http://www.bachfaq.org/ This is a good site for general details about Bach,
including some interesting extras. It also has a quiz to test your general
knowledge about Bach, which is an interesting idea.
Who really is Bach? In reality, we only know about where he lived and
what he wrote. In essence, we don‟t really know a single thing about his
character. We can try and deduce a few things (e.g. the fact that he wrote many
cantatas implies that he was fairly familiar with the church ways and may have
been a devoted Christian). But in reality, we know very little about the person
Bach was.
His playing and writing at the time was highly influenced by Georg
Böhm, the French inspired organist and Johan Adam Reinken, the Dutch
organist. A story was told that Bach walked the nearly 30 miles (48 km) to
Hamburg just to hear Reinken playing the summer of 1701. Information above
found in http://midiworld.com/bach1.htm
See you tomorrow,
George
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Once again, each sentence was analysed to identify George‟s main thinking
pattern as shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Analysis of George’s Thinking Pattern
Sentence
Number
Sentence George’s Thinking Pattern
1-2
This is a good site for general details about
Bach, including some interesting extras. It
also has a quiz to test your general
knowledge about Bach, which is an
interesting idea.
Initiating interest in learning
more about Bach.
3-5
Who really is Bach? In reality, we only
know about where he lived and what he
wrote. In essence, we don‟t really know a
single thing about his character.
Wondering about Bach at a
deeper level.
6-7
We can try and deduce a few things (e.g. the
fact that he wrote many cantatas implies that
he was fairly familiar with the church ways
and may have been a devoted Christian). But
in reality, we know very little about the
person Bach was.
Wondering about Bach at a
deeper level.
8
His playing and writing at the time was
highly influenced by Georg Böhm, the
French inspired organist and Johan Adam
Reinken, the Dutch organist.
Showing an awareness of
wanting to learn more about
Bach at a deeper and more
personal level.
9
A story was told that Bach walked the nearly
30 miles (48 km) to Hamburg just to hear
Reinken playing the summer of 1701.
Interest in the details of
Bach‟s life.
The above email from George shows his keen interest in learning more about
Bach as a real person as opposed to merely accumulating more factual knowledge about
the composer. George was also starting to show signs of incorporating wonder into his
learning processes. This sense of wonder led George to continue thinking more about
Bach‟s music alongside other composers. This can also be seen in a subsequent email.
102
Example 3
Email 2 sent by George
Why are we so removed from Bach (as opposed to Mozart, Beethoven or
Chopin?)
Bach‟s music is not simple. It is the combination of different themes that
weave in and out of each other, to combine to form a unifying melody. Yet, each
„voice‟ is a complete melody line in itself.
Mozart‟s music is musically simple. It is a simple melody line with a
„chordal‟ base. Its main appeal lies in the fact that the music is simple. It is easy
to remember, with short memorable phrases.
Beethoven‟s music is powerful and touches an unknown the inside. His
music is full of power, with a system of energy and whirlwind of emotions. This
appeals to many people because his music presented the view of changing from
the romantic and 20th
-century. His music was the bridge, and the „bridging
music‟ that encompassed both the romantic touch in the 20th
century fire has
combined to form some of the greatest pieces of all time.
Chopin‟s music, 99.9% of it for the piano, is of the full emotional. His
works touch the human core of a human, and as humans, we respond by
accepting the music which touches out inside.
In general, Bach‟s music is so far removed from the rest of the classical
music because it is (on a simple level) far more complex than other composers.
It is a piece that can be „read‟ at many different levels, and not simply just
listened to (in general).
George
Once again, each sentence was analysed to identify the particular thinking
pattern that George was exhibiting. This is shown in Table 6.
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Table 6
Analysis of George’s Thinking Pattern
Sentence
Number
Sentence George’s Thinking Pattern
1
Why are we so removed from Bach (as opposed
to Mozart, Beethoven or Chopin?)
Wonder
2-4
Bach‟s music is not simple. It is the combination
of different themes that weave in and out of each
other, to combine to form a unifying melody.
Yet, each „voice‟ is a complete melody line in
itself.
Starts engaging his thoughts
with Bach‟s music
5-8 Mozart‟s music is musically simple. It is a
simple melody line with a „chordal‟ base. Its
main appeal lies in the fact that the music is
simple. It is easy to remember, with short
memorable phrases.
Starts engaging his thoughts
with Mozart‟s music.
9 -12
Beethoven‟s music is powerful and touches an
unknown the inside. His music is full of power,
with a system of energy and whirlwind of
emotions. This appeals to many people because
his music presented the view of changing from
the romantic and 20th-century. His music was the
bridge, and the „bridging music‟ that
encompassed both the romantic touch in the 20th
century fire has combined to form some of the
greatest pieces of all time.
Starts engaging his thoughts
with Beethoven‟s music. [The
error on his understanding
regarding bridging between
the two periods of music was
corrected in a reply to this
email.]
13-14
Chopin‟s music, 99.9% of it for the piano, is of
the full emotional. His works touch the human
core of a human, and as humans, we respond by
accepting the music which touches out inside.
Starts engaging his thoughts
with Chopin‟s music.
15
In general, Bach‟s music is so far removed from
the rest of the classical music because it is (on a
simple level) far more complex than other
composers. It is a piece that can be „read‟ at
many different levels, and not simply just
listened to (in general).
Exploring his thinking about
the composer.
The analysis in Table 6 shows that George is seen to be taking a genuine interest
in connecting with his understanding of musical styles through the questions that he is
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asking based on his ability to incorporate wonder into his learning process. However,
these sessions suggest how the concept of wonder was accessed through the process of
reflection.
Overall, students were starting to show a positive outcome in their learning as
well as acknowledging their acceptance of such an approach as part of their learning
process. Below is an email, which demonstrates how George felt positively about this
learning approach after two sessions.
Example 4
Email 3 sent by George
Hi ☺(smiley face inserted by student)
This kind of thinking in class is what I have been looking for, ever since I started
year 8. Like you said, it involves a different way of thinking, a much deeper and
overall more beneficial way. I personally think that this style should have been
implemented much sooner, but it‟s no point going over unchangeable things.
It was very interesting to discuss our different views on „greatness‟ and
of Great composers. I still personally adhere to the old view of thinking that
there are great composes, but I already previously acknowledged the fact that it
is also a formal or one‟s mental ability to make the music come to life.
Digressing a bit, my personal top five are JS Bach at number 1,
Beethoven anchoring the number 2 spot, Mozart has number three and tied for
fourth at Chopin and Haydn (this is probably due to the instruments I play,
Chopin being Mr. Piano and Haydn churning out much string music)
See you soon,
George
The analysis of the third email from George is shown in Table 7.
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Table 7
Analysis of George’s Thinking Pattern
Sentence
Number
Sentence George’s Thinking Pattern
1-3
This kind of thinking in class is what I have been
looking for, ever since I started year 8. Like you
said, it involves a different way of thinking, a
much deeper and overall more beneficial way. I
personally think that this style should have been
implemented much sooner, but it‟s no point
going over unchangeable things.
Relevance to student
4-5
It was very interesting to discuss our different
views on „greatness‟ and of Great composers. I
still personally adhere to the old view of
thinking that there are great composes, but I
already previously acknowledged the fact that it
is also a formal or one‟s mental ability to make
the music come to life.
Openness to discussing new
ideas
6
Digressing a bit, my personal top five are JS
Bach at number 1, Beethoven anchoring the
number 2 spot, Mozart has number three and
tied for fourth at Chopin and Haydn (this is
probably due to the instruments I play, Chopin
being Mr. Piano and Haydn churning out much
string music)
Shares his thoughts
These examples demonstrate that when students are provided with the
opportunity to reflect and explore their own thoughts, they tend to show signs of interest
in their learning. For example, Table 6 shows how through the process of reflection and
allowing students to explore their own thoughts, George started exhibiting signs of
interest in making connections with various musical styles that he had learnt in the past.
Another feature that was noted in allowing students the opportunity to reflect
and to explore their own thinking was that students started exhibiting signs of engaging
with the affective concept of wonder without any formal introduction to the concept or
the need to intellectualize the concept.
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Summary – Preliminary Study Phases 1 and 2
Phase 1 of the preliminary study was based on integrating the Einsteinian
approach within the one-to-one instrumental music setting involving four instrumental
students over the course of five weeks. It was observed that the integration of affective
concepts during this period demonstrated positive results. Four descriptive scenarios
were presented to outline the processes and outcomes evidenced during this phase.
Discussions held with the Headmaster regarding these positive outcomes prompted him
to suggest integrating such an approach within the music classroom setting.
Phase 2 contained three sub-phases. The first sub-phase, Phase 2a, involved
integrating the Einsteinian approach within the music classroom setting based on
teacher-led classroom actions of reflection and intellectualizing the affective concepts.
Whilst students were able to understand these concepts logically, they were unable to
make sense of how such an approach could benefit them in their music studies. Overall,
it was found that students responded negatively. As a result, the inquiry was
discontinued after four weeks due to complaints received from parents as well as
students. However, this served as a catalyst in the formulation of the central research
question, “How can an Einsteinian approach be incorporated within music performance
education at the secondary school level within the classroom setting?”
The discouraging results of Phase 2a prompted several exploratory approaches
in Phases 2b and 2c. The process of reflection was thought to be central to the affective
concepts found within Einstein‟s non-scientific writings. Thus, this feature was
retained. In conjunction with reflection, allowing students to voice their thoughts and to
discover knowledge for themselves was adopted during the class sessions in Phases 2b
and 2c of the preliminary study. Two descriptive accounts of class sessions adopting
these exploratory approaches were reported in Phase 2b. The positive outcomes
observed during these phases of the preliminary study allowed some initial insights to
107
be gathered in relation to how it might be possible to integrate the Einsteinian approach
within the music classroom setting.
In getting students to engage in reflection and allowing students the opportunity
to discover knowledge for themselves, it seemed that the concept of wonder would start
to occupy students‟ thinking. Therefore, the activity of reflection was considered to be
a central component in the process of the integration of the Einsteinian approach as
students were observed to be absorbed in the learning process as well as engaging in the
affective concept of wonder when these components were present.
Therefore, the initial insight gained at the end of the two preliminary phases
found that fundamental to the integration of the Einsteinian approach within the music
classroom is the act of reflection and guiding students to discover for themselves the
affective concepts. In other words, teacher-led classroom actions that promoted self-
discovery through reflection were found to work while the process of intellectualizing
the affective concepts was found to not work. Table 8 provides a summary of the
insights gained in preliminary Phases 1 and 2.
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Table 8
Summary of Insights Gained in Preliminary Phases 1 and 2
INSIGHTS GAINED
Preliminary Study
Phase 1 One-To-On
Introducing affective concepts on a one-to-one level appeared
to produce positive outcomes.
Preliminary Study
Phase 2a Year 11
class
Intellectualizing affective concepts did not work well.
Students were not able to see how this related to their music
learning.
Preliminary Study
Phase 2b Year 10
class
Students valued the opportunity to reflect and explore their
own thoughts.
Students appreciated being given voice and heard.
Relating students‟ lived experience to what they are learning
appeared to allow them to engage with the learning process in a
positive manner.
Preliminary Study
Phase 2c Year 11
class
Reflection may trigger students to engage with the affective
concept of wonder.
When students engage with wonder, they appear to retain an
ability to have interest in what they are doing.
Preliminary
Findings
Reflection as an activity appears to produce positive outcomes.
Intellectualizing affective concepts appears not to produce any
positive outcomes.
Giving voice to students appears to produce positive outcomes.
Affective concepts may work better one-to-one.
Preliminary
Summary
Work
Reflection
Giving voice to students
Student self-discovery
Did Not Work
Intellectualizing affective concepts
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The four main teacher-led classroom actions employed during the two phases of
the preliminary study were:
(a) Reflection
(b) Intellectualizing affective concepts
(c) Giving voice to students
(d) Allowing student the opportunity to discover
It was found that while the component of reflection was considered to have
worked throughout the two phases of the preliminary study, teacher-led classroom
actions involving the intellectualizing of affective concepts did not work. A summary
of teacher-led classroom actions taken during the two phases of the preliminary study is
provided in the Table 9.
Table 9
Summary of Findings for Preliminary Study Phases 1 and 2
Research Cycle Teacher-led Classroom Actions Work (W)/
Did Not Work
(DNW)
Preliminary Phase 1
(One-To-One)
Reflection
W
Preliminary Phase 2a
(Year 11)
Reflection
and
Intellectualization of Einsteinian
concepts
DNW
Preliminary Phase 2b
(Year 10)
Reflection
and
Student self-discovery
and
Giving voice to students
W
Preliminary Phase 2c
(Year 11)
Reflection
and
Student self-discovery
and
Giving voice to students
W
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Events leading up to Action Research Cycle 1
The year leading up to the implementation of action research Cycle 1 coincided
with a change of administration within the music department as well as at the school
level. The appointment of a new Director of Music and Headmaster of the school
allowed for much restructuring to occur within the department. The implementation of
new music programs was very much encouraged. Innovation was a feature that was
given high priority in line with the general culture adopted by the school. As such,
much support was given to teachers who were keen to adopt and implement new ideas
into their teaching programme. This was an ideal site for the purposes of this
investigation, which concurred with the values of the department as well as that of the
school. The next chapter provides the background to the events leading up to action
research Cycle 1.
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CHAPTER 6
ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE 1
Background
The appointment of a new Headmaster coincided with the start of Cycle 1 action
research. A meeting was held at the start of Term 2 with the newly appointed
Headmaster with the intention of informing him regarding the possibility of introducing
the Einsteinian approach to the Year 11 music students. Findings from the two phases
of the preliminary study were presented during this meeting. The newly appointed
Headmaster exhibited enthusiasm and support upon learning of the Einsteinian
approach.
Following this, a meeting was also held with the newly appointed Director of
Music to discuss the possibility of officially incorporating a music performance class as
part of the music curriculum within the current departmental timetable due to the
difficulties encountered in the previous year in trying to schedule these sessions outside
of school times. A proposed course outline was prepared prior to the meeting, detailing
what would be involved in these sessions. The content of the course was discussed
during this meeting. The outcome of this meeting resulted in a firm decision to
officially introduce the Einsteinian approach to a new set of Year 11 music performance
students at the start of the following term, with weekly lessons lasting 40 minutes being
officially scheduled into the music department timetable.
Year 11 students were chosen as the site for integration of the Einsteinian
approach for the following reasons:
(a) Year 11 is the start of the final two years of music study at the school level.
Much importance is placed on the examinations held at the end of this two-year
period as marks gained by students will determine their outcome in tertiary
112
placement. As such, students in their final two years of school place great
emphasis on marks and achievement. Therefore, this site was appropriate in
seeking to integrate the Einsteinian approach in the hope of creating a balance
between a competitive end-gaining approach and a meaningful outcomes-based
approach.
(b) Specialist instrumental tutors were the only source of support for music
performance students at this level of study where instructional tutoring is
provided to the music performance student for an hour on a weekly basis.
However, seeing that the music performance component comprises 50% of the
total mark allocated to the subject of music in the TEE, it was deemed that music
performance students would benefit from a classroom based music performance
course as an addition to the support that students were currently receiving from
their specialist tutors.
The integration of the Einsteinian approach into the music performance classroom
commenced at the start of Term 3. This will be reported as action research Cycle 1. A
total of seven sessions were held during Cycle 1. The Year 11 music performance
classroom consisted of four students. Students enrolling in the final two years of music
study elect to do so by choice. Often these students have already acquired a good grasp
of the subject on the academic front as well as a high level of proficiency in terms of the
practical aspects of music performance.
Purpose of Action Research Cycle 1
The main purpose of action research Cycle 1 was to verify the findings based on
the teacher-led classroom actions taken during the two phases of the preliminary study.
As reported in Chapter 5, the reflective component was constantly employed throughout
the preliminary phases that worked as well as phases that did not work. It was also
noted that students started exhibiting initial signs of engaging with the affective concept
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of wonder, which provided them with an interest in discovering more knowledge for
themselves. This suggests that the affective concept of wonder may be an instigator in
promoting the process of student self-discovery. However, during the second phase of
the preliminary study with the Year 11 class, teacher-led classroom actions based on
reason and logic were found to not work. Therefore, for purposes of verification,
teacher-led classroom actions employed during the seven sessions of Cycle 1 once again
centred on reason and logic as a means of verifying the results found in the second
phase of the preliminary study.
Overview of Classroom Sessions in Cycle 1
Teacher-led classroom actions taken in Phase 2a were again used in Cycle 1.
However, in addition to this, students were also required to re-examine their values in
relation to music performance, such as the notion of what it means to be a successful
musician. Issues surrounding the current competitive practices of MPE were also
discussed.
In trying to reason with students regarding the importance of gaining a deeper
and more meaningful approach to music performance, their current perception and
thinking in relation to music performance were often challenged. For example, the
value placed by students on achieving high marks in a music performance examination
was discussed and questioned. This was done in an attempt to convince students of the
importance in looking toward a deeper appreciation and meaning for the music that they
were performing in tandem with that of achievement.
The use of worksheets as a reflective tool, followed by discussions, formed the
typical structure of the classroom sessions. The Einsteinian affective concepts were
gradually introduced as the sessions progressed. During this time, students were
encouraged to integrate the Einsteinian approach prior to their practice sessions. At the
end of Cycle 1, an open-ended questionnaire was administered to gain feedback from
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students regarding the sessions that have been conducted so far. As will be
demonstrated, student responses indicated that the integration of the Einsteinian
approach based on teacher-led classroom actions of intellectualizing and trying to
convince students of the importance of such an approach, was not successful.
The following section will provide a descriptive summary of the seven
classroom sessions that took place during action research Cycle 1. Once again, all
student names are fictitious.
Session 1
The first session was spent getting students to reflect on what music
performance is all about. Questions such as “What is performing all about?” and “What
are your aims as a performer?” were provided on a worksheet (see Appendix A). The
next part of the worksheet then required students to write a mission statement for
themselves as a performing musician. This was done to allow students to reflect on
their role as a performer. Twenty minutes of class time was allocated to this task while
the rest of the session was spent on getting students to share their thoughts with their
peers about what they had just written.
The next session was then spent discussing the notion of success with students in
relation to the mission statement that they were asked to complete as part of the
worksheet handed out during this session. This was used as an opportunity to allow
students to reason logically through reflection and discussion, the notion of success and
what this means to them within the context of a performing musician. This allowed
students to engage in the act of reasoning based on their perceived values as performing
musicians.
Session 2
Questions aimed at getting students to reason about what they understood of the
term success were considered in the discussion held during this session. For example,
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during the discussion, students were asked how they would evaluate success during a
performance in general. One student said:
Oh, you know…well…it‟s the mark, it‟s precision…from their perspective,
you‟ve done well.
(Audio transcript [A2] - Year 11/ Cycle 1/ Term 3/ Session 2)
As the discussion progressed, students were then made aware of the inaccuracies
that often exist within the assessment structure of a musical performance. This was
done to allow students an opportunity to reassess their values in relation to music
assessments. This was done in the hope that greater awareness for the many
inaccuracies found within a musical assessment might steer students away from a
marks-oriented approach toward considering an alternative approach that can provide
them with greater depth and meaning. However, students held steadfast to the
importance of music assessments and did not seem to be interested in finding more
depth or meaning in their music performance studies. This became evident as during
the course of this session, a student was found to remark, “I think Miss Chan is going
crazy.” (Audio transcript [A2] - Year 11/ Cycle 1/ Term 3/ Session 2)
Therefore, teacher-led classroom actions using reason and logic to convince
students of the importance in gaining a more meaningful approach in their music
performance studies appeared to be unsuccessful.
Session 3
This session was again spent getting students to reflect on the meaning of
success in music performance. However, a different approach was considered. During
this session, students were asked to project certain outcomes to each of four
hypothetical music performance situations provided on a worksheet (see Appendix B).
Students were given the entire period to complete this task.
The progression of each hypothetical situation was designed to allow students to
start reflecting and imagining how they would be feeling as they were climbing the
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ladder of success. Responses for these sessions were analysed to gain further
understanding of the thought processes of students, and it was found that as students
reached the final hypothetical situation, their responses centred on issues of
performance anxiety.
Session 4
In trying to get students to reflect further on the notion of success, another
worksheet was administered at the start of this session, asking students the following
question, “At which point in your life do you think you will feel most comfortable as
you climb the ladder of success in music performance?” (see Appendix C)
Students were then given the rest of the period to reflect on the question above
and to write their responses in the space provided on their worksheet. No discussions
were conducted during this session.
Session 5
This session was spent discussing with students their responses from the
previous two sessions. The hypothetical exercises were revisited prior to having their
responses read anonymously. A particular response from a student was chosen for
further discussion due to a quandary posed by this student from his reflection on the
notion of success. It was felt that this question would extend and challenge students‟
thinking. While the majority of students stated that they anticipated being happy having
gained success as a musician, this particular student presented a different perspective on
his view on how he imagined he would feel when he was finally successful. His
reflection was read out to the class:
…when I was not yet successful, I wanted to be successful and I strived all the
time to be successful. When I became successful… it became worse because
what do I do…all these expectations and I don‟t know what to do, I don‟t know
how to handle that. So what do I do? Should I not aim to be successful? I
really shouldn‟t aim for that but then if I didn‟t aim for that, I‟d be unhappy as
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well because you know I want to get there but when I get there, it‟s not what I
expected.
(Audio transcript [A5] - Year 11/ Cycle 1/ Term 3/ Session 5)
Students were then asked to reflect on how they might be able to resolve such a
dilemma. However, students were unable to provide a satisfactory answer as to how this
could be resolved but did take the time to reflect on this issue. The discussion continued
in trying to reason with students that success may not necessarily be what they perceive it
to be.
The reflections and discussions thus far were aimed at getting students to re-
evaluate their current values in relation to the notion of success in music performance,
as success is often associated with achievement which is commonly found in the
competitive driven mindset of the current practices in MPE. Having reasoned with
students how the perceived benefits of such values may contain within it possible flaws
and limitations, students were then introduced to the affective concept of the Einsteinian
approach as a possible means of countering these flaws and limitations.
Session 6
This session was spent introducing the concept of gratitude to students. This
was done in a similar manner as in preliminary study Phase 2a, as reported in Chapter 5,
where students were introduced to this affective concept in an intellectual manner by
providing them with an explanation of what the concepts meant. They were then asked
to reflect on the efforts of all the people that had gone into the making of their
instruments. It was also explained that such a concept was derived from Einstein‟s
writings.
An in-class worksheet was administered in this session where students were
required to firstly write briefly on the historical background of their instrument followed
by a written reflection on all the efforts that had gone into the making of their
instruments (see Appendix D). Students were required to consider every part of their
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instrument as well as the work involved in the construction of their instrument in as
much detail as possible. These reflections were then analysed to understand the general
thinking patterns of students. Students were then encouraged to apply this reflective
action prior to their practice sessions in the coming week.
Session 7
As this was to be the last session for the term, students were asked to provide
feedback on the Einsteinian approach through an open-ended questionnaire. Although
there were instances where the Einsteinian approach was shown to have provided
students with some positive results, overall, student comments and their behaviour in
the classroom suggested that teacher-led classroom actions taken so far during Cycle 1
did not work. Student responses and an analysis of the feedback questionnaire will be
provided in the analysis section of this chapter.
Data Collection
Chapter 4 provided a detailed description of the data collection process during
the course of the entire research project. Against that background, the data collected
during the seven sessions of Cycle 1 were:
(a) In-class worksheets
During the course of the seven sessions in Cycle 1, in-class worksheets were used
as a reflective tool. In Cycle 1, these in-class worksheets were administered in Sessions
1,3,4 and 6. There were no in-class worksheets handed out during Sessions 2 and 5 as
these sessions were spent in discussion with students. As there were four students in this
class, a total of 16 worksheets were collected during the course of Cycle 1.
As explained in Chapter 4, in-class worksheets are instructional documents with
questions and workspace pre-prepared for students to assist them in the reflective
process. These in-class worksheets typically contain a balance between guided
questions that were structured to ensure that students would reflect within the
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boundaries of the topic to be considered and an opportunity for students to explore their
thoughts in relation to what was being learnt. For example, the first part of the in-class
worksheet administered during Session 6 specifically instructed students to reflect on
the efforts that had gone into the making of their instrument while the second part of the
in-class worksheet provided students with an opportunity to explore their own thoughts
in relation to the first part of the reflection. In-class worksheets were administered and
collected at the end of each session.
(b) Transcripts of audio recordings
An audio recorder was used during the course of Cycle 1 as such an apparatus
allowed in-class discussions to be faithfully captured and recalled for purposes of
analysis as well as reflection. During the seven sessions that were held in Cycle 1,
Sessions 2 and 5 were spent in discussion with students while the rest of the other
sessions were spent in written reflections. Sessions that were spent in written
reflections were not recorded as students were mainly spending time writing during the
session with no discussions taking place. Discussions held during Sessions 2 and 5 in
Cycle 1 were recorded and later transcribed for analysis.
(c) Teacher-researcher journal
A detailed teacher-researcher journal was maintained as a tool for recording
observations, thoughts, and student comments and reactions, in regards to the progress
of the sessions, and also as a means of reflecting and exploring further ideas. Entries
were made at the end of each classroom session.
(d) Open-ended questionnaire
An open-ended questionnaire was administered in Session 7 to gain feedback
from students at the end of Cycle 1. Student feedback from this questionnaire was also
used as material for analysis.
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Overview of the Analytical Process
The analysis will be reported in two sections. The first section reports on the
observational data collected during the cycle and the second section reports on the
analysis that was conducted on the worksheets, audio transcripts and questionnaire. As
noted, information gathered through observations was recorded at the end of each
session in the teacher-researcher journal entries. These observations allowed initial
links to be established between teacher-led classroom actions and student responses.
Information gathered during these observations served as interim findings, which
formed the beginnings of the analysis that followed.
As described in Chapter 4, data were firstly categorized as „worked‟ or „did not
work‟ according to the response indicators used in the preliminary study of the research.
However, two additional indicators (nos. 4 & 5) were added to the coding process in
this cycle. These two indicators were not included in the preliminary phases of the
study as the research question was only formulated late in the preliminary phases in
Cycle 1, which made monitoring for potential integration of the Einsteinian approach
more appropriate starting from Cycle 1 than in the preliminary phases of the study.
Thus the response indicators used for Cycle 1 were:
Response Indicators (when teacher-led classroom actions worked)
1. Students are open to exploring content presented in the classroom that targets the
development of the Einsteinian approach.
2. Students find the content presented in the classroom that targets the development
of the Einsteinian approach to be relevant.
3. Students contribute well to the classroom activities that target the development of
the Einsteinian approach.
4. Students were able to integrate the concepts of the Einsteinian approach to their
music performance studies successfully.
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5. Students report that they found the Einsteinian approach made a positive
difference to their music performance studies.
Response Indicators (when teacher-led classroom actions did not work)
1. Students are not open to exploring content presented in the classroom that targets
the development of the Einsteinian approach.
2. Students find the content presented in the classroom that targets the development
of the Einsteinian approach to be irrelevant.
3. Students did not contribute well to the classroom activities that target the
development of the Einsteinian approach.
4. Students were unable to integrate the concepts of the Einsteinian approach to their
music performance studies successfully.
5. Students report that they found the Einsteinian approach made no difference to
their music performance studies.
The analysis showed that teacher-led classroom actions based on reason and logic
during Cycle 1, did not work. Further analysis was then conducted on data which
indicated the approach did not work to inquire into why such actions were not
conducive to the integration of the Einsteinian approach. In particular, an analysis was
made of the general thinking patterns of students. It was reasoned that in gaining
further understanding of the thinking patterns of students, which resulted from teacher-
led classroom actions that did not work, the teacher would be better equipped to adopt
teacher-led classroom actions that would work in the integration of the Einsteinian
approach in the following cycle.
Observations during Cycle 1
As indicated, observations made of student behaviours recorded in the teacher-
researcher journal during Cycle 1 indicated that teacher-led classroom actions based on
reason and logic did not work. This was based on observations of student behaviours
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where students were found to repeatedly exhibit a lack of responsiveness during the
sessions. For example, student behaviours such as a disruptive attitude displayed during
the discussion sessions, low levels of concentration as well as their general demeanour
adopted during these classroom sessions, suggested indifference and resistance to such
an approach. The discussion sessions often indicated much doubt that such affective
concepts could possibly be useful to students in their music performance studies. In
other words, the data strongly suggested that students were unable to find any relevance
for these affective concepts in their music performance studies.
Apart from introducing affective concepts through a logical and reasoned
approach, the importance of integrating affective concepts within MPE was also
discussed with students. These discussions were often held at length, trying to reason
with students the importance of integrating a deep and meaningful approach to create a
better balance in relation to the current competitive practices of MPE. It was observed
that students were not interested in what was being said, as they were often found to
hold personal conversations that were not directly related to the topic being considered
for the session amongst their peers thus, showing a distinct disinterest to what was being
discussed. Clearly, convincing students of the importance of the Einsteinian approach
through an intellectualized approach did not work.
Teacher-researcher journals during this period reflected frustration as shown by
these two extracts during this cycle. The first extract written is as follows:
This time, students were not so willing to listen to my suggestions (refer to
written accounts and audio material) and were feeling as if this was a waste of
their time. It was quite trying for me.
(Teacher-researcher, annual summary - Cycle 1)
The second extract is as follows:
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I was excited at the fact that there will be more students this time around.
However, it didn‟t work out quite as neatly as I thought it would. Instead,
students were disruptive. They felt that what I had to say was wasting their time
and that my effort was not worth the while. I was rather dismayed at this.
(Teacher-researcher, annual summary - Cycle 1)
In summary, as in the preliminary study phases that did not work, observations
during Cycle 1 indicate that students again responded in a negative fashion when
affective concepts were introduced based on an intellectualized approach involving
reason and logic. Also, that in trying to convince students of the importance of
incorporating the Einsteinian approach within MPE based on reason and logic, students
became even more defensive to the integration of such an approach.
Analysis of In-Class Worksheets, Audio Transcripts and Questionnaire - Cycle 1
Next, the 16 student worksheets, the two audio recordings and responses to the
questionnaire were analysed. As already described, this analysis had two main steps.
The first was to code all the data into the two main categories of work and did not work
based on a set of five response indicators. The second was to analyse and abstract the
thinking patterns of students which seemed to be behind their written responses, in order
to gain understanding and insight into why teacher-led classroom actions taken during
Cycle 1 did not work.
In-Class Worksheets
In Cycle 1, the coding of in-class worksheet data into these two categories of
worked and did not work resulted in an imbalance within these two categories with the
majority of data coded into the category of did not work. Table 10 shows the analysis
that was conducted on the in-class worksheet data during Cycle 1.
Coloured markers were used to highlight sections of the worksheet that related
to the response indicators. An Excel spreadsheet was used to assist in the analysis
where the letters NP for “Not Present” or P for “Present” were used to denote if the
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worksheet showed or did not show that particular indicator. The letters NR, which
stood for “Not Relevant” was used when the indicator was not relevant to the data. For
example, response indicator Nos.4 and 5, which relates to the integration of the
Einsteinian approach and its benefits, was not relevant to the first three worksheet data
and so the letters NR would appear under indicator Nos. 4 and 5 in this analysis.
Table 10
Analysis of In-Class Worksheet Data (Cycle 1)
Term Session Worksheet No. Name
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
3 1 1 John P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
1 Barry P NP P NR NR NP P NP NR NR
1 Jonah P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
1 Terry NP NP NP NR NR P P P NR NR
3 3 2 John P P NP NR NR NP NP P NR NR
2 Barry P NP NP NR NR NP P P NR NR
2 Jonah P NP NP NR NR NP P P NR NR
2 Terry P NP NP NR NR NP P P NR NR
3 4 3 John NP NP NP NR NR P P P NR NR
3 Barry NP NP NP NR NR P P P NR NR
3 Jonah NP NP NP NR NR P P P NR NR
3 Terry NP NP NP NR NR P P P NR NR
3 6 4 John NP NP NP NP NP P P P P P
4 Barry NP NP NP NP NP P P P P P
4 Jonah NP NP NP NP NP P P P P P
4 Terry NP NP NP NP NP P P P P P
Response Indicators (Work) Response Indicators (Did Not Work )
Note. P = Present – meaning indicator was evident in the data; NP = Not Present – meaning indicator was
not evident in the data; NR = Not Relevant – meaning indicator was not relevant to the data.
This analysis shows that the majority of students were open to exploring the
content presented with some students finding the content to be relevant. However, from
the third session onward, all students were no longer open to exploring the content and
also found the content to be irrelevant. The analysis also shows that students were
unable to successfully integrate the concepts of the Einsteinian approach to their music
performance studies as the cycle progressed.
In one way, this was unfortunate and it of course reflected the observations and
other data as recorded in the teacher-researcher journal, as shown previously. However,
in another way, it was important, since data and thinking patterns showing that the
approach used did not work can offer greater diagnostic value in learning to understand
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and how to develop and integrate the Einsteinian approach in a competitive classroom
environment. In other words, understanding why teacher-led classroom actions used in
Cycle 1 did not work can be an important step towards answering the central research
question:
How can an Einsteinian approach be incorporated into a competitively driven music
performance education culture at the secondary school level?
Therefore, the analysis for Cycle 1 focused on data that was coded as did not work.
After the coding, the second step was to analyse the thinking patterns behind
student responses. At this point, the analysis of students‟ thinking patterns posed
several issues for the researcher. The first difficulty involved students‟ written work that
was incomplete. For example, there were times where students did not provide enough
information in the worksheets as they were either unable to understand what to do or
were unwilling to participate as they could not see the point in doing such an exercise.
Such worksheets were often left blank. Secondly, there were worksheets that contained
responses that were vague or were not relevant to the task required of the student.
Figure 7 shows a scanned copy of an example of a student‟s reply that was vague and
irrelevant. This worksheet was administered in Session 1 of this cycle where students
were asked to write a mission statement as a performing musician.
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Figure 7 Example Worksheet Data
The last sentence where this student refers to a yellow pen is completely
irrelevant to what he was required to write about. In-class worksheet data that were
along the same lines as the example shown in Figure 7 became problematic during the
analysis. Although all of these issues encountered in students‟ written work during this
cycle reinforced the fact that teacher-led classroom actions taken during this cycle did
not work, it did not provide any means to proceed in the planning of the next cycle as
there was no way by which more could be learned about students‟ thinking patterns
from some of the in-class worksheet data that had been collected.
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In view of this, the researcher decided to focus on worksheets that contained the
most negative comments and reactions in order to learn more about why teacher-led
classroom actions did not work during this cycle. Worksheet data collected in Session 6
of this cycle from a student by the name of John contained the most negative comments
and reactions. This worksheet was used to analyse for the general thinking pattern of
the student. This is reported in subsequent sections of this chapter.
This part of the analysis did produce recurring patterns in the thinking of
students. These recurring patterns were analysed and an interpretation was made. This
provided some insight into teacher-led classroom actions that might be potentially
workable. These are reported in subsequent sections. These findings were used in the
planning of the next cycle.
Audio transcripts
As reported, two of the seven Cycle 1 sessions were recorded. After
transcribing the audio recordings, the transcripts were assigned a letter and a number.
The letter A was used to designate the category of audio followed by a number to
identify the series of recordings that were collected during the course of the research.
The researcher then listened again to the recording and read along with the transcript to
ensure that the discussions had been accurately transcribed. Following this, the
transcript was read twice, a summary was written and coding was done. Student
comments were cross checked against the five response indictors. Coloured markers
were used to highlight sections of the transcript that related to the response indicators.
An Excel spreadsheet was used to assist in the analysis where the letter NP for “Not
Present” or P for “Present” were used to denote if the transcript showed or did not show
that particular indicator. The letters NR, which stood for „Not Relevant‟ was used when
the indicator was not relevant to the data.
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For each transcript, the presence of the indicator in each category of worked and
did not work was then compared. In both cases as shown in Table 11, the data clearly
indicates that teacher-led classroom actions did not work. Indeed, Table 11 shows there
were no response indicators showing that teacher-led classroom actions taken during
Cycle 1 had worked.
Analysis of worksheet data and audio transcripts in Cycle 1 show that indicator
Nos. 4 and 5, which apply to the application of the Einsteinian approach, were coded as
NR indicating that these indicators were not relevant to the analysis. As students were
not able to see the relevance of such an approach through the course of the cycle, which
resulted in them becoming less open to exploring content presented in the classroom
that targets the development of the Einsteinian approach, it was therefore, not feasible to
apply the Einsteinian approach.
Table 11
Analysis of Audio Transcripts (Cycle 1)
Cycle Year Term Session Transcript
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
1 11 3 2 A1 NP NP NP NR NR P P P NR NR
1 11 3 5 A2 NP NP NP NR NR P P P NR NR
Response Indicators (Work) Response Indicators (Did Not Work )
Note. P = Present – meaning indicator was evident in the data; NP = Not Present – meaning indicator was
not evident in the data; NR = Not Relevant – meaning indicator was not relevant to the data.
The analysis of the audio transcripts in Table 11 indicate that students were not
open to exploring content presented in the classroom and also found the content to be
irrelevant to their music performance studies. As a result, students did not contribute
well to the classroom activities which made it impossible to integrate the Einsteinian
approach into the music classroom.
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Worksheet Administered during Session 6 of Cycle 1. As noted, the most
negative comments and responses received were from John during Cycle 1. As
described earlier, the second part to the in-class worksheet administered in Session 6 of
Cycle 1 required students to reflect on the efforts that had gone into the making of their
instrument. John‟s reflection is as follows:
I really don‟t know why we are doing this. Miss Chan must think that if we
value how much effort has gone into the production of our instrument then we
will play better in performance because we think that we are doing a discredit to
the real value of our instruments if we don‟t. There are so many books on the
production of the guitar that it is completely useless for me to think about this.
Yes, I understand that lots of effort has gone into the making of my instrument,
but 1) lots of effort goes into the making of almost anything, and 2) it‟s not
going to help me play better if I know my instruments worth, thus defeating the
whole point of this exercise.
Anyway… I‟m not entirely sure about the origin of my strings, but I‟m
sure they came from a line of production and I‟m thankful for the chance to use
them. I‟ll probably find out the exact origin one day, but for now, who cares. I
also have several knobs and switches etc. on my guitar made out of plastic. But,
under the frame are complex electric circuits, I think. Wow, imagined the work
done to make them! I‟m going to play joy now.
Paint, to, circuits, at stake, would, strings, mental, material, production,
factory, trees, chemicals, workers, meat on the table, piano would be costly, no
wonder our instruments cost so much, idiocy, pointless (?), could work, not sure,
time, recess, recess, lunch, party, party…
Space cadet…
Prawn…
Jizz….
(John‟s written reflection – Cycle 1/ Term 3/ Session 6)
Next, each sentence was analysed to infer John‟s thinking pattern. This is shown in
Table 12.
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Table 12
Analysis of John’s Thinking Pattern
Sentence
Number
(SN)
Sentence John’s
Thinking
Pattern
1
I really don‟t know why we are doing this.
Confusion
2
Ms Chan must think that if we value how much effort has
gone into the production of our instrument then we will play
better in performance because we think that we are doing
discredit to the real value of our instruments if we don‟t.
Doubt
3
There are so many books on the production of the guitar that
it is completely useless for me to think about this.
Irrelevance
4
Yes, I understand that lots of effort has gone into the making
of my instrument, but 1) lots of effort goes into the making
of almost anything, and 2) it‟s not going to help me play
better if I know my instruments worth, thus defeating the
whole point of this exercise.
Irrelevance
5
Anyway… I‟m not entirely sure about the origin of my
strings, but I‟m sure they came from a line of production and
I‟m thankful for the chance to use them. I‟ll probably find
out the exact origin one day, but for now, who cares.
Irrelevance
6, 7 & 8
I also have several knobs and switches etc. on my guitar
made out of plastic. But, under the frame are complex
electric circuits, I think. Wow, imagined the work done to
make them! I‟m going to play joy now.
Frustration
9
Paint, to, circuits, at stake, would, strings, mental, material,
production, factory, trees, chemicals, workers, meat on the
table, piano would be costly, no wonder our instruments cost
so much, idiocy, pointless (?), could work, not sure, time,
recess, recess, lunch, party, party…
Disinterest
Concluding
comments
Space cadet…
Prawn…
Jizz….
Disinterest
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The analysis in Table 12 shows five categories of thinking patterns. These
categories were confusion, doubt, irrelevance, frustration and disinterest. These
categories themselves were then analysed and interpreted as will be shown in
subsequent sections.
Feedback questionnaire. An open-ended questionnaire containing four
questions was administered in the final session of Cycle 1. The purpose of the
questionnaire was to investigate students‟ general perception of the course up to this
point. The responses were once again analysed to ascertain students‟ thinking patterns.
It was important to keep the questionnaire short as negative reactions from students in
this cycle suggested that a longer questionnaire would be counterproductive. Tables 13
to 16 show the analysis that was conducted on this feedback questionnaire. Names used
as fictitious.
Table 13
Question 1 from Questionnaire
Question 1 Did you reflect on all the effort that has gone into the making of your
instrument prior to your practice sessions last week?
Student Comment Work (W)/
Did Not
Work(DNW)
Student
Thought
Pattern
John
Thought about it after performance class.
W
Reflective
Barry
No, I forgot.
DNW
Disinterest
Jonah
I thought about how much effort would
have gone into the making of it.
W
Reflective
Terry
Nope.
DNW
Disinterest
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Although Jonah did make some effort to apply the Einsteinian concept, other
students did not really make any effort to do so throughout the course.
Table 14
Question 2 from Questionnaire
Question 2 If you did take the time to reflect, how did you feel your practice
session went?
Student Comment Work (W)/
Did Not Work
(DNW)
Student
Thought
Pattern
John Tried a bit harder
W Positive
outcome
Barry (no answer provided) DNW N/A
Jonah I was happy with my practice and I
thought my pieces improved a lot.
W Positive
outcome
Terry (no answer provided) DNW N/A
It is clear here that students who did not make any effort to apply the Einsteinian
concepts did not respond as positively as Jonah, who had made some effort.
Table 15
Question 3 from Questionnaire
Question 3
If you did not take time to do this, write down why you did not manage to do this.
Student Comment Work (W)/
Did Not Work
(DNW)
Student
Thought
Pattern
John Didn‟t do it directly before I practiced because I
forgot.
DNW Disinterest
Barry I didn‟t manage to do this as in the mornings, I am
more focussed on having a good practice session
and I forgot. I don‟t count on remembering in the
future, as viola is my outlet on forgetting about
school and relaxing. I also told my viola teacher
about this reflection and he laughed and said,
“Well, Barry, that‟s 3 minutes of practise you are
missing out on, no?”
DNW Disinterest
Jonah (no answer provided)
N/A N/A
Terry It seemed irrelevant and I could not see the point
of doing so although I tried.
DNW Irrelevance
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Students who did not make the effort to apply the Einsteinian concept were
either disinterested or found such an approach to be irrelevant to their music
performance studies. Barry reported on how his instrumental teacher felt this might cut
into his practice time, implying that such a concept was irrelevant to his music
performance studies.
Table 16
Question 4 from Questionnaire
Question 4
Write down any thoughts that you might have about these sessions so far.
Student Comment W/DNW Student
Thought
Pattern
John While I understand the purpose of these sessions, I am
not completely sure of the practical usage of several
aspects of it. I think that however the reason for this is
that I have come into the class without a clear view of its
objectives, therefore, having a bad attitude, or worse
attitude than I could have towards it. However, I think
that because I do understand that objectives of
performance class that if I put the methods learnt into
practice they may be useful.
DNW Confusion
Barry I told my viola teacher about the reflection and he
laughed and said that it was a waste of time. In a way, I
agree with him and cannot see the point in remembering
about some peasant who watered the tree as he is dead,
and death is the ultimate equalizer, even if you are a
king, you are still judged equally. I don‟t care about the
guy who cut the tree down, as he wouldn‟t care either.
The only person who is important is the person who
crafted my viola with his hands, whoever he is, but he is
still a nonentity who was told to craft a Strad copy, in a
sweat shop.
DNW Irrelevance
Jonah I thought that these sessions are a bit of a waste of time. I
don‟t think that considering the origins of my
instruments will really help me as a performer.
DNW Irrelevance
Terry As the sessions are still at its early stages, it has not
really benefited me in terms of my performing just yet.
DNW No Positive
Outcomes
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Jonah, who originally felt that the application of the Einsteinian concept had
contributed positively to his pieces, now reports that such a concept was irrelevant to his
music performance studies. Terry, on the other hand, reports that such an approach did
not provide him with any benefits so far, but feels that he should continue to give this
approach a try. This was similar to the other issues encountered during the analysis of
worksheet data as mentioned previously where student responses were found to be
vague or unclear. Barry again reports on how his instrumental teacher found such an
approach to be irrelevant.
As the tables show, this analysis of the questionnaire responses replicated four
out of the five categories of students‟ thinking patterns found in the previous analysis of
the worksheet data that contained the most negative comments and responses -
confusion, doubt, irrelevance and disinterest.
Findings for Cycle 1
The analysis carried out during Cycle 1 on three different sources of data -
student worksheets, audio transcripts and feedback questionnaire - indicates clearly that
teacher-led classroom actions taken during Cycle 1 did not work.
As in preliminary Phase 2a, the findings from Cycle 1 confirm that teacher-led
classroom actions based on logic and reason did not produce positive outcomes. An
additional insight gained from Cycle 1 was the importance of not trying to convince
students of the need to gain more appreciation and meaning in their music performance
studies. While students were happy to engage in being reflective, no further positive
outcomes were found to be present during this cycle. Table 17 provides a summary of
the insights gained from Cycle 1.
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Table 17
Summary of Insights Gained in Cycle 1
INSIGHTS GAINED
Action Research Cycle 1
Year 11
Students participated in taking the time to explore their
thinking.
In explaining to students the importance of gaining
more depth and meaning in their music performance
studies, students‟ values and perceptions were
constantly challenged. Students did not respond
positively to this.
Students cannot be convinced of the importance of
finding more meaning and appreciation in their music
performance studies.
Intellectualizing affective concepts did not work well.
Students were again unable to see, through reason and
logic, how affective concepts might be useful to their
music performance studies.
Preliminary Findings
Students are willing to reflect.
Intellectualizing affective concepts does not produce
any positive outcomes.
Cycle 1 Summary
Work
Reflection
Did Not Work Intellectualizing affective concepts
Trying to convince students of the importance of
gaining more meaning in their music performance
studies
Next, Table 18 provides a cumulative summary of findings from the preliminary
phases and Cycle 1.
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Table 18
Cumulative Summary of Findings (Preliminary Phases & Cycle 1)
Research Cycle
Teacher-led classroom actions
Work (W)/
Did Not Work
(DNW)
Preliminary Phase 1
(One-To-One)
Reflection
W
Preliminary Phase 2a
(Year 11)
Reflection
and
Intellectualization of Einsteinian
concepts
DNW
Preliminary Phase 2b
(Year 10)
Reflection
and
Student self-discovery
and
Giving voice to students
W
Preliminary Phase 2c
(Year 11)
Reflection
and
Student self-discovery
and
Giving voice to students
W
Action Research Cycle 1
Reflection
and
Intellectualization of Einsteinian
concepts
and
Convincing students of the
importance of the Einsteinian
approach
DNW
The most negative worksheet produced the five thinking patterns categories of
confusion, doubt, frustration, disinterest and irrelevance, and four of these were
replicated in the questionnaire data. The next section describes an interpretation of
these five thinking patterns.
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An Interpretation of Students’ General Thinking Patterns
These patterns were examined, in conjunction with a re-reading of the data, in
order to develop questions to guide Cycle 2 of the action research. When this was done,
the most fruitful concept seemed to be that of irrelevance. Doubt suggests students
were uncertain and lacked trust that the process would be beneficial. Confusion
indicates that the presentation of the Einsteinian approach needed to be clearer.
Disinterest and frustration would follow as a reaction to students‟ uncertainty and
doubt. However, consideration of what it meant for students to find the Einsteinian
approach to be irrelevant led to these three questions:
(a) Why were students feeling disconnected with the Einsteinian approach?
(b) How would it be possible to get students to connect with the Einsteinian
approach?
(c) What would be needed to allow such a connection to take place?
With these questions in mind, data were re-examined. Student responses and
comments from the in-class worksheet data and questionnaire data were read through
once again. During this reading, further consideration was given to data that signified
irrelevance - for example, in words such as “useless” and “waste of time.” These
sentiments indicate that a lack of need was present on the part of the student in
employing such affective concepts, as they did not feel such actions to be necessary. In
other words, the disconnection may have occurred as a result of a lack of a “felt-need”
on the part of the student. The term “felt-need” is used here to mean a need that
students felt were important to them in relation to their music performance studies. A
summary of the possible reasons for the five main thinking patterns is provided in Table
19.
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Table 19
A Summary of the Interpretation of Students’ Thinking Patterns
Categories of General
Thought Patterns
Possible Reasons
Doubt
Students were uncertain
Confusion
Delivery of teacher was not sufficiently clear
Disinterest
A reaction to “confusion” and “doubt”
Frustration
A reaction to “confusion” and “doubt”
Irrelevance
Student‟s felt- needs were not being addressed
This resulted in the formation of three further questions, which formed the basis
in planning for Cycle 2. These questions are as follows:
1. What are students‟ felt-needs within the context of music performance?
2. How is it possible to ascertain and understand students‟ felt-needs within the
context of music performance?
3. What impact will this have on the integration of the Einsteinian approach within
the music performance classroom?
These questions were used to guide action research Cycle 2, which is reported in
the next chapter.
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CHAPTER 7
ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE 2
Purpose of Action Research Cycle 2
The purpose of action research Cycle 2 was to put into action the findings from
the previous research cycle. The analysis carried out at the completion of Cycle 1 on
data that did not work suggests the importance of considering students‟ felt-needs in
relation to music performance as a component that may assist in the integration of the
Einsteinian approach. As noted, this led to the following questions, which guided the
planning phase of Cycle 2:
1. What are students‟ felt-needs within the context of music performance?
2. How is it possible to ascertain and understand students‟ felt-needs within the
context of music performance?
3. What impact will this have on the integration of the Einsteinian approach in the
music performance classroom?
Eighteen sessions were planned as part of Cycle 2 with a new set of five Year 11
students. The next section provides an overview of sessions held in Cycle 2 followed
by a descriptive account of the classroom sessions that took place.
Overview of Classroom Sessions
The main teacher-led classroom action taken during Cycle 2 focussed on
ascertaining and understanding students‟ felt-needs in relation to music performance.
The classroom sessions during Cycle 2 were structured in a similar manner to the
previous cycle where students were allowed time to reflect followed by an opportunity
to share their thoughts through discussion. As in the previous cycles, in-class
worksheets containing guided questions were administered as a means of initiating the
reflective process.
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In inquiring into students‟ felt-needs within the context of music performance, a
good starting point seemed to be their problems and issues in relation to music
performance. Thus, Term 1 of Cycle 2 centred on identifying problems and issues
experienced by students in relation to music performance. Drawing on insights gained
from the preliminary phases (see Table 8) and Cycle 1 (see Table 17), teacher-led
classroom actions taken that worked were again employed. Students were encouraged
to reflect and voice their issues and problems that they often encountered within MPE.
Terms 2 and 3 of Cycle 2 involved practical applications of the three affective concepts
- gratitude, humility and wonder.
The following section provides a description of the 18 sessions held with the
new set of five Year 11 students during Cycle 2. This description is given in some
detail in order to show the progression of the researcher‟s understanding of how student
reactions to teacher-led classroom actions could inform the development of the
Einsteinian approach. This happened progressively over a number of sessions. Quotes
from classroom discussions are included to illustrate the process, and summary tables
show the insights developed after Terms 1, 2 and 3.
Term 1
Six sessions were held during Term 1. As before, names used are fictitious.
Session 1
The introductory session to Cycle 2 was spent introducing the aims of this
performance course to students. A question and answer session followed to allow
students the opportunity clarify any questions that they may have in relation to the
course. Using reflection, discussion and dictionary definitions, this session then
concentrated on distinguishing between the concepts of problems and issues. A
worksheet was prepared to assist students in the reflective process (see Appendix E).
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Students concluded that the difference between these concepts centred on the level of
difficulty in relation to a solution, with a problem being easier to resolve than an issue.
Session 2
Having distinguished between the concepts of problems and issues, students
started reflecting on problems and issues that they often encountered as music
performance students. A worksheet was prepared for students to reflect on this (see
Appendix F). As students listed their problems and issues in relation to music
performance, a summary was compiled and placed onto PowerPoint [see Appendix O].
Students also began sharing and elaborating on their experiences in relation to the list of
issues and problems. For example, in talking about stage fright, Matthew relayed his
experience during his earlier years of high school. He said:
In the first or second bar, I hit a wrong note and I just didn‟t know how to go on.
I just couldn‟t go on and so I was standing there. Because I had an
accompaniment as well and so Mr. Vinny had to keep playing. I just left stage.
And a little later:
I just went... (pauses) like I just played like up to the second or third bar and I hit
a wrong note and I was like froze... (pauses again). I just froze and didn‟t know
what to do and just left stage.
(DVD transcript [D1] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 1/ Session 2 - Lines 648 – 658)
Two other students started to share their experiences in relation to performance anxiety:
Sam: Mine is more like you just start playing and you don‟t really think about
what you are playing or you don‟t really think. All you think about is just the
audience and like if you stuff up and their reaction, which makes you stuff up
because you‟re not concentrating on the music. And then like you dry up in
your mouth and you shake and all sorts of random stuff and you like can feel
your pulse in your shirt because it‟s so tight around your neck and stuff.
(DVD transcript [D1] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 1/ Session 2 - Lines 696-701)
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Harry: Sometimes when there‟s a difficult passage coming up and you think,
„Oh…that stuff is hard...‟ When you think about stuffing up you stuff it up.
(DVD transcript [D1] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 1/ Session 2 - Lines 713 – 714)
Matthew continued sharing his stage fright experience saying:
When I had that experience, it never put me off performing on drum kit or like
in groups and it didn‟t even put me off performing keyboard for the exam. But
I‟ve never been able to just go back on stage just some solo. Like I can perform
it, I play it in exams, with percussion ensemble and stuff but I just can‟t play it. I
just can‟t bring myself to go on stage.
(DVD transcript [D1] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 1/ Session 2 - Lines 850-854)
Students continued to freely share their problems and issues in relation to music
performance for the rest of this session. In general, students contributed well and were
attentive to what each other had to say. A sense of camaraderie amongst students was
generated as they began to openly share in this way. The session concluded with a
summarized list of problems and issues encountered by these students in relation to
music performance.
Session 3
This session was spent revisiting the PowerPoint summary of the collective class
responses. Students were asked to study the listed responses and to search for any
commonalities between these issues and problems. Students said the following:
Jerry: They are all to do with the performer and not the music. It‟s not the music
that‟s hard, it‟s the performer that‟s got the problem.
And a little later:
Sam: “It‟s all in the mind.”
(DVD transcript [D2] – Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 1/ Session 3 – Lines 189 – 191)
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Students were invited to consider how to work on themselves as a way of
resolving these issues. They seemed to interpret working on themselves as getting
themselves to work harder. For example, they suggested increasing their practice
session times or being involved in more performing opportunities in order to overcome
issues such as performance anxiety. However, when asked if such suggestions had
made any real difference to their issue, students admitted that no difference was made,
as performance anxiety was still an issue for them prior to a performance.
Being more aware of how solutions used in the past to resolve their issues, such
as performance anxiety, did not result in any positive changes, students became open to
considering other possibilities. Students also said at this point that they preferred
working on their issues rather than problems, as they felt that their problems were easier
to overcome in comparison to their issues. The introduction to how affective concepts
might hold a possible solution to their issues was proposed. Students appeared keen to
listen to how such an approach could be of use to them. This paved the way toward the
introduction of affective concepts within the music performance classroom.
This was a major turning point in how the Einsteinian approach can be
integrated into MPE as this was the first time when students were able to accommodate
the possibility of integrating affective variables into their music performance studies
without any resistance.
Sessions 4 and 5
These sessions elaborated on affective concepts. The intellectualized approach
through reason and logic was revisited where questions were again put forth to
challenge the thinking processes of students in order to convince them of the importance
of such an approach. Although students were previously willing and open to consider
the possibility that affective concepts may have a part to play in resolving their issues
voiced in Session 2, they once again had difficulty in comprehending how these
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concepts may be useful. On several instances during Session 5, students reported that
they were confused. Students did not seem as interested in their learning compared to
Session 3. These difficulties showed again that approaching affective concepts from the
perspective of logic and reason did not work. Therefore, the intellectualization of
affective concepts was abandoned.
Session 6
This session returned to students‟ felt-needs where issues voiced by students
during Session 2 were revisited. A worksheet was provided where students were asked
to rank the nine listed issues compiled from Session 2 in the order of importance for
them, where 1 was the most important issue for them and 9 the least important (see
Appendix G). These results were graphed and made available to the class through
PowerPoint (see Appendix P and Q). The issue that yielded the greatest concern for this
set of Year 11 students was preparation for an upcoming performance, followed by
nerves. These two issues were then taken as a point of entry in the integration of
affective concepts.
Students were next reminded of the suggestion made during Session 3 in relation
to the potential that affective concepts may hold in resolving their issues in relation to
music performance. They were still open to such a possibility. The affective concept of
wonder was then introduced to students. The next paragraph describes how Sam was
guided to integrate the concept of wonder in relation to his musical instrument to assist
with his issue of preparation before a music performance.
Sam, a trumpet student, was asked to wonder about the efforts that had gone into
the making of the instrument before playing on his trumpet. He was asked to verbalize
his thoughts as he was going through this process. Although Sam did not know the
people who were directly involved in the making of his instrument, nonetheless, he
started to become aware of the fact that several people were responsible in the making
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of his trumpet. He was guided to retrace step-by-step, a possible journey that his
trumpet would have gone through while it was being made along with the people that
would have been involved in the process. This led Sam to reflect on the person who
was involved in the moulding of the trumpet, the person who was involved in the
packaging process, the delivery man required to have the instrument displayed in a
music store and a storekeeper who had to set up shop in order for the trumpet to be
purchased. Sam then also extended his thought to his parents and their financial support
which made it possible for the purchase of his trumpet. The sum of all efforts involved
in enabling the trumpet to be now poised in his hands ready to be performed was
occupying Sam‟s mind at this point. At first, Sam‟s response was that of guilt where he
felt that he owed all these people something. At this point, he was guided to consider
taking on a more positive perspective instead of feeling guilty. Pausing to think how he
could approach this from a more positive perspective, Sam then said that he could
perhaps think in terms of what he could do in return for all the efforts that had gone into
the making of his instrument. At this point, Sam was engaging with the affective
concept of gratitude without any need for a formal introduction. Sam then remarked
how such a way of thinking made him feel like performing on this trumpet to the best of
his ability as a way of honouring all the efforts of the people that have gone into the
making of this instrument. With such a perspective in place, Sam started playing on his
trumpet. When asked how he felt at the end of it, he replied how much he liked
approaching his instrument from such a perspective. This was the final session for
Term 1.
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Summary of Insights Gained during Cycle 2, Term 1
The aim for Term 1 was to access students‟ felt-needs based on the findings
from the previous cycle where this component was thought to be potentially useful in
allowing students to find more relevance in integrating affective concepts to their music
performance studies.
Felt-needs were investigated by asking students about their issues and problems
in relation to music performance. Students appeared to respond well to such an
approach and were able to engage with the affective concept of gratitude through
wonder showing a possible relationship between these two concepts. It appears that no
formal introduction may be necessary for students to engage with these affective
concepts but instead students need to be guided based on their felt-needs to engage with
these concepts. Table 20 provides a summary of the insights gained in Term 1 of Cycle
2. Once again, using reason and logic to introduce these affective concepts did not
work.
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Table 20
Summary of Insights Gained in Cycle 2 Term 1
INSIGHTS GAINED
Action Research
Cycle 2 Term 1
Students appeared to respond positively when they are given
voice in the classroom.
Students demonstrated an interest in sharing their issues and
problems with their peers.
Students demonstrated openness to exploring other approaches
when they were not confronted.
Students appeared to be able to engage with the affective
concept of gratitude through wonder.
Reflection was still important.
Term 1 Findings
In giving consideration to students‟ felt-needs in relation to their
music performance studies, students appear to respond well.
Giving voice to students appears to produce positive outcomes.
Students enjoy time to reflect.
Gratitude appears to be accessible through wonder.
Term 1 Summary
Work
Reflection
Student felt-need
Giving voice to students
Did Not Work
Intellectualizing affective concepts
Reason and logic
Convincing students of the importance in gaining more meaning
and appreciation in their music performance studies.
Term 2
Five sessions were held during Term 2.
Session 1
This session was spent revisiting the contents from the final session of Term 1,
which students were able to recall without much difficulty. As the session progressed,
Matthew started to say how much respect he felt for the people who were involved in
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the making of their instrument. Such a feeling arose when he thought about how people
who were involved in the making of the instrument needed to relinquish it in order for
the instrument to make its way to a buyer. Therefore, all the efforts that had gone into
the making of the instrument need to be honoured especially when people who were
involved in the making of the instrument will not be able know whether their efforts
were appreciated. Students shared their thoughts about what they had learnt from last
term and any experiences they had in their own application of the Einsteinian approach.
Session 2
Students were required to bring their instruments into class for this session in
order that they may again be guided to apply the Einsteinian approach. Matthew, who
plays the xylophone, was guided to apply the concept of gratitude through a
consideration of the efforts of people that have gone into the making of his xylophone.
The excerpt from the transcript of this session shows Matthew integrating the
Einsteinian approach.
Matthew: It‟s got metal, the welder would have to weld these two pieces
together. Someone had to mould the tubes. We have wood inside here so we
would have to have someone cut the wood.
Sam: What about the people that had to mine them?
Matthew: Yeah... (surprised that there were so many more people involved in
the making of the xylophone)
(DVD transcript [D5] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 2 - Lines 176-181)
Matthew then proceeds to examine every part of the xylophone in detail for the
next ten minutes. After this exercise, Matthew starts to perform a short piece of music
in front of the whole class. At the end of the performance, his peers were about to start
clapping when Matthew interrupted as if unaware of the clapping and said:
That felt good. I felt really confident. Like...(pauses slightly), I felt more
confident, the sound that I made as well. I don‟t know...(slightly perplexed) but
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I start to appreciate the sound more because a lot of time when I play that song,
like I just show people by playing real fast and I didn‟t really appreciate what it
sounded like, the actual instrument.
He continues to say:
It‟s like every fine note... (starts to play the instrument again and listening).
While I was playing it, I felt it‟s easier to... (pauses), like feeling good once I‟ve
accomplished it. Just like from the word “go.”
(DVD transcript [D5] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 2 - Lines 243-252)
In the example above, Matthew was almost enchanted by the music that he had
just produced in his playing. This was the same student that had relayed the negative
experience that he had with nerves when he was in Year 8 which resulted in him
walking off stage and saying how he had never since been able to feel comfortable
playing the xylophone. As Matthew was about to pack his xylophone away, Sam
interrupted to ask Matthew:
Sam: Did you feel like there was no pressure on you?
Matthew: Yeah.
Sam: It‟s like no matter what you did like…the reaction would be pretty good?
Matthew: Yup.
Me: So, that‟s how you felt huh, Sam?
Sam: Yeah.
(DVD transcript [D5] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 2 - Lines 274-279)
Sam‟s comments demonstrate a positive outcome in feeling less pressure after
integrating the concept of gratitude while performing. In asking Matthew if he too felt
less pressured while performing, the tone in Sam‟s voice was one of surprise at how
affective concepts could possibly yield such an effect. The rest of the session was spent
taking Harry through the same process of applying the concept of gratitude to his guitar
prior to him performing in front of his peers. A similar positive outcome was produced
in Harry who also found that such an approach allowed him to focus better while
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performing. His peers also commented on how much better they felt his performance
went the second time through after he had taken the time to reflect on his instrument.
Sessions 3 and 4
These sessions were designed for students to be mindful of balancing the use of
affective concepts with the more traditional learning elements such as managing their
practice time. They were made aware of Ericsson‟s (1993) findings of deliberate
practice in the development of expert performance which concludes that approximately
10,000 hours of accumulated time spent in practice is needed in the acquisition of any
skill. An Excel spreadsheet was prepared to allow students to gauge a sense of the
amount of time needed for them to arrive at such a goal.
Session 5
At the start of this session, the first expanded worksheet (see Appendix M) was
handed out to students to provide them with further opportunities to reflect as well as to
revisit the previous concept of gratitude as expressed in Einstein‟s humanistic and
philosophical writings. In this first expanded worksheet, students were required to
complete ten reflective accounts over the next ten days, of which eight were to be based
on reflecting on their instrument prior to each practice session, with two other
reflections to be applied to events involving their daily lives. Students were also
required to document any changes that they may notice during this time in relation to
how they were thinking or feeling. Having explained the requirements of the expanded
worksheet to the class, the rest of the session was spent introducing the affective
concept of humility.
Drawing on students‟ comments from previous sessions, the issue of
performance nerves was used to introduce humility. An in-class worksheet (see
Appendix H) was provided for students to reflect on what happens to them when they
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are nervous. This topic was then discussed. During the discussion, students said such
things as:
Sam: Shake…mostly like if you are standing up and you are standing up for
performances…um, like stage band or something…um, your legs shake more
than anything else…and then that way it‟s like domino effect up your body and
it goes into your hand. Especially with the white shirts on because they are
tight, you can feel the veins in your neck…it‟s like…boom…boom…boom like
that…um…and in your heart as well…it just like becomes much heavier…like
you can really feel it…become conscious of it. Um, you sweat a bit…I don‟t
really sweat too much…um…err…but your mouth becomes dry as well. And
that‟s pretty bad when you are playing the trumpet.
And,
Barry: Yep…the first one…Yeah…just the hands sweat and stuff…like sort of
shake just tiny bit…yeah…you sort of get cold.
(DVD transcript [D7] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 5 - Lines 297-308)
Students were then asked if they could provide reasons why they felt nervous prior to a
performance. Some examples of their responses are:
Sam: The main reason why you get nervous is because someone else is going to
give their opinion about you and it‟s like when you play at home by yourself you
play it fine and you say, „”Yeah, that was good.”
(DVD transcript [D7] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 5 - Lines 393-395)
Sam: The thing is like at home, you know you can do it, it‟s like you can nail
it…not every single time… but you know you can do it. Then you come in here
and you get intimidated by the people sitting there, so you like, “Oooo…I
wonder if I can or if I can‟t”...not so much thinking… “I know I can.”
(DVD transcript [D7] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 5 - Lines 415-418)
Harry: Like sometimes the mark you get…like indicates their opinion of your
playing. So, like you said before, when you worry about opinions it could make
you nervous.
(DVD transcript [D7] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 5 - Lines 450-451)
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This led Sam to question the validity of the assessment process involved during a music
performance examination:
You can‟t say that someone is this good because you‟ve heard them for 15 mins.
It‟s like that‟s what they base the whole thing on…and it‟s like…you do so
many other things and so many other things they don‟t examine…and it can‟t be
marked on the basis of how good you are a player but it‟s going to marked on 15
mins of what you are giving.
(DVD transcript [D7)] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 5 - Lines 470-474)
Sam concludes by saying:
You lose the reason in why you are playing.
(DVD transcript [D7] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 5 - Line 497)
At this point in the discussion, the entire class appeared quiet and contemplative.
When asked how important it would be for them to find a more meaningful reason and
purpose in performing music, students were unified in their response, agreeing fully to
the importance of seeking for a more meaningful approach within MPE. This was the
last session for Term 2.
Summary of Insights Gained in Cycle 2, Term 2
As noted earlier, detailed description of sessions held during Cycle 2 are
provided to show the understanding gained over time by the researcher between
students‟ reactions and teacher-led classroom actions taken, which formed the basis in
how the Einsteinian approach was developed.
In Session 2, Matthew‟s experience suggests how wonder enabled him to listen
intently and with interest to the sounds he was producing on his xylophone as if he was
hearing it for the first time. This was similar to the experience reported by Gary the
cellist, earlier in preliminary Phase 1, Scenario #4. Matthew also reported feeling good
while performing. Sam reported feeling less pressured and sought confirmation from
Matthew whether he too had experienced a similar outcome while performing.
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As discussed in Chapter 3, Einstein‟s perception of gratitude and humility
requires one to see one‟s self as part of the whole. Competitive situations, on the other
hand, tend to promote the notion of a winner which ultimately stands out from the rest.
The latter often causes issues such as performance nerves to arise due to expectations.
For example, Harry‟s reference in Session 5, to the expectation placed on students
during an examination situation tends to create such a division between the student and
the examiner resulting in students feeling nervous while being assessed. In applying
affective concepts based on Einstein‟s perception, students started reporting feelings of
ease, confidence and focus while performing. These positive outcomes make sense, as
the perception of being at one with the other is likely to promote feelings of being
supported which can result in a sense of ease and confidence as reported by students
through their experience. Therefore, Sam‟s question to Matthew in Session 2, asking if
Matthew felt at ease while performing suggests that Sam has managed to gain some
experience of these concepts as perceived by Einstein. This shows that Sam was
starting to integrate the Einsteinian approach with some success.
Students started to show awareness for issues surrounding music assessments
which appear to have prompted them to start reassessing their current values in search
of a more balanced perspective, where meaning and depth may be considered just as
important as achieving high marks. In Cycle 1, efforts made in trying to convince
students of the importance in gaining a more balanced approach were met with much
resistance. In Cycle 2, students are arriving at their own conclusions of such an
importance without any need to be convinced. Table 21 provides a summary of the
insights gained in Cycle 2, Term 2.
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Table 21
Summary of Insights Gained in Cycle 2, Term 2
INSIGHTS GAINED
Action Research
Cycle 2, Term 2
Giving consideration to students‟ felt-needs appeared to produce
positive results in the integration of the Einsteinian approach.
Students appeared to have demonstrated more understanding for
the importance of gaining a deeper and meaningful approach to
their music performance studies.
Musical outcome – Students reported feeling less pressured while
performing suggesting that affective concepts may be useful to
students in rebalancing the competitive mindset which often
contends with issues such as being judged based on expectations
of others during a performance.
Other benefits – Students report feeling a sense of respect as a
result of applying the Einsteinian approach.
Term 2 Findings
Affective concepts such as gratitude and wonder appear to
contribute to musical outcomes such as listening more attentively
to the tone that one is producing.
Students‟ felt-needs appear to be an important component in the
integration of the Einsteinian approach.
Students do not need to be convinced of the importance in gaining
more meaning in their music performance. It is possible for
students to come to the realization themselves. They just need to
be guided to discover this for themselves.
Term 2 Summary
Work
Reflection
Giving voice to students
Students‟ felt-needs
Did Not Work
None
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Term 3
Seven sessions were held during Term 3.
Session 1
This session started by revisiting the subject of performance anxiety. How
students responded when they were nervous and possible causes to such reactions were
discussed. As in Session 3 of Term 1, Jerry again noted that the responses tended to
refer to the “self.” However, students were unsure what is it that can be done with the
self to effect a change.
Over time, the integration of the Einsteinian approach started to show a shift in
students‟ understanding of the concept of self where such a concept was now grounded
on a more subjective level. This may have been triggered through students‟ experiences
gained through a change in their perspectives, with such a change tending to take place
internally within them. Thus, the uncertainty expressed by students in reference to the
self at this point was different to Term 1, as students‟ current understanding of the
concept of self is of a more mature level to that previously.
The concept of self paved the way toward introducing the concept of “ego.” It
was proposed that if reasons behind students‟ nervous reactions were associated with
ego, that possibly the very opposite to all the qualities associated with the concept of
ego may hold the key to assisting them in resolving their issue of performance nerves.
Further discussions continued which eventually led students to something quite opposite
to ego - the affective concept of humility.
Thus, an introduction to the concept of humility was made in this session
through the identification of students‟ felt-needs. Students were encouraged to continue
reflecting on the term humility in preparation for the next session.
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Session 2
In this session, students were asked to report on any changes as a result of
integrating affective concepts. Positive benefits were reported by students in
preparation for the Term 2 music performance examination. For example:
Sam: I know I felt more confident in myself. Confident and more comfortable
playing in front of other people.
(DVD transcript [D9] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 2 - Lines 127- 128)
Sam: I use to go in and use to think I am going to screw everything and I‟ll just
shake uncontrollably, my mouth will be all dry and then it‟ll just be like torture.
(DVD transcript [D9] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 2 - Lines 141-145)
Harry also reported feeling confident preparing for the performance examination and
commented on how the reflective process has contributed positively overall for him.
Content from the prior session was again revisited. An in-class worksheet was
administered (see Appendix I). This was a follow-through from the previous session
where students were asked to reflect on their current understanding of the concept of
humility. Three questions were provided to guide students in this reflection. Students‟
responses were discussed.
While not all students had a firm understanding of the concept, they were willing
to explore it further without any resistance. They wrote about what they thought it
meant and during the discussion session, examples of the concept outside of music
performance were also discussed. Students chose the sporting arena to illustrate their
understanding of the term.
Harry: I just thought of an example. Like when you are playing a good game,
obviously you have to acknowledge the opposition. Because, I mean, the
opposition makes the game.
(DVD transcript [D9] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 2 - Lines 550-552)
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Sam: Well, like when you are winning and you got the team mate playing in the
middle of something, you deliver the ball to him in the forward line and he goes
and kicks the goal like everyone shouts and praise but then if he comes down
and says, “Oh…good kick”…like “thanks”…that sort of thing. And also like
um…me playing cricket, I am a wicket keeper so if I catch a ball, like it‟s being
nicked off the bowler and everyone shouts at him and praises him but then he
will come down and say, “Nice catch.”
(DVD transcript [D9] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 2 - Lines 584-589)
Barry also relayed his understanding of the concept of humility in a similar manner as
his peers with an example in relation to hockey. The session ended asking students to
think about how it might be possible for such a concept to be integrated into their music
performance studies.
Session 3
In this session, an in-class worksheet was administered for students to reflect on
how it may be possible to practically apply the affective concept of humility in a music
performance (see Appendix J). A discussion followed.
As two students were absent from the last session, students who were present
during those sessions were asked to recapitulate their understanding of what they had
learnt from the previous two sessions. A sporting analogy was again used to illustrate
the point followed by a music performance example.
Harry: Well, if you are humble then you acknowledge other people‟s efforts in
what they do and therefore sort of make yourself more, ah how do I explain this,
like for example football match, if you kick the goal, you have to acknowledge
the person who kicked it to you.
(DVD transcript [D10)] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 3 - Lines 179-182)
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Harry: Yeah. And like in a band, the lead singer has to acknowledge the rest of
the band because obviously they can‟t perform on their own. It isn‟t the same
without the rest of the band.
(DVD transcript [D10] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 3 - Lines 187-189)
Questions asked by students who were absent from the prior sessions allowed students
who were present during the previous sessions an opportunity to relay their
understanding of the affective concept of humility. During this time, Matthew and
Jerry, who were absent in the last session, asked how such a concept could possibly be
helpful within the context of music performance, leading to a discussion which shows
how some students were starting to consider the possibilities of how such a concept
could be applied to music performance.
Sam: Acknowledging the people who wrote the music that you are playing.
Matthew: But how does that help you?
Sam: Makes you feel a certain respect. Well, it gives you respect towards the
people who wrote the music. So then you feel like it would be like an honour to
play this.
Jerry: But how does it help you perform?
Sam: It helps you to play to the best of your ability and it gives you like driving
force like um…„what-you-ma-call it‟…motivation!
(DVD transcript [D10] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 3 - Lines 241-248)
Students who were absent from the previous session were uncertain how this may be
possible. For example, in response to the excerpt above, Matthew started questioning
Sam by saying:
Matthew: You say like you are honoured to play someone‟s written music but I
don‟t see how you saying that you should be honoured to play this music is
going to help you play nice.
(DVD transcript [D10] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 3 - Lines 293-295)
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This discussion between students offer a further demonstration of the difficulty
in assimilating affective concepts based on logic and reason. Students from the
previous session who had arrived at the concept of humility from a felt-need perspective
were trying to explain to their peers in this session how it may be possible to incorporate
such a concept into their music performance studies, by providing examples as a way of
explaining and reasoning with their peers how this may be possible. However, the
response from Matthew shows that he is not able to understand how feeling honoured
could help him “play nice.” Therefore, students‟ efforts in trying to explain, reason and
convince their peers in relation to how it may be possible to integrate the affective
concept of humility, did not work, similar to the teacher-researchers‟ experience in
Cycle 1.
The discussion then returned to the concept of humility and how this can be
integrated on a practical scale in relation to music performance. Sam suggested
acknowledging the audience for their efforts in turning up to the performance as a
means of demonstrating humility. Harry added that this can be demonstrated by
bowing.
The act of bowing with humility was discussed. An exercise was performed
where I bowed to each student. Students were asked to take note of how they felt as I
was doing this. They reported feeling a sense of being acknowledged. Students were
then guided to consider how it might be possible for them to bow with humility before
or after a performance. Here are some examples of what students said:
Sam: Acknowledge the audience is there and giving you the opportunity to
perform in front of them and giving you the respect and courtesy to listen to you.
(DVD transcript [D10] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 3 - Lines 621-622)
Barry: Like when you are doing a performance or something, think about the
privilege you have when performing in a place like the auditorium.
(DVD transcript [D10] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 3 - Lines 624-625)
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Harry: Like when you bow you acknowledge and respect the audiences‟
attention.
(DVD transcript [D10] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 3 - Line 642)
The rest of the session was spent getting students to practise bowing while holding on to
the perspectives as suggested by them. Students‟ usage of the term respect started to
become more noticeable in their discussions as the session progressed. A second
expanded worksheet which focused on the concept of humility was administered at the
end of this session (see Appendix N) to provide students with the opportunity to
continue working on this concept outside of the classroom sessions.
Session 4
This session started with Harry asking if affective concepts that were being
discussed in the classroom thus far, were being taught at the tertiary level. He said:
I would like to know if we study this at University. It didn‟t seem very
important at first when we first started at the start of the year because I didn‟t
think it made much difference. But I think now that we‟ve gone more in-depth
like humility and stuff I think it‟s made a big difference.
(DVD transcript [D11] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 4 - Lines 93-96)
Students agreed with Harry‟s comment and expressed a similar sentiment. Jerry
reported on how these concepts have also allowed him to be more positive while
performing.
Yeah. At first I didn‟t think it was important but it just seems to make sense
now.
(DVD transcript [D11] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 4 - Lines 131-132)
He continues:
Well, I guess it‟s just thinking about trying to get rid of your nerves, I perform
better and basically being humble, it gets you out of the state of worrying about
everything.
(DVD transcript [D11] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 4 - Lines 136-138)
161
Jerry then went on to illustrate his application of bowing with humility in his recent
performance in the Governors‟ Concert - a major musical event in the school‟s music
calendar.
I thought instead of just bowing because Mr. Baxton tells us to, I am going to
bow with thanks for listening. So, just acknowledging the audience, thanks for
coming, thanks for listening to us....It felt different.
(DVD transcript [D11] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 4 - Lines 153-155)
Harry reported how having humility allowed him to reduce his nerves during a
performance:
I felt good like you didn‟t feel nervous because you were...how can I explain
it…sort of felt like…I wasn‟t nervous in the audience even when you make a
mistake.
(DVD transcript [D11] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 4 - Lines 196-198)
The rest of the session was spent in discussion about the concert that students had
recently completed.
Session 5
This session was spent discussing students‟ experiences after integrating the
affective concept of humility based on the second expanded worksheet. Students shared
willingly and communicated well. Overall, students were more relaxed and comfortable
communicating and using language involving affective concepts compared to Cycle 1,
where a sense of awkwardness tended to prevail.
Sam shared his experience when applying the affective concept of humility
during the recent Governors‟ Concert, demonstrating how adopting such a concept
allowed him to be more positive resulting in him enjoying being part of the
performance.
At the Governors‟ [Concert], it was a good chance to put some of it into practise
like with humility. It worked quite well.
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He continued:
I used to just go out there and go, “Oh no, what if we stuff this up
blah…blah…blah...all you are going to do is just criticize us for the mistakes
that we make.” I would go out with that sort of attitude and so I didn‟t get any
positives out of it like even if it was a good performance. You would always
pick out the bad things that you did.
And added:
Now, I just go out and enjoy it really, and have respect for the audience because
they have respect for us.
(DVD transcript [D11] - Year 11/ Cycle 2/ Term 3/ Session 5 - Lines 140-150)
Sam then continued to talk about how the integration of affective concepts has also
allowed him to change his perspective of the audience where he tended to previously
see them as being there to judge and criticize his playing, to one where he feels that the
audience is there to support him. According to Sam, this allowed him to feel more
comfortable and able to perform better.
Session 6
This session was spent revisiting the Einsteinian concept of wonder. An
exercise was planned where students would apply the concept of wonder to tone in
music using their musical instruments. Prior to that, students were taken through a
practical application of the concept of wonder using a flower. Taking students‟
attention away from the context of music was deliberately done to refresh students‟
minds. The direct application to music was considered at the end of this exercise.
The in-class worksheet exercise required students to give their attention to a
flower and to wonder about the flower (see Appendix K). Students were asked to write
down any questions that would arise in their thoughts as they were looking at the
flower. Following this, they were asked to wonder about the concept of tone in music
just as they had done with the flower. A second in-class worksheet (see Appendix L)
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was administered with questions such as, “What is tone?” and to think about the manner
in which tone is being produced on their instrument, describing it in a way that would
require them to engage with the concept of wonder as they did with the flower exercise.
A discussion then followed where students shared what they had written in their
reflections.
Although it was planned for students to now apply such a concept to their
instrument, unfortunately, the time allocated for this session ran out. However, just
before the session ended, students were keen to get to their instruments. Barry, who had
been very quiet in most of the sessions so far, asked for permission to retrieve his
instrument from the instrument storage room in order that he could play and listen to it
before going to his next class. Matthew, who already had his xylophone setup at the
start of this class, ran to his instrument and starts playing on it immediately, listening
intently to the sound that was being produced. Although students did not get the
opportunity to play a piece at the end of this exercise due to insufficient classroom time,
students‟ behaviours demonstrated a keen interest in listening to the tone of the
instrument immediately after the exercise on the concept of wonder was completed.
Such behaviours were similar to that of students in Term 2 of Session 2, and of Gary,
the cellist outlined in Scenario #4 of the preliminary study Phase 1, where a heightened
sense of engagement prevailed from applying the concept of wonder.
Session 7
This session returned to the affective concept of humility. A guest speaker was
invited to speak on the topic of humility in this session. During this time, students were
able to interact and discuss as well as revisit their experiences in their application of
such a concept to their music performance studies with the guest speaker. Students
communicated their experiences to the speaker in a manner that demonstrated openness
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to the affective concept of humility. This was also the final session for Term 3 and
concludes Cycle 2 of the action research.
Summary of Insights Gained during Cycle 2, Term 3
As students started integrating the affective concept of humility with some
success, the term “respect” started appearing frequently in their written responses as
well as classroom discussions. In Chapter 3, it was discussed that Einstein‟s non-
scientific writings reveal how his perception of the concept of humility extends beyond
the typical dictionary definition to one that suggests a deep sense of reverence. As
students‟ application of the concept of humility were producing results that appear to
reflect Einstein‟s perspective of the concept of humility, is it likely that students‟
reference to the notion of respect during this cycle show that they have grasped some
understanding of the term as expressed by Einstein in his writings.
In Session 5, Sam reports on how his perception of the role of the audience prior
to integrating the affective concept of gratitude and humility was that of judging and
criticizing him, which led to him to feeling uncomfortable and nervous during a music
performance. Chapter 1 examined the current practices of MPE at the secondary school
level in Western Australia showing how high school music performance students are
continually subjected to being assessed. It is possible that performing experiences that
repeatedly revolve around being assessed may have conditioned Sam to expect that
audiences‟ would typically adopt a judgemental and critical view of his performance.
However, after the integration of affective concepts of gratitude and humility, Sam
started to report feelings of “comfort, ease and joy” while performing, as his perception
of the audience has now shifted from that of being judgemental and critical of his
performance, to one where they are there to support him. As mentioned in the summary
of Term 2, it is likely that such a positive change may be a result of a shift in
perspective where one starts to see one‟s self as part of the whole instead of separate to
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it. Therefore, Sam‟s experience demonstrates how a rebalancing of perspectives
through affective concepts based on the Einsteinian approach may assist in addressing
issues that arise out of a competitive mindset such as performance nerves. In general,
students who were able to successfully integrate affective concepts into their music
performance studies started reporting similar outcomes as Sam in their written work as
well as their discussions during this cycle.
Therefore, the above positive outcomes experienced by students suggest that
teacher-led classroom actions taken in Cycle 2 based on students‟ felt-needs worked and
that the Einsteinian approach may be useful to students to assist them in rebalancing
their competitive mindset. Overall, there was a sense that the integration of affective
concepts started producing positive outcomes as the cycle progressed. Table 22
summarizes the insights gained in Cycle 2.
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Table 22
Summary of Insights Gained in Cycle 2
INSIGHTS GAINED
Action Research Term 3
Students seemed able to access the concept of
gratitude through wonder.
Concept of wonder appeared to allow students
to listen intently to the tone that they are
producing on their instruments.
Inquiring into students‟ felt-needs appeared to
allow students to be more willing to engage
with affective concepts.
Students do not need to be convinced of the
importance in gaining a deeper and more
meaningful approach to their music
performance studies. They can come to
realize this for themselves.
More students started reporting on how they
felt a sense of respect after integrating the
Einsteinian approach.
Term 3 Findings
Student felt-needs is an important element in
the process of integrating affective concepts of
the Einsteinian approach.
Reflection remains an important tool for
students in integrating the Einsteinian
approach.
Allowing students to discover for themselves
the importance of a meaningful approach
instead of convincing them of it.
Respect can result from the application of
affective concept of gratitude and humility.
Term 3 Summary
Work
Reflection
Giving voice to students
Students‟ felt-needs
Did Not Work
Logic and Reason
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Data Collection
The data collected during the 18 sessions of Cycle 2 were:
In-class worksheets
In Cycle 2, in-class worksheets were administered in Sessions 1, 2 and 6 of
Term 1, Session 5 of Term 2 and Sessions 2,3 and 6 of Term 3. No in-class worksheets
were handed out in the rest of the other sessions during Cycle 2 as those sessions were
spent entirely in discussion with students. One in-class worksheet was administered in
each session except for Session 6 of Term 3 where students were required to complete
two in-class worksheets. As there were five students in this class with two students
absent during Session 2 of Term 3, worksheets collected during the course of Cycle 2
totalled 38.
In-class worksheets used in Cycle 2 were structured in a similar manner to Cycle
1, where pre-prepared questions on these worksheets would typically contain a balance
between guided questions that were structured to ensure that students would reflect
within the boundaries of the topic to be considered and an opportunity for students to
explore their thoughts in relation to the content of the session. These in-class
worksheets were handed out to students during the session and collected at the end of
the session.
Teacher-researcher journal
As in the preliminary phases and Cycle 1 of the action research, a detailed
teacher-researcher journal was maintained as a tool for recording observations and
thoughts, and student comments and reactions in relation to the progress of the sessions.
This journal was also used as a means of reflecting on teacher-led classroom actions
taken during the session as well as a source for exploring further ideas. In Cycle 2,
these journal entries were maintained electronically and entries were made at the end of
each classroom session.
168
Transcripts of DVD recordings
During Cycle 2 a video recorder was used to record the classroom discussion
sessions. It was planned for all sessions in Cycle 2 to be recorded on a video recorder
as all sessions were structured to contain a mixture of written reflection and discussion
or discussion only. However, although 18 sessions were held during Cycle 2, only 14
sessions were recorded. Session 1 of Term 2 was not recorded due to a technical error
on the video recorder, and the recorder was not available for Sessions 1 and 4 of Term 1
and Session 4 of Term 2. Recordings made were then transferred to DVD format and
transcribed.
Expanded Worksheets
These worksheets are lengthier than the ones administered during the in-class
sessions. These expanded worksheets were structured as daily reflective journals where
students were required to apply the affective concepts discussed during the course. Two
expanded worksheets were administered during Cycle 2 - the first in Session 5 of Term
2 and the second in Session 3 of Term 3.
The first expanded worksheet required students to complete ten written
reflections over a period of ten days. Here, students were instructed to focus on
Einstein‟s concept of gratitude. Students had to complete the first eight reflections
focussing specifically on the efforts that have gone into the making of their instrument
with the other two remaining written reflections focussing on their daily life events.
Students were instructed to complete these reflections at the start of their practice
sessions over the next ten days.
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The second expanded worksheet required students to complete eight written
reflections on humility over eight days and to report on any experiences they
encountered as a result. Each reflection was guided by two questions:
1. What did you do today as an activity to practise the above concept (of humility)?
2. What did you experience or notice when you did this?
All five students completed the first expanded worksheet, but one student did not
hand in the second. This made a total of nine expanded worksheets collected during
Cycle 2.
Overview of the Analytical Process
As before, the analysis is reported in two sections - the first reports on the
observational data collected during the cycle and the second reports on the analysis
conducted on the in-class worksheets, DVD transcripts and expanded worksheets. And
as in Cycle 1, data were categorized into teacher-led classroom actions that worked and
did not work. As will be shown, the analysis conducted in Cycle 2 on student in-class
worksheets, DVD transcripts and the expanded worksheets indicated that the teacher-led
classroom actions taken during Cycle 2 worked. Throughout the analysis, the same
response indicators were used (see pp.120-121).
Observations during Cycle 2
Again, observations made during all classroom sessions were noted in the
teacher-researcher journal where these observations allowed initial links to be
established between teacher-led classroom actions and student responses. Information
gathered during these observations served as interim findings, which formed the
beginnings of the analysis that followed.
In Cycle 2, students repeatedly exhibited positive behaviours and were reporting
positive outcomes in their integration of the Einsteinian approach. Positive student
behaviours such as being attentive during the discussion sessions, high levels of
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concentration along with an open mindedness and willingness to apply the affective
concepts to their music performance studies, were repeatedly seen. Furthermore,
students also reported how they found the Einsteinian approach to be relevant to their
music performance studies, saying how such an approach has made a difference to their
music performance studies. Students were also able to demonstrate the ability to grasp
the concepts presented well and did not need to be convinced of the importance of
integrating such concepts into their music performance studies. Instead, it appears that
when students were guided to discover the affective concepts for themselves, they were
able to gain an appreciation for the usefulness of these concepts in relation to their
music performance studies without any resistance. Examples of these with student
comments were given during the descriptive sessions.
Apart from students‟ positive behaviour, positive musical outcomes and other
benefits gained from the integration were also reported. For example, in Session 2 of
Term 3, Sam reported on how he felt more “confident and comfortable” performing in
front of people and in Session 4, Term 3, Jerry comments on how the integration of the
affective concept of humility gets him “out of the state of worrying about anything.”
Such feedback from students suggests that they are starting to be able to integrate the
Einsteinian approach with some success. Also, as Cycle 2 progressed, students often
referred to feeling a sense of respect upon s successful integration of the Einsteinian
approach.
Entries made in the teacher-researcher journal during the course of this cycle
generated a more positive tone overall unlike the previous cycle where frustration and
disappointment were common. Here are two examples of journal entries from the
teacher-researcher journal during Cycle 2.
WOW!!!.... I guess I really felt the connection with the boys today for the first
time. It came together.”
(Teacher-researcher journal reflection entry - Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 1)
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Here is another excerpt:
This session was incredible!!! Sam, Matthew and Harry experienced something
extraordinary. They experienced these intangible concepts. I was so excited to
see this and I could see how they were quite amazed by how they felt.
(Teacher-researcher journal reflection entry - Cycle 2/ Term 2/ Session 2)
Overall, the observational and journal data strongly suggested that the approach
through students‟ felt-needs and giving voice to students proved to be effective and was
considered to have worked.
Analysis of in-class worksheets, DVD transcripts and expanded worksheets - Cycle
2
In Cycle 2, 38 in-class worksheets, 14 DVD transcripts and nine expanded
worksheets were analysed. As will be shown, the majority of data collected during
Cycle 2 was coded as worked.
In-Class Worksheets
Each in-class worksheet was coded against the five response indicators. An
Excel spreadsheet was used to assist in the analysis where the term “Present” (P) or
“Not Present” (NP) was used to denote if the worksheet showed or did not show that
particular indicator. However, indicators Nos.4 and 5, which refer to students‟ ability to
successfully integrate the Einsteinian approach with positive results, were not relevant
until the last two worksheets. Where this applied, the term „Not Relevant‟ (NR) is
shown on the table. The letters “AB” were used to denote student absences. Table 23
summarizes the analysis of the worksheets.
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Table 23
Analysis of In-Class Worksheets (Cycle 2)
Term Session Worksheet No. Name
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 Sam P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
1 Matthew P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
1 Harry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
1 Jerry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
1 Barry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
1 2 2 Sam P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 Matthew P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 Harry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 Jerry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 Barry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
1 6 3 Sam P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
3 Matthew P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
3 Harry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
3 Jerry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
3 Barry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 5 4 Sam P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
4 Matthew P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
4 Harry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
4 Jerry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
4 Barry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
3 2 5 Sam P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
5 Matthew AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB
5 Harry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
5 Jerry AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB
5 Barry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
3 3 6 Sam P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
6 Matthew P NP P NR NR NP P NP NR NR
6 Harry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
6 Jerry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
6 Barry P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
3 6 (Part 1) 7 Sam P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
7 Matthew P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
7 Harry P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
7 Jerry P NP P NP NP NP P NP P P
7 Barry P P P P NP NP NP NP NP P
3 6 (Part 2) 8 Sam P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
8 Matthew P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
8 Harry P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
8 Jerry P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
8 Barry P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
Response Indicators (Work) Response Indicators (Did Not Work )
Note. P = Present – meaning indicator was evident in the data; NP = Not Present – meaning indicator was
not evident in the data; NR = Not Relevant – meaning indicator was not relevant to the data; AB = Absent
from class.
The table shows that students in Cycle 2 were open to exploring affective
concepts and were willing to participate from the start of the cycle, and that most
students were able to successfully integrate the Einsteinian approach with positive
outcomes by the end of the cycle. An exception to this general pattern is the case of
Jerry in Session 6 of Term 3. However, by the end of this cycle, the second expanded
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worksheet from Jerry showed evidence of a successful integration of the Einsteinian
approach.
As Matthew was absent from Session 2 of Term 3, his peers took on the role to
explain the affective concept of humility to him in the following session based on an
intellectual approach. It was found that this caused Matthew a minor setback in terms
of his ability to find relevance of such a concept in relation to his music performance
studies. However, such a result serves to reconfirm the finding that intellectualizing
affective concepts do not work. Therefore, in the instance of the analysis of Matthew‟s
in-class worksheet during Session 3 of Term 3, where the response indicator No. 2 for
“work” in reference to the relevance of such an approach was coded as “Not Present,”
this actually denotes a result that further strengthens the overall findings.
The analysis from the in-class worksheet data clearly showed that overall,
students from Cycle 2 had performed better than students in Cycle 1 indicating that
teacher-led classroom actions taken during Cycle 2, worked.
DVD Transcripts
Each of the 14 DVDs was transcribed and then coded against the five response
indicators. Sections of the transcript that related to the response indicators were then
highlighted and transferred to the Excel spreadsheet. Table 24 summarizes the analysis
of the DVD transcripts.
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Table 24
Analysis of DVD Transcripts (Cycle 2)
Cycle Year Term Session Transcript
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
2 11 1 2 D1 P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 11 1 3 D2 P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 11 1 5 D3 P NP NP NR NR NP P P NR NR
2 11 1 6 D4 P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
2 11 2 2 D5 P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
2 11 2 3 D6 P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 11 2 5 D7 P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 11 3 1 D8 P P P NR NR NP NP NP NR NR
2 11 3 2 D9 P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
2 11 3 3 D10 P P P P P NP P NP P P
2 11 3 4 D11 P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
2 11 3 5 D12 P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
2 11 3 6 D13 P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
2 11 3 7 D14 P P P P P NP NP NP NP NP
Response Indicators (Work) Response Indicators (Did Not Work )
Note. P = Present – meaning indicator was evident in the data; NP = Not Present – meaning indicator was
not evident in the data; NR = Not Relevant – meaning indicator was not relevant to the data.
Once again, the table shows that students were open to exploring affective
concepts of the Einsteinian approach earlier on in Cycle 2 and were willing to
participate in the discussions that were held. Overall, students found the concepts of the
Einsteinian approach to be relevant earlier on in the cycle. They were also able to
successfully integrate the approach and reported benefits evident at the start of Term 3.
In Session 5 of Term 1, students found the content presented in the classroom to
be irrelevant and did not contribute well to the discussions held as they reported feeling
confused. As explained in the descriptive account of this session, teacher-led classroom
actions based on an intellectual approach were employed during this session. Therefore,
the analysis of Table 24 for this session affirms the finding made previously that
affective approaches cannot be intellectualized.
In Session 3 of Term 3, response indicators Nos. 2,4 and 5 for work and did not
work were present in the transcript. As mentioned, Matthew who was absent in the
previous session found it difficult in this session to comprehend how humility could be
useful to him. While other students were trying to explain to Matthew how the affective
concept of humility can be useful to his music performance studies, in approaching it
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intellectually, Matthew did not appear to be convinced. Thus, the transcript for this
session showed both indicators for work and did not work to be present at the same time
for this reason. An explanation to this was provided previously in terms of how results
of this analysis actually serves to strengthen the overall finding that intellectualizing
affective concepts did not work.
Expanded Worksheet 1
The five first expanded worksheets were coded against the five response
indicators. An Excel spreadsheet was again used to assist in the summary of the
analysis. Table 25 summarizes the analysis of the first expanded worksheet.
Table 25
Analysis of Expanded Worksheet 1 (Cycle 2)
Note. P = Present – meaning indicator was evident in the data; NP = Not Present – meaning indicator was
not evident in the data; NR = Not Relevant – meaning indicator was not relevant to the data.
The analysis of the first expanded worksheet shown in Table 25 indicates that
overall, students were open to exploring the Einsteinian concept of gratitude, and found
this to be relevant to their music performance studies. Students also demonstrated the
ability to integrate the Einsteinian approach and reported on how the approach made a
positive to their music performance studies apart from Jerry. However, although Jerry
was unable to successfully integrate the Einsteinian approach, nonetheless, he was open
to learning about the concepts and did find the concept to be relevant to his music
performance studies. Furthermore, as mentioned, Jerry did eventually manage to apply
Expanded Student
Worksheet Name 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
1 Sam P P NR P P NP NP NR NP NP
1 Matthew P P NR P P NP NP NR NP NP
1 Harry P P NR P P NP NP NR NP NP
1 Jerry P P NR NP NP NP NP NR P P
1 Barry P P NR P P NP NP NR NP NP
Response Indicators (Work) Response Indicators (Did Not Work )
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affective concepts based on the Einsteinian approach with some success in the second
expanded worksheet at the end of Cycle 2.
Expanded Worksheet 2
The same analysis for the four second expanded worksheets was conducted.
(Barry did not hand in his work.) Table 26 summarizes the analysis of the second
expanded worksheet.
Table 26
Analysis of Expanded Worksheet 2 (Cycle 2)
Expanded Student
Worksheet Name 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
2 Sam P P NR P P NP NP NR NP NP
2 Matthew P P NR P P NP NP NR NP NP
2 Harry P P NR P P NP NP NR NP NP
2 Jerry P P NR P P NP NP NR NP NP
Response Indicators (Work) Response Indicators (Did Not Work )
Note. P = Present – meaning indicator was evident in the data; NP = Not Present – meaning indicator was
not evident in the data; NR = Not Relevant – meaning indicator was not relevant to the data.
Table 26 shows clearly that all four students in Cycle 2 were able to integrate the
Einsteinian approach and reported gaining benefits from the approach at the end of the
cycle.
Summary of Analysis for in-class worksheets, DVDs and expanded worksheets
The analysis of the 38 in-class worksheets, 14 DVD transcripts and nine
expanded worksheets showed that students consistently demonstrated openness to
learning about affective concepts of the Einsteinian approach and found these concepts
to be relevant to their music performance studies. Students also participated and
contributed well during the in-class activities. Although the levels of success in the
integration of the Einsteinian approach varied between students, overall, students were
able to gain positive experiences from the integration by the end of the cycle.
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Findings for Cycle 2
The analysis of three different sources of data from Cycle 2 - student worksheets,
DVD transcripts and expanded worksheets - indicates that teacher-led classroom actions
taken during Cycle 2 worked. Specifically:
1. As Table 23 of the in-class worksheet analysis , Table 24 of the DVD transcripts,
Table 25 of the first expanded worksheets and Table 26 of the second expanded
worksheets all indicate that overall, response indicators for worked were more
evident to the ones that did not work with very few exceptions.
2. Data coded as “worked” was proportionately larger in comparison to Cycle 1 with
students demonstrating an understanding of the approach in terms of a successful
integration as well as the accumulation of positive outcomes.
3. Data coded as “did not work” was of a different quality to Cycle 1, in that even
when students were unable to gain positive outcomes due to their inability to fully
apply the Einsteinian approach, students did demonstrate perseverance and a
willingness to try.
4. The analysis carried out on the three different sources of data indicated that
students were open and willing to explore the use of affective concepts into their
music performance studies early in the cycle with such an attitude being sustained
right throughout the cycle.
Table 27 now provides the complete summary of teacher-led classroom actions
that worked and did not work bringing together preliminary Phases 1 and 2 and action
research Cycles 1 and 2.
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Table 27
Complete Summary of the Findings of Teacher-Led Classroom Actions
Research Cycle Teacher-led classroom actions Work (W)/
Did Not Work
(DNW)
Preliminary Phase 1
(One-To-One)
Reflection
W
Preliminary Phase 2a
(Year 11)
Reflection
and
Intellectualization of Einsteinian concepts
DNW
Preliminary Phase 2b
(Year 10)
Reflection
and
Student self-discovery
and
Giving voice to students
W
Preliminary Phase 2c
(Year 11)
Reflection
and
Student self-discovery
and
Giving voice to students
W
Action Research Cycle 1
(Year 11)
Reflection
and
Intellectualization of Einsteinian affective
concepts
and
Convincing students of the importance of
the Einsteinian approach
DNW
Action Research Cycle 2
(Year 11)
Reflection
and
Giving voice to students
and
Addressing students‟ felt-needs
W
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Toward a General Principle of an Einsteinian Approach
Findings at the end of Cycle 2 led to the question of whether a general principle
can be formulated by comparing teacher-led classroom actions that worked and those
that did not work. In essence, teacher-led classroom actions that worked were
reflection, students‟ felt-needs, giving voice to the student and student self-discovery,
and those that did not work were intellectualizing and convincing students.
One common thread that runs through reflection, students‟ felt-needs, student
self-discovery and giving voice to students is the internal aspect of the self. Thus:
Reflection
While reflecting, students are exploring their thoughts, drawing on knowledge
gained based on their past experiences in combination with their imagination. The
process of reflection is essentially introspective.
Students‟ Felt-Needs
Students‟ felt-needs result from their perception of what they feel to be
important to them. This being so, an emotional component is involved. Emotions
function on a personal level and are found within the student.
Students‟ Self-Discovery
Students discover and form an understanding of concepts on their own. Thus,
self-discovery of knowledge takes place within the student.
Giving Voice to Students
Allowing students to talk through what they think and how they feel. This
comes from the internal self of the student.
By contrast, intellectualization and convincing students seem to depend more on
an external sources or events. Thus:
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Intellectualization
The process of intellectualizing involves the ability to reason through knowledge
generally acquired from external sources. For students, these sources may be books or
direct instruction from the teacher.
Convincing Students
The act of convincing involves an attempt to impose knowledge onto students.
This does not require students to be proactive in generating knowledge. Instead, it
requires students to reach a level of acceptance of the knowledge that is being taught.
Here, again, students are being influenced by an external source.
Thus, the internal versus external modalities seemed to be an important
distinguishing characteristic between teacher-led classroom actions that worked and
those that did not work. This in turn suggests the more general categories of
“intrapersonal” and “interpersonal.” Following this line of reasoning, reflection,
students‟ felt-needs, student self-discovery and giving voice to students, which are
based on internal aspects of the self, are intrapersonal, and intellectualizing and
convincing students, which involve an external entity, are interpersonal. This is
summarized in Table 28 which shows that the intrapersonal approach worked in
introducing the integration of affective concepts based on the Einsteinian approach,
whereas the interpersonal approach did not work.
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Table 28
Toward a General Principle of an Einsteinian Approach
Classroom
Action
Characteristic
Student + (X)
Category
W/
DNW
General Principle of
an
Einsteinian
Approach
Reflection
Student exploring
their own thoughts
Student + Own
Thoughts
Internal
W
INTRA-
PERSONAL
Student felt-
needs
Student-based
perspective
Student + Own
Emotions
Internal
W
Student self-
discovery
Student‟s internal
regulation of their
personal
understanding of
concepts learnt
Student + Own
Understanding
Internal
W
Giving voice to
students
Students voicing
what they think and
how they feel
Student +Own
Emotions Internal
W
Intellectualize
Student drawing on
external source of
knowledge
Student +
External Source
External
DNW
INTER-
PERSONAL
Act of
convincing
Student being
influenced by an
external source
Student +
External
Perspective
External
DNW
This suggests that a general principle for a successful integration of the
Einsteinian approach requires intrapersonal elements as these affective concepts appear
to not be directly teachable or logically comprehensible through the process of
intellectualization. Instead, a successful integration of the Einsteinian approach requires
the student to engage with these concepts at an internal level. In other words, the
integration of the Einsteinian approach requires the teacher to act as a guide to assist
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students to look within themselves through reflection, in order that they may gain a
personal understanding of affective concepts through self-discovery.
This chapter has reported on action research Cycle 2. All sessions held were
described and the data collection and analyses were reported. Based on the findings
from the analyses, a general principle of an Einsteinian approach was suggested.
The next chapter is the final chapter of this thesis. A summary will be provided
along with conclusions, a discussion and recommendations.
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CHAPTER 8
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter will provide a summary of the research, its methods and its
findings. It will then draw conclusions and discuss them, highlighting the main themes
relating to the integration of affective approaches within music performance education
(MPE). The final section will include recommendations and concluding comments.
Summary
Summary of Research
The purpose of this research was to investigate how to integrate affective
concepts based on Einstein‟s humanistic and philosophical approaches to thinking into
MPE at the secondary school level as a way to rebalance a competition driven culture
evident in the current practices of MPE.
The background to the current practices of MPE was provided in Chapter 1.
That chapter describes how activities such as music performance examinations,
auditions for music scholarships and bursaries, music auditions for orchestral
placements, annual music eisteddfods and music festivals, form the typical environment
for the high school music performance student in the private and public schooling
sectors in Western Australia. An explanation was provided on how these activities
encouraged students to have a competitive mindset.
When competing, students tend to focus on winning at the expense of
developing a deeper appreciation for the music that they are performing. Issues arising
out of the competitive driven practices of MPE, namely the diminished capacity for high
school music performance students to engage with the music that they were performing
in a deep and meaningful manner, were discussed.
Renewed interest at the start of the millennium in the use of affective variables
in education has the potential to counteract the competitive mindset of the high school
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music student performer. An approach based on Einstein‟s humanistic and
philosophical approach to thinking involving the use of affective variables was
designed.
An extensive review of research literature at the start of the millennium on
music performance by Gabrielsson (2003) has shown how research in the area of music
performance has demonstrated a concentration of effort in the reporting of research
based on cognitive and motor skills. A search of the relevant databases found similar
research trends apart from the growing interest in relation to neuroscience, where
investigations into how the brain functions in relation to the processing of music seem
to be gaining interest. However, studies based on affective variables such as gratitude,
humility and wonder in relation to MPE, were not found. Although research into
emotion and music involves consideration of affective variables, a distinct difference
exists between how affective variables are being considered in this piece of research to
that in the area of emotion and music. This distinction was also explained.
In keeping with the global shift in perspective toward a more meaningful
outcomes-based approach, a practical application based on affective variables was
designed using the method of action research. The central research question was: “How
can an Einsteinian approach be incorporated into a competitively driven music
performance education culture at the secondary school level?” The three concepts of
gratitude, humility and wonder, were chosen and used in introducing an affective-based
approach to MPE at the secondary school level. This is called here an Einsteinian
approach.
Summary of Methods
Action research based on the perspective of a teacher-researcher was used as the
method in answering the research question. A preliminary study, containing two phases
was followed by two major cycles of action research.
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Data collected during these cycles include student in-class worksheets, student
expanded worksheets, audio and DVD transcripts of classroom sessions and a detailed
teacher-researcher journal. In the analysis, data were coded into two categories of
teacher-led classroom actions that worked or did not work in successfully implementing
the Einsteinian approach, based on a set of response indicators. Indicators 1 to 3 were
used in the first and second phases of the preliminary research. Two additional
indicators were added in the two major action research cycles. The five indicators in
each category were:
Response Indicators (when teacher-led classroom actions worked)
1. Students are open to exploring content presented in the classroom that targets the
development of the Einsteinian approach.
2. Students find the content presented in the classroom that targets the development
of the Einsteinian approach to be relevant.
3. Students contribute well to the classroom activities that target the development of
the Einsteinian approach.
4. Students were able to integrate the concepts of the Einsteinian approach to their
music performance studies successfully.
5. Students report that they found the Einsteinian approach made a positive
difference to their music performance studies.
Response Indicators (when teacher-led classroom actions did not work)
1. Students are not open to exploring content presented in the classroom that targets
the development of the Einsteinian approach.
2. Students find the content presented in the classroom that targets the development
of the Einsteinian approach to be irrelevant.
3. Students did not contribute well to the classroom activities that target the
development of the Einsteinian approach.
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4. Students were unable to integrate the concepts of the Einsteinian approach to their
music performance studies successfully.
5. Students report that they found the Einsteinian approach made no difference to
their music performance studies.
The vast majority of the data in Cycle 1 indicated that teacher-led classroom
actions taken did not work. In order to learn more about how such an approach might
work, data that contained the most negative comments and responses from students
were analysed. Each sentence of the data was analysed to infer the student‟s thinking
patterns. Recurring patterns found were categorized and interpreted. This led to a
modification of the teacher-led classroom actions taken and to other questions, which
assisted in the planning of Cycle 2.
The data from Cycle 2 showed clearly that the modifications worked. Students
were open to the content presented in the classroom and found it to be relevant. The
data also showed that students participated well in the classroom activities. For each of
the in-class worksheets, DVDs and expanded worksheets, the tables that summarized
the analyses also showed that students were generally able to integrate the Einsteinian
approach successfully and reported positive benefits from the integration with an
exception of one student. However, this student did manage to integrate the Einsteinian
approach with some success by the end of Cycle 2.
Summary of Research Findings
The main findings from the two cycles of action research were:
1. The analysis of in-class worksheet data (see Table 23), DVD transcripts (see
Table 24), first expanded worksheet (see Table 25) and second expanded
worksheet (see Table 26) all indicate that overall, the data were dominated by
response indicators which showed that teacher-led classroom actions taken during
Cycle 2 worked.
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2. Teacher-led classroom actions taken during Cycle 1 did not work based on the
analysis of data from the three sources of in-class worksheets (see Table 10),
audio transcripts (Table 11) and questionnaire (Tables 13-16).
3. Reflection is an important component in the integration of the Einsteinian
approach.
4. Affective concepts do not fit well with the process of reasoning or
intellectualizing.
5. In giving voice to students and their felt-needs, students become better able to
remain open to the integration of these affective concepts.
6. Students need to be guided to arrive at these affective concepts through their own
discovery.
Analysis of these findings suggested a possible general principle:
Teacher-led classroom actions that “worked” in the integration of the Einsteinian
approach demonstrated a connection between the student and their inner self.
(This was described as “intrapersonal.”)
Teacher-led classroom actions that “did not work” in the integration of the
Einsteinian approach demonstrated a connection between the student and an
external factor. (This was described as “interpersonal.”)
Conclusions
The aim of this thesis has been to inquire into how three affective concepts based
on Einstein‟s philosophical and humanistic approach to thinking – gratitude, humility
and wonder - can be integrated into MPE at the secondary classroom level. The
findings suggest four main conclusions:
1. Successful integration of the Einsteinian approach based on affective concepts
requires students to take on an introspective outlook and an ability to reflect
deeply as music student performers.
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2. Affective concepts cannot be taught based on traditional learning approaches
which seek to use knowledge from an external source, for example, through
reading or direct instruction. Instead, students need to gain an understanding of
these concepts through self-discovery.
3. The role of the teacher is to guide students toward self-discovery of affective
concepts instead of convincing students of the importance of integrating such an
approach.
4. Giving voice to students and learning about their felt-needs, through the issues
and problems that they are currently encountering as high school student music
performers, is pivotal to the integration of the Einsteinian approach.
Discussion
While there are many aspects that can be discussed, six main points will be
considered: The typical teaching approach in music performance, the mismatch
between MPE and music education philosophies and its ideals, the lack of affective
teaching approaches in MPE, education as therapy, classroom size and recognizing the
importance of looking within the „self‟ in relation to the integration of the Einsteinian
approach.
Teaching Approach in Music Performance
Although music education embraces a variety of teaching approaches, with the
most prominent being those of Kodály, Orff, Suzuki and Dalcroze, music performance
which lies at the heart of music education continues to maintain a more traditional
approach of a master-apprentice model, where the performance student assumes the
latter role. Based on the current practices of MPE, where emphasis is placed on
achievement as outlined in Chapter 2, the focus of music performance students is on
winning and achieving high marks. In placing emphasis on achievement, students tend
to adhere strictly to the instructions handed down by their teacher, as this is often
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construed to be the shortest route to success. As a result, opportunities to discover a
deeper and more meaningful reason for studying to be a music performer are often
neglected. Unfortunately, students are likely to accept such a learning model without
questioning, as an accent on achievement is strongly etched into the psyche of
adolescent music students due to the current competition driven culture of MPE. There
are no grounds to believe that the competitive culture of MPE is changing.
Furthermore, the reality of competition is unlikely to diminish. In fact, it is possible
that the competitive culture of MPE may be augmented as a result of the movement
toward a teacher merit pay system in Australia (Ingvarson, Kleinhenz, & Wilkinson,
2008, p. 106).
Whilst the master-apprentice model of teaching may remain the preferred mode,
the findings of this research demonstrate that allowing students the opportunity to
reflect and to voice their thoughts and concerns as a music performer can also prove to
be rewarding. In a similar vein, Cook-Sather (2002) argues strongly for what she terms
the “authorization of student perspective” as being a vital component in the shaping of
an educational reform. She says:
Because of who they are, what they know, and how they are positioned, students
must be recognized as having knowledge essential to the development of sound
educational policies and practices. Because of who we are, what we know, and
how we are positioned, we need to authorize students‟ perspectives by changing
the participant structures as well as the participants in policymaking and practice-
shaping conversations about education. (p.12)
The integration of an Einsteinian approach was not intended to replace the current
practices or any other mainstream teaching approaches of MPE. Instead, as suggested
by the usage of the term “integration,” the Einsteinian approach was developed to
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complement the current practices of MPE in order to provide a better balance. The
findings suggest that affective concepts based on the Einsteinian approach have the
potential to assist in countering the negative effects caused by a competitive mindset of
adolescent music performance students. Integrating the Einsteinian approach may
provide these students with an opportunity to search for a deeper and more meaningful
way to engage with the activity of music performance, thus providing a more holistic
approach overall.
Mismatch between Music Education Philosophies and Ideals, and MPE
Establishing meaning in music has often been the domain of music education
philosophers. As MPE is a major part of music education in general, it would make
sense for the philosophical perspectives of music education to serve as a guide in
steering the current practices of MPE. It is also reasonable to assume that, within any
given area of study, the current practices within that area will align with its
philosophical underpinnings. However, as outlined in Chapter 2, a disparity exists
between music education philosophies and its ideals, and the current practices of MPE,
where the former aims for inclusivity, as opposed to the latter, which promotes
exclusivity.
If the grounds that are used to construct meaning and its accompanying ideals
are found to be in conflict with its practical applications, a major discrepancy between
intent and action inevitably results. Such a situation may present an opportunity for
criticisms to arise, as in saying one thing and doing another, an incongruence in the
overall objective of music education becomes apparent.
As the competitive mindset is still present within the current practices of MPE, it
is reasonable to assume that such a mismatch may have gone unidentified by the
majority of stakeholders. However, such a mismatch needs to be resolved if MPE is to
provide a deep and meaningful education for the music student performer. Therefore, it
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is hoped that practical integration of affective variables through the Einsteinian
approach will serve to bridge such a gap.
The Lack of Affective Approaches within MPE
As mentioned, a search of the relevant databases was unable to find studies
being conducted in MPE using affective concepts such as gratitude, humility or wonder.
A possible reason for this may be due to the lack of association between these affective
concepts and MPE.
Links between MPE and affective concepts such as gratitude and humility are
not easily made as these concepts are not often seen as belonging to the domain of
music. In other words, these affective concepts do not have a direct relationship with
MPE. Therefore, the lack of research into such affective concepts within MPE is to be
expected.
The findings of this research suggest that affective concepts may be useful to
MPE. High school music performance students participating in this research have
reported on how the integration of these affective concepts has assisted them in
resolving their issues in relation to music performance. Given that potential
connections may be present between affective concepts and MPE, it would seem that
research into affective concepts in relation to MPE warrants further consideration. It is
hoped that findings of this research will encourage further development into the area.
Education as Therapy
As the title of the book suggests, Ecclestone and Hayes‟(2009) publication entitled, The
dangerous rise of therapeutic education cautions educators regarding possible issues
that may arise when education co-mingles with the management of students‟ emotional
well-being. Although it would pay for educators to be aware of the issues targeted by
these authors, Mintz‟s (2009) review of the above material argues for a more balanced
perspective. Underlying the various reasons put forth by Ecclestone and Hayes (2009)
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against emotional learning, is the fear that education of the heart may replace education
of the mind. This was certainly a concern voiced by parents during the initial stages of
the integration of the Einsteinian approach. However, findings over the course of the
entire action research indicate that through maintaining relevance and giving
consideration to students‟ felt-needs during the process of integration of affective
concepts, students were able to gain benefits while still being educated, achieving a
more meaningful outcome in their subject content.
Classroom Size
Being a small scale study, no definitive statements are made in the
generalizability of its findings. However, advantages are present within the smaller
numbers of participants. The smaller numbers within the classroom presented students
with the opportunity to get to know each other thus, creating stronger bonds with one
another. Such bonding between peers inevitably provides a safe learning environment
where honest exchanges between students are possible. In other words, within these
smaller numbers, students were more likely to be open to sharing their deepest fears and
concerns without worrying about feeling intimidated, as may be the case with a larger
sized classroom. Therefore, the smaller group of students has possibly contributed to
providing data that was richer and more authentic overall.
From the perspective of the teacher-researcher, the smaller numbers allowed for
deeper understanding of how each student thought and learnt, thus making it possible to
acquire a better grasp of their thinking – an element which would have been difficult to
gain in a larger group which tends to generate a more impersonal classroom dynamic.
In looking to analyse students‟ thinking patterns, this led to a more focused analysis of
data.
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Recognizing the Importance of Looking Within the ‘Self’
A significant finding of this research is the importance of getting students to a
position where they are able to engage with affective concepts of the Einsteinian
approach from within themselves. Such a perspective runs contrary to what is typically
perceived as a way of learning in music classrooms as often music students gain
knowledge through direct instruction. However, the findings suggest that successful
integration of the Einsteinian approach is more likely to occur when students are able to
engage with these affective concepts by arriving at an understanding of these concepts
on their own.
The above finding is in line with McNeill‟s (2001) theory of A State of
Preparedness where she concludes the following:
One of the characteristics of a deep approach to learning is that only when the
task related to the students‟ world or personal experiences, as distinct from the
experience of the task as an end in itself, is it possible for high quality learning
to occur. (p. 208)
She continues to argue for this position by saying:
...students‟ experiences of their learning process can be both barren and perhaps
even unauthentic if they are not encouraged to articulate what is important to
them in their academic studies and if they are not encouraged to do so at the
level of “personal resonance.” (p. 209)
“Personal resonance” can be effected by listening to students and allowing them
to voice their own personal issues and problems related to their journey as developing
musicians. This was also another feature found to be central in the successful
integration of the Einsteinian approach. From this, a new role of the teacher as a guide
instead of an instructor, becomes necessary. The focus is now placed on students and
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the ownership of their learning experience, which essentially stems from within the
student‟s inner „self.‟ This may be a challenging aspect to implement in the integration
of the Einsteinian approach but nonetheless necessary.
Recommendations
Recommendations for Practice
1. High school music performance students often study under the tutelage of an
instrumental specialist either within the school, whereby an allocated time
separate to the classroom music is provided on an individual basis or with a
private specialist tutor selected outside of school. During this time, students often
concentrate on the technical and musical aspects of their performance studies.
Music classes offered by the school as part of the curriculum often neglect to
provide student performers with any further support in relation to music
performance. As it is often difficult for instrumental specialist teachers to address
issues beyond the technical and musical aspects of students‟ music performance
studies during their instrumental teaching time, the incorporation of a music
performance class where music students are allocated time to reflect and discover
for themselves the positive results that can be gained through the integration of the
Einsteinian approach is recommended.
2. Music educators need to be made aware of the potential that the Einsteinian
approach holds in terms of its ability to enhance the learning experience of music
performance students. Pre-service teachers would also benefit from gaining an
understanding of how to integrate such an approach into their teaching during
their pre-service teaching years. Similarly, assisting parents to gain better
awareness of the benefits that can result from such an approach is also important
in order that they too may support their child toward gaining a more meaningful
education as a music performer.
195
3. It is essential that teachers themselves gain some personal experience through
self-discovery of how affective concepts function prior to integrating the
Einsteinian approach into their teaching, as this will allow them to have a better
understanding of how to guide their students toward self-discovery of these
concepts.
4. As with the generous support provided by the departmental and administrative
staff of the school in which this research was conducted, schools considering the
integration of such an approach need to adopt a similar stance in terms of
providing generous support to teachers who are interested in integrating such an
approach.
5. Structuring a set time within the school timetable for the establishment of such an
approach is an important part of the integrative process. As the Einsteinian
approach is not considered a mainstream teaching method, a structured time
within the school timetable provides students with the confidence that such an
approach is endorsed by the school and is considered essential. This will impact
positively on students‟ perceptions of such an approach.
6. Holding weekend retreats to reinforce the use of the Einsteinian approach over a
concentrated period of time, as a refresher course, can also be beneficial for
students. A weekend retreat was in fact held with the same four students from
Cycle 2 in the following year, where these students spent a weekend integrating
affective concepts based on the Einsteinian approach to assist in their preparation
for the upcoming music performance examination. A concert performance
concluded the weekend retreat where parents were invited to be part of the
audience. During this time, students again reported positive benefits such as
improved concentration and focus in the practice sessions during the retreat as
well as feeling comfortable while performing at the concert held at the end of the
196
retreat. The following week, an unsolicited letter from the instrumental teacher of
a student who participated in the retreat was sent to the Director of Music, in
which this instrumental teacher notes the progress made by his student, which
were very encouraging overall [see Appendix S].
Recommendations for Further Research
1. While the direction of the findings of this research seem to be quite clear, this
study makes no definitive statements in the generalizability of its findings, as this
is a small scale exploratory study. Therefore, future research needs to consider
further work within this topic on a larger scale to replicate the same findings.
Sampling a wider range of situations such as types of students, types of school
environments or wider range of teachers, should be considered.
2. Based on the well known aptitude-treatment interaction effect in educational
research (Cronbach & Snow, 1977), there remains the question of the extent to
which the approach used here would work for other types of students. The
students in this study were from an elite, all-boys private high school. Therefore,
this would raise the question as to the extent in which the approach described as
working in this study, may or may not work with other types of students such as
female or co-educational students and lower secondary or primary school
students. Future research should investigate these areas.
3. There was awareness that the personality of the teacher may have an influence on
the classroom behaviour of students which in turn may influence the research
findings. However, in the case of this research, the collected data demonstrate
that student behaviours, both positive and negative, were found to be consistent
with the teacher-led classroom actions that were taken over an extended period of
time. This also occurred over the course of the action research cycles involving
different sets of students. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that whilst teacher
197
personality could possibly have an effect on the outcome of student behaviours,
the consistent behaviours demonstrated by students against the teacher-led
classroom actions over an extended period of time throughout the two cycles of
the research, suggest that students‟ behaviours were likely to be caused by the
teacher-led classroom actions that were taken, and that teacher personality did not
have a significant impact in the overall outcome of the findings. However, future
research should also inquire into the dimension of teacher personality in relation
to the integration of such an approach by sampling a wider range of teachers and
their efforts during the integration of such an approach.
4. Does the Einsteinian approach make any difference to students‟ quality of music
learning? While this study has shown that overall, there is a general sense that
over time, students‟ quality of learning did improve having successfully integrated
the Einsteinian approach, such findings are only indicative. As such, we have to
place caution in generalizing these findings. Although it has been beyond the
scope of this study to investigate the effects of the Einsteinian approach on
students‟ quality of music learning, it is nonetheless an important question which
should be considered in future studies. In particular, further research might
consider the use of more controlled experimental designs where students exposed
to the Einsteinian approach may be compared in their learning and performance
with equivalent students not exposed to such an approach. Alternatively (or in
addition), longitudinal studies could be planned, which collected performance data
over time for students exposed to the Einsteinian approach.
5. Time allocated to each of the cycles was unequal. It may be questioned if the
shorter time allocated to Cycle 1 may have contributed to it not working. Firstly,
it was not planned for Cycle 1 to only contain seven sessions. The short time span
of Cycle 1 was a result of teacher-led classroom actions that did not work, which
198
made it unwise to continue with the sessions as overall, students were displaying a
negative attitude thus causing much difficulty for the approach to be continued.
Secondly, the analyses for Cycle 2 on all data collected showed that students
started responding positively from early on in Cycle 2. Therefore, time span did
not make any difference in the integration of the Einsteinian approach. However,
further research should also consider the optimum time needed to consolidate
students‟ understanding of such an approach.
Concluding Comments
This study has resulted in many meaningful outcomes on both the professional
and personal levels of the teacher-researcher. The exploratory journey of integrating
affective concepts within MPE has brought many new discoveries in informing and
transforming the teaching and learning of both teacher and students into deep and
meaningful events. However, the most influential finding came from Cycle 2 when a
general principle of an Einsteinian approach was realized. Experiences and insight
gained through this study of the transformative qualities of deep reflection from within
the self in relation to these affective concepts, have grounded the teacher-researcher‟s
understanding of the importance of looking within in all aspects of teaching and
everyday life. Inspirational works by the likes of Parker Palmer (1998) provide further
encouragement of such understanding.
In closing, research in the area of adolescent development has always pointed to
the importance and significance in the development of any child during their adolescent
years (Crockett & Crouter, 1995). The Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development
made a point 22 years ago that has caught the attention of many writers today, who
often quote the following passage when discussing issues in relation to adolescent
development, suggesting the continuing relevance of such a matter:
Young adolescents face significant turning points. For many youth 10 to 15 years
199
old, early adolescence offers opportunities to choose a path toward a productive
and fulfilling life. For many others, it represents their last best chance to avoid a
diminished future. (Carnegie Council for Adolescent Development, 1989, p. 8)
Given the importance that the period of adolescence holds, our responsibility as
high school educators is enormous. It has been found that when one engages with the
act of being appreciative, a positive feeling often results which “enhances the well-
being and life satisfaction, as well as feelings of connection to what we have, to what
we experience, and to life itself” (Adler & Fagley, 2005). Therefore, in educating high
school music students to gain a deeper appreciation for the music that they are
performing, apart from rebalancing the competitive driven mindset of these students, it
would appear that the ability to appreciate deeply can also enrich and rehumanize their
learning experience.
It is hoped that the Einsteinian approach can serve to provide high school music
performance students a way to learn and pursue an education in music, marked by
achievements that are based on deep and profound experiences. As in doing so, future
student music performers will not only be learning how to gain an edge to become
better musicians - they will also be learning how to gain an edge to “win” overall as a
human being.
200
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APPENDICES
221
APPENDIX A
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 1 (Term 3, Session 1)
NAME: _________________________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 3
SESSION 1 PERFORMING MUSIC
Welcome to Performance Class!
These classes will always centre on these activities - discussion, reflection and action.
Let‟s begin.
This week you will write a mission statement for yourself as a performer.
Here are some questions that will help you along the way:
1. What is performing all about?
2. [a] Name me a performer that you are in awe of?
[b] What are the qualities that you admire about this person as a performer?
3. What are your aims as a performer? State this briefly.
4. What is stopping you from achieving this?
5. Think of some steps that you will need to put in place to achieve this. List three
below.
____________________________________________________
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TASK 2
NAME: ____________________________
YEAR: ____________________________
DATE: ________________
Write down your mission statement as a performing musician.
Your statement will evolve as you start to think more about you as a performer. This is
just a starting point for you. As you participate in this course, you may want to change
your statement.
Your statement may be as long or as short as you like.
223
APPENDIX B
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 1 (Term 3, Session 3)
NAME: _________________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 3
SESSION 3 SUCCESS IN MUSIC
Hypothetical 1
A peer of yours who left school two years ago has managed to make a name for himself
performing all over the world (while you are still here trying to complete your TEE -
where is the sense in all of this you ask?)
Anyway he will be here next week to perform at the school Music and Drama Centre.
You will be present at this recital as part of the audience. Write an account for:
1. What is running through your mind as you sit there poised to listen to a play?
2. What would you be listening for during the performance?
[By the way, this friend of yours plays the same instrument as you.]
Hypothetical 2
You finally complete your TEE and start to work toward becoming a music performer
in the real world. You have been playing in several music competitions and finally won
a major international competition. As a result of this, your manager has been able to
secure a booking for you to perform at Carnegie Hall next month. What do you expect
your audience will be looking for when they are attending your recital? List at least 5
expectations.
Hypothetical 3
You have completed the concert above and gave your best performance so far. List five
elements that you think have contributed in making this a successful performance for
you.
Hypothetical 4
Your last performance was so successful that it has really become a defining moment in
your performing career. As a result of this, you have been invited to perform at the
Royal Albert Hall. The Queen has heard about how good you are and decides to be
present at this concert. Your reputation is really gaining momentum now. Success is
yours for the taking however, it will depend largely on how you perform in this concert
coming up. How do you imagine you will feel as you prepare for this concert?
224
APPENDIX C
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 1 (Term 3, Session 4)
NAME: ____________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 3
SESSION 4 SUCCESS IN MUSIC
Following from the hypothetical situations that you completed in the previous
worksheet, reflect on the following question:
QUESTION
At which point in your life do you think you will feel most comfortable as you climb the
ladder of success in music performance?
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225
APPENDIX D
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 1 (Term 3, Session 6)
NAME: ___________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 3
SESSION 6 MY INSTRUMENT
TASK 1
My instrument is:
Do you know anything about the historical background of your instrument? Write
about it briefly below.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
TASK 2
Now, think about the possible historical background of your instrument in terms of all
the efforts that would have gone into the making of your instrument.
In other words, trace as far back as your imagination will allow you to venture, in as
realistic a manner as you can about the construction of your instrument. For singers, you
will want to think about the human anatomy and the intricate construction of nature.
Reflect on your instrument and write about it here.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
226
APPENDIX E
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 1 Session 1)
NAME: ____________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 1
SESSION 1 ISSUES AND PROBLEMS
Welcome to Performance Class!
This class will always centre on these activities - discussion, reflection and action. Let‟s
begin.
What is the difference between an issue and a problem?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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APPENDIX F
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 1 Session 2)
NAME: ____________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 1
SESSION 2 ISSUES AND PROBLEMS
Reflect on all the issues and problems you often encounter as a performer.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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228
APPENDIX G
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 1 Session 6)
NAME: ______________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 1
SESSION 6 RANKING YOUR ISSUES AND PROBLEMS
Please rank these issues and problems in order or importance.
1 - Most important problem or issue
9 - Least important problem or issue
ISSUES AND PROBLEMS
RANKING ORDER
Nerves
Stage Fright
Preparation
Adapting to a different Instrument
Silence in the audience prior to a performance
What does it mean to get into your music?
What does it mean to play in a meaningful fashion?
What does it mean to play musically?
What does it mean to apply tone colour to music?
229
APPENDIX H
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term, 2 Session 5)
NAME: __________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 2
SESSION 5 NERVES
1. What happens to you when you get nervous?
_______________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
2. Why do you think this happens?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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3. Provide some suggestions on what you need to do to work on this issue.
_______________________________________________________________
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230
APPENDIX I
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 3 Session 2)
NAME: ______________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 3
SESSION 2 HUMILITY
1. What is your understanding of the term “HUMILITY?”
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Write a HYPOTHETICAL incident which will illustrate what you mean in the
definition you have provided above.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Provide a real-life incident when someone showed you some humility. Write
down how that made you feel. If you don‟t think you have experienced this
before, then just note that you have never experienced that before.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
231
APPENDIX J
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 3 Session 3)
NAME: ________________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 3
SESSION 3 HUMILITY
Here are three suggestions as to how I can concretely put the concept of “humility” into
work.
Suggestion 1
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Suggestion 2
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
Suggestion 3
___________________________________________________________________
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232
APPENDIX K
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 3, Session 6/1)4
NAME: ______________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 3
SESSION 6 WONDER
PART 1
Take a look at the flower that is in front of you. Look at it continuously for a period of
time. Do not take your eyes off it. Look with a calm mind.
Write down any QUESTIONS that start to arise in your thoughts as you keep staring at
the flower.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Now let‟s turn your attention to TONE in the next worksheet.
4 In this session, the exercise to contemplate on a flower was inspired by the teachings of the spiritual
organization known as Sukyo Mahikari.
233
APPENDIX L
Worksheet Administered in Cycle 2 (Term 3, Session 6/2)
NAME: ___________________________
YEAR 11 PERFORMANCE CLASS, TERM 3
SESSION 6 THE WONDER OF TONE
PART 2 TONE IN MUSIC
What is tone?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Think about the manner in which your instrument produces tone and describe how tone
is produced on your instrument.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Next, continue to think about the tone your instrument produces. However, this time
describe it in a manner which will inspire a sense of wonder about the phenomenon of
tone in your thinking.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
234
EXERCISE:
1. Pick up your instrument and play a tone continuously for a period of about 1
continuous minute. (If you are a singer, then pause to take some breath and then
continue.) During this time, listen to the sound that you are producing with
wonder for the tone produced.
2. Play a passage (approx 5mins) and focus your attention on the quality of tone that
you are producing.
What did you experience or notice about your playing? Briefly describe your
experience below:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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235
APPENDIX M
Expanded Worksheet 1
NAME: _________________________
YEAR 11
PERFORMANCE CLASS – EXPANDED WORKSHEET 1
CONCEPT: PERFORMER AND INSTRUMENT
TASK:
You will be required to complete ten journal reflections based on the efforts of
humankind that have gone before us. As a music student, you will conduct eight of
these reflections on your instrument before each practice session and two other
reflections to be applied to your daily living.
It is important that you document your thoughts on how you reflected and any changes
that took place.
(Ten blank pages followed from this page with the following text inserted at the start of
each page)
JOURNAL REFLECTION 1
Date:
Today I worked on:
236
APPENDIX N
Expanded Worksheet 2
NAME: _____________________________
YEAR 11
PERFORMANCE CLASS – EXPANDED WORKSHEET 2
CONCEPT: HUMILITY
This project will focus on your experiences having practised the concept of „Humility.‟
Reflection 1
What did you do today as an activity to practise the above concept?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
What did you experience or noticed when you did this?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
[Seven other pages similar to this followed, which are omitted here.]
237
APPENDIX O
PowerPoint Summary of Student Problems and Issues
Student Problems and Issues in Music
Performance Education Problems Adapting to a different type of
instrument (pianist)
Silence in the audience prior to a
performance
Preparation
Issues Nerves
Stage Fright
What does it mean to get more into
your music?
What does it mean to play it in a
more meaningful fashion?
What does it mean to play musically?
What does it mean to apply tone
colour to music?
238
APPENDIX P
Data of Student Issues and Problems
Features Totals Matthew Harry Sam John Barry
Nerves 17 4 2 2 7 2
Stage fright 27 3 6 4 8 6
Preparation 11 2 1 1 6 1
Adapting to a different
instrument 32 1 8 9 9 5
Silence in the audience prior
to performance 26 5 9 3 5 4
What does it mean to get into
your music? 22 6 4 5 4 3
What does it mean to play in
a meaningful fashion? 30 7 5 7 3 8
What does it mean to play
musically? 27 8 3 6 1 9
What does it mean to apply
tone colour to music? 33 9 7 8 2 7
239
APPENDIX Q
Graph of Student Issues and Problems
240
APPENDIX R
Unsolicited Letter from an Instrumental Teacher
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