A Brief Overview By Elaine Bontempi, Ph.D. Instructional Design
& Distance Learning
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What is it? Why use it? Asks Three Basic Questions Where are we
going? (Analysis) How do we get there? (Design) How do we know weve
arrived? (Evaluation) Instructional Design
Smith & Ragan ContextLearnersTask Determine Organizational
Strategies Delivery Strategies Management Strategies Write &
Produce Instruction Conduct Formative Evaluation Revise Instruction
Write Test Items AnalysisStrategyEvaluation
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ADDIE Model
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WBID Model Analyze Evaluation Planning Full Implemen- tation
Summative Evaluation & Research Formative Evaluation Develop-
ment Initial Implemen- tation Design Concurrent Design
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Front End Analysis Context Analysis Substantiate need for
instruction Describe learning environment (computers, equipment,
access to instructors, resources, etc) Learner Analysis Who are
your learners? (age, demographics, etc) What are their
experiences/capabilities/skill levels/language? Learning Task
Analysis (content) Write Instructional Goal Determine type of
learning goals (Gagne) Information processing analysis of goal
Prerequisite analysis of goal Write Performance Objectives for goal
and each of the pre-requisites Analysis
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Are there learning goals that are not being met by our
students? Is existing instruction being delivered efficiently? Has
the program hired and retained competent staff? Is instruction
unappealing, and therefore, impeding the motivation, interest, and
perseverance of learners? Is instruction for unreached learning
goals being presented already? Should new learning goals be added
to the curriculum? Has there been a change in the composition of
the learner population? Determining the Need for a Needs
Analysis
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Three Component Objectives: Terminal behavior/performance
Conditions of demonstration of the behavior Performance statement
or criterion Writing a Performance Objective
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Given a short essay exam, students will provide a response to
each question with at least 70% accuracy. Assigned to a virtual
team and a motivational case, students will identify the
motivational problems, and provide an intervention strategy based
upon at least two of the motivational theories discussed in class.
Examples of Performance Objectives
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Organizational Strategy Introduction Body Opportunities for
practice with feedback Conclusion Assessment Assessment Delivery
Strategy Selection of technological tools Management Strategy How
will you manage your online courses? Development of Instructional
Strategies
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Examples of Organization of Material in DL Courses
http://www.ou.edu/cls/online/lstd2333/
http://www.ou.edu/cls/online/lstd2700pd/
http://www.ou.edu/cls/online/lstd5790motivation/
http://www.learn.ou.edu http://www.excelsior.edu
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Some estimated attrition rates between 30-70% (Bouhnik &
Marcus, 2006;Tyler-Smith, 2005)Tyler-Smith, 2005 Personal
motivation cited as #1 contributor to attrition in D.L.
(instructional design was listed as 2 nd ) (Tyler-Smith, 2005)
Isolation is a major problem in D.L. Self regulation an issue Why
is Motivation Important in Distance Learning?
Attention Relevance Confidence Satisfaction KELLERS ARCS
MODEL
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Example Application of Kellers ARCS Model Attention1.
Incongruity & Conflict: Use contradictions; play devils
advocate. 2. Concreteness: Use visual representations, anecdotes
and biographies. 3. Variability: Change instructional format,
media, layout and design, novel stimuli, images, audio files, etc.
4. Inquiry: problem solving activities/Case Studies 5.
Participation: games, simulations, case studies, collaborative
activities, discussion boards/chats/social networking 7. Novel
Stimuli: video clips/YouTube/PBS online documentaries/audio
clips/podcasts/Flickr/ Relevance1. Experience: connect new learning
w/ existing knowledge; relate to learner interests 2. Present
Worth: explicitly state the current value of the instruction 3.
Future Usefulness: Relate instruction to future goals 4. Modeling:
Peer-modeling, etc. 5. Assessment: e-portfolios, journal
activities, research projects Confidence1. Learning Requirements:
Advise students of requirements (goals/objectives) 2. Difficulty:
sequence activities in increasing difficulty 3. Self Confidence:
Foster using confidence strategies Satisfaction1. Natural
Consequences: Allow students to use newly acquired skills in
realistic, successful settings. 2. Unexpected Rewards: Include
student expectation of extrinsic reward (for boring tasks only) or
use a surprise reward 3. Positive Outcomes: Provide feedback,
praise, personal attention, motivation-immediately
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Proposes distinctions between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations. Based upon several mini theories including: CET OIT
BNT SELF DETERMINATION THEORY (Deci & Ryan)
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Behavior Non-Self Determined Self Determined Motivation
Regulatory Styles Perceived Locus of Causality Relevant Regulatory
Processes Amotivation Non-Regulation Extrinsic Motivation External
Regulation Introjected Regulation Identified Regulation Integrated
Regulation Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Regulation Impersonal
External Somewhat Somewhat Internal Internal External Internal
Nonintentional, Compliance Self-Control Personal Congruence,
Interest Non-valuing, External Ego- Importance Awareness Enjoyment,
Incompetence, Rewards & Involvement, Conscious Synthesis
Inherent Lack of Control Punishments Internal Valuing With Self
Satisfaction Figure 1. The Self-Determination Continuum Showing
Types of Motivation with their Regulatory Styles, Loci of
Causality, and Corresponding Processes. From Self-determination
theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social
development, and well being, by R.M. Ryan and E.L. Deci, 2000,
American Psychologist, January, p. 72
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Asynchronous (choice in time/schedule) Assignments Team members
Always on or anytime anywhere SDT and DL: Need for Autonomy
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Mastery oriented learning Human Information Processing
(chunking) Flow Practice with feedback SDT & DL: Need for
Competence
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Social Networking Ning.com SKYPE Yackpack RecordPad iPod
Del.icious.com Flickr SDT & DL: Need for Relatedness
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Flow: the state in which people are so intensely involved in an
activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself
is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the
sheer sake of doing it. Flow is a function of two variables:
Perceived challenges Perceived skills Flow Theory
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)
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Flow Theory & DL Learners need to operate a complex system,
so the feeling of control and the degree of interactivity are
important. Liao (2006) found that: 1.Interactivity has the greatest
effect over flow experiences in a DL environment 2.The type of
interactivity matters: 1.Learner-Instructor Interaction = positive
relationship 2.Learner-Interface Interaction = positive
relationship 3.Learner-Learner Interaction = no relationship
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Evaluation Stage has two parts: Formative Evaluation Summative
Evaluation Evaluation
4 Main Areas for Review Instructional Goals Instructional
Content Technology Message Design Formative Evaluation
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3 Main Questions Based Upon 3 Evaluation Criteria:
Effectiveness Efficiency Appeal/Usability Formative
Evaluations
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Note: Table from David-Shivers & Rasmussen (2006).
Web-Based Learning: Design, Implementation, and Evaluation. Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson
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Note: Table from David-Shivers & Rasmussen (2006).
Web-Based Learning: Design, Implementation, and Evaluation. Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Slide 30
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Simplest methods Testing, questionnaires, surveys, expert and
end-user reviews, observations Justify methods/tools Samples of the
actual instruments Example:
https://eval.ou.edu/https://eval.ou.edu/ Evaluation Methods?
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Types of Evaluation Design True Control Group Pre/Post
Post-test only Non-Equivalent Control Group Single Group
Time-Series Pre-test/Post-test
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References Bouhnik, D. & Marcus, T. (2006). Interaction in
distance-learning courses. Journal of the American Society for
Information Science and Technology, 57 (3), pp 299-304.
Chatham-Carpenter, A., Seawel, L., & Raschig, J. (2010).
Avoiding the pitfalls: Current practices and recommendations for
e-portfolios in higher education. Journal of Educational Technology
Systems, 38(4), pp. 437- 456. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow:
The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row.
David-Shivers & Rasmussen (2006). Web-Based Learning: Design,
Implementation, and Evaluation. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Deci, E.
L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The 'what' and 'why' of goal
pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior.
Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268. Keller, J. M. (1983).
Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.),
Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their
current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Keller,
J. M. (1984). The use of the ARCS model of motivation in teacher
training. In K. Shaw & A. J. Trott (Eds.), Aspects of
Educational Technology Volume XVII: staff Development and Career
Updating. London: Kogan Page. Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and
use of the ARCS model of motivational design. Journal of
Instructional Development, 10(3), 2-10. John Kellers Official ARCS
Model WebsiteJohn Kellers Official ARCS Model Website Reeve, J.,
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Self-determination theory: A
dialectical framework for understanding socio-cultural influences
on student motivation. In D. M. McInerney & S. Van Etten
(Eds.), Big theories revisited (pp. 31-60). Greenwich, CT:
Information Age Press. Smith, P. & Ragan, T. (2004).
Instructional Design (3 rd Ed). Wiley/Jossey-Bass. Tyler-Smith, K.
(2005). Early Attrition among First Time e-Learners: A Review of
Factors that Contribute to Drop- out, Withdrawal and Non-completion
Rates of Adult Learners undertaking eLearning Programmes. Journal
of Online Learning and Teaching. Found online:
http://jolt.merlot.org/Vol2_No2_TylerSmith.htmhttp://jolt.merlot.org/Vol2_No2_TylerSmith.htm
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., &
Deci, E. L. (2004). Motivating learning, performance, and
persistence: The synergistic role of intrinsic goals and
autonomy-support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87,
246-260.