Learner Guide
Cambridge Advanced
Cambridge International AS and A LevelChemistry
9701
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© Cambridge International Examinations 2015
Version 2
Contents
How to use this guide ...................................................................................................... 3Section 1: How will you be tested?Section 2: Examination adviceSection 3: What will be tested?Section 4: What you need to know
Section 1: How will you be tested? ..................................................................................... 5About the examinationAbout the papers
Section 2: Examination advice ............................................................................................. 7How to use this adviceGeneral advicePaper 1 Multiple ChoicePaper 2 AS Level Structured QuestionsPaper 3 Advanced Practical SkillsPaper 4 A Level Structured QuestionsPaper 5 Planning, Analysis and Evaluation
Section 3: What will be tested? ......................................................................................... 13Assessment objectivesWeighting of assessment objectivesData Booklet
Section 4: What you need to know ................................................................................... 15IntroductionHow to use the tableTest yourself Physical chemistry: Atoms, molecules and stoichiometryPhysical chemistry: Atomic structurePhysical chemistry: Chemical bondingPhysical chemistry: States of matter Physical chemistry: Chemical energeticsPhysical chemistry: ElectrochemistryPhysical chemistry: EquilibriaPhysical chemistry: Reaction kineticsInorganic chemistry: The Periodic Table: chemical periodicityInorganic chemistry: Group 2Inorganic chemistry: Group 17Inorganic chemistry: An introduction to the chemistry of transition elementsInorganic chemistry: Nitrogen and sulfurOrganic chemistry: Introductory topicsOrganic chemistry and analysis: HydrocarbonsOrganic chemistry and analysis: Halogen derivativesOrganic chemistry and analysis: Hydroxy compoundsOrganic chemistry and analysis: Carbonyl compoundsOrganic chemistry and analysis: Carboxylic acids and derivativesOrganic chemistry and analysis: Nitrogen compounds
Organic chemistry and analysis: PolymerisationOrganic chemistry and analysis: Analytical techniquesOrganic chemistry and analysis: Organic synthesis
How to use this guide
3 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
How to use this guide
The guide describes what you need to know about your Cambridge International Advanced Subsidiary (AS) Level or Cambridge International Advanced (A) Level Chemistry examinations. Schools choose one of the three options for their learners:
• To take all A Level components (AS Level and remainder of A Level) in the same examination session leading to the full A Level.
• To follow a staged assessment route to the A Level by taking the AS Level qualifi cation in an earlier examination session. If you do well enough you then have to take the fi nal part of the exam in a later examination session, leading to the full A Level.
• To take the AS qualifi cation only.
It is important when using this revision checklist that you know which one of the above three options has been chosen by your school, college or centre. If you do not know, then your chemistry teacher and examinations offi cer will know.
This guide will help you to plan your revision programme for the fi ve theory and practical examination papers. It will explain what examiners are looking for in the answers you write. It can also be used to help you revise, by using ticks in Section 4 (‘What you need to know’) to check what you know and which topic areas you have covered.
The guide contains the following sections:
Section 1: How will you be tested?This section will give you information about the different types of theory and practical examination papers that are available.
Section 2: Examination adviceThis section gives you advice to help you do as well as you can. Some of the ideas are general advice and some are based on the common mistakes that learners make in exams.
Section 3: What will be tested?This section describes the areas of knowledge, understanding and skills that you will be tested on.
Section 4: What you need to knowThis shows the syllabus content for AS and the full A Level in a simple way so that you can check:
• the topics you need to know about
• how the theory differs from the practical syllabus
• details about each topic in the syllabus
• how much of the syllabus you have covered
How to use this guide
4 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Section 1: How will you be tested?
5 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Section 1: How will you be tested?
About the examinationAS Level candidates enter for Papers 1, 2 and 3
Candidates who already have the AS Level and are taking the full A Level enter for Papers 4 and 5
A Level candidates taking the full A Level at the end of the course enter for Papers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
About the papersThe table below gives you outline information about all the examination papers.
Paper Type of paper Duration Marks Weighting (%)
AS A2
1 Multiple Choice 1 hour 40 31% 15%
2 AS Level Structured Questions
1 hour 15 minutes
60 46% 23%
3 Advanced Practical Skills 2 hours 40 23% 12%
4 A Level Structured Questions
2 hours 100 38%
5 Planning, Analysis and Evaluation
1 hour 15 minutes
30 12%
Paper 1 Multiple Choice (1 hour) (40 marks)40 multiple choice questions based on the AS Level syllabus content. The AS content consists of the parts of the syllabus in Section 3.2 Subject content that are not in bold type. 30 items will be of the direct choice type and 10 of the multiple completion type. All questions will include 4 responses. You will write your answers on an answer grid provided. You will need to answer all the questions.
Paper 2 AS Level Structured Questions (1 hour 15 minutes) (60 marks)A variable number of structured questions based on the AS content. You will write your answers on the question paper. You will need to answer all the questions.
Paper 3 Advanced Practical Skills (2 hours) (40 marks)This will feature two or three experiments drawn from different areas of chemistry. The examiners will not be restricted by the subject content. The scope of the practical test is indicated in the Practical Assessment section of the syllabus. You will write your answers on the question paper. You will need to answer all the questions.
Section 1: How will you be tested?
6 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Paper 4 A Level Structured Questions (2 hours) (100 marks)A variable number of structured questions based on the A Level syllabus, but which may contain material from the AS syllabus. The A Level content consists of the parts of the syllabus in Section 3.2 Subject content that are in bold type.
You will write your answers on the question paper. You will need to answer all the questions.
Paper 5 Planning, Analysis and Evaluation (1 hour 15 minutes) (30 marks)This paper will consist of a variable number of questions of variable mark value based on the practical skills of planning, analysis and evaluation. The examiners will not be restricted by the subject content. You will write your answers on the question paper. You will need to answer all the questions.
Section 2: Examination advice
7 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Section 2: Examination advice
How to use this adviceThis advice highlights some common mistakes made by candidates. It is collected under various subheadings to help you when you revise a particular topic.
General advice• Read the question carefully. Yes, we know you’ve been told this before, but it is still a common issue.
Misreading a question costs you marks if you could have answered the question that was there.
• Don’t concentrate your revising on ‘diffi cult’ material if it means you leave out the ‘easier’ material. There will be many marks on each paper, so make sure you score them all. For example, learn all the defi nitions you have been taught, such as fi rst ionisation energy and standard electrode potential.
• There may be questions on the paper that could involve elements or compounds you may not have studied. Don’t give up on these questions! If you know your chemistry you will be able to score all the marks by applying what you know to these substances.
• Write clearly. If your answer to a question is “alkene” the person marking your papers must be able to be certain that you have written “alkene”: if it looks at all like “alkane” you will not get the mark.
• Write numbers clearly. If your answer to a question is “0.46 moles” make sure the numbers are clear: if it looks like you might have written “0.96 moles” or “0.40 moles” you will not get the mark.
• If you have to make a correction, cross out what you have written and write down your new answer clearly in an available space. Don’t try to write over the top of your previous answer, or fi t the new answer into the space between lines of writing. Make sure you identify your new answer clearly, e.g. “continuation of Q4 (b)”.
• On papers that give scope for longer answers, look at how many marks are available for each part of the question. For example, if part (a) has one mark and part (b) has two marks, then a single statement might be suffi cient for part (a) but it won’t be for part (b).
• In the example above, look out in part (b) for the possibility of writing a statement and an explanation.
• You are going to take several chemistry exam papers lasting a total of many hours. These papers will cover the whole syllabus very thoroughly. If you don’t know something, don’t rely on it not coming up. Find it out and learn it. If this doesn’t work go over it with your teacher and/or your classmates.
• Method marks contribute a lot to your total on many papers. Write out each step of your method! This is very important when you fi nd you are unable to work all the way through a longer question to the fi nal answer. Don’t give up on it, or leave blanks. You may be able to score the majority of the marks. Examples of this situation include:
° At the end of a four-mark calculation on gas volume you get an answer you know is wrong, e.g. you work out that 45,000 dm3 of gas are released from a test tube reaction! If you write out your method in full you may still score three marks if you have only made one mistake. Even if you only score one mark it might be important.
° You are answering a fi ve-mark organic question in which you have to use information from the question to deduce the full structural formula of a compound. You fi nd you cannot produce a structure that fi ts all the information. Answer the question anyway, stating in full what your deductions are from each separate piece of information in the question. Many answers like this can still score four or fi ve marks, even without the fi nal structure.
Section 2: Examination advice
8 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
• Don’t cross out an answer, or part of an answer, simply because you are not satisfi ed with it. If you are changing an answer or part of an answer, only cross out your fi rst answer if it contradicts your new answer. For example, a question asks “describe and explain the processes involved when sodium chloride dissolves in water”:
° you might start by writing “Sodium chloride is a covalent compound”. If you then want to change this to “sodium chloride is an ionic compound”, you must cross out your fi rst answer because these two answers contradict each other.
° alternatively, you might start by writing “Sodium chloride dissolves in water to give a solution of pH 7”, and then you decide this is not relevant, and you need to start by considering the bonding in sodium chloride. Don’t cross out your original statement. It may score you one or more marks.
• Round off calculations to the correct number of signifi cant fi gures at the end of the calculation. Do not round off after each step of the calculation. If you do this, rounding errors can add together so that your fi nal answer is not close enough to the correct answer.
• Be prepared to guess intelligently. For example, a question says that “when silver nitrate solution is added to an unknown solution a yellow precipitate forms”. If you know that this means that either bromide or iodide ions are present, but you can’t remember which, you have nothing to lose if you guess. If you leave the answer blank, you get no mark. If you guess wrongly, you get no mark. If you guess correctly, you score a mark.
• If a question asks you about an inorganic compound you are not familiar with, look at your periodic table. You may be able to answer the question by applying your knowledge of other elements in the same group. If, for example, you get a question about the shape or acid/base behaviour of phosphine (PH3), think of what you know about ammonia (NH3).
• If a question asks you about an organic compound you are not familiar with, look at the functional groups in the compound. You may be able to answer the question by applying your knowledge of how these functional groups behave. If, for example, you get a question about an organic compound with an aldehyde (-CHO) group, think of what you know about ethanal (CH3CHO).
Paper 1 Multiple Choice• Answer every question.
• If you are not sure about an answer, make a note of the question number on the front of your question paper. Go back to this question fi rst if you have time at the end of the exam.
• Questions 1–30 have four answers. If you cannot spot the correct answer with certainty, mark each answer with a tick, a question mark, or a cross. Use this to decide which of the four answers is the best answer. Alternatively, if you do this and fi nd that you still have to guess, you are more likely to get it right if you can eliminate one or two of the choices.
• Some questions will state a fact, and then ask for an explanation of the fact. Beware of answers that are true but do not answer the question, e.g. a question asks, “Why does water have a higher melting point than propanone?” and one of the four choices is: “water molecules are polar”. This is true, but it does not answer the question as propanone molecules are also polar.
• Questions 31–40 have four statements. To answer these questions you have to decide whether each statement is true or not. When you have decided whether or not the fi rst statement is true, put a tick or cross by it. Do the same for the other statements. This way you don’t have to remember your earlier decisions while looking at later statements.
• If a question involves a calculation write out your method. This will save you time if you have to check your answer.
• Any bold type in a question is there to draw your attention to something important.
Section 2: Examination advice
9 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Paper 2 AS Level Structured Questions• Use the space on the paper as a rough guide to the length of answer necessary. If there are fi ve lines to
write in, a one-line answer is unlikely to be enough.
• You must learn defi nitions exactly, e.g. defi nitions of energy changes. Don’t be satisfi ed with your learning of a defi nition until you are word perfect – you will lose marks otherwise.
• If state symbols are asked for in an equation, put them in. Read the question, and then answer it!
• Look out for questions that ask for an observation or statement and an explanation, and make sure you include the explanation. Look at the mark allocation to help you to decide how much detail is required in the explanation. There will probably be only one mark for the observation or statement.
• If a question asks for an explanation of a particular type you provide the answer that is being asked for. An example of this is a question that asks you to explain how the electronic confi gurations of the elements in a group affect the reactivity of the elements. If your answer concentrates on some other factor, for example the structure and bonding of the elements, it is unlikely to score marks.
• If you are calculating a ∆H⦵ value in a thermochemistry question, don’t forget that the ∆H⦵ values you are given to work it out are per mole of substance. For example, if you are using ∆Ho
f values to calculate the ∆H⦵ of the decomposition 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O make sure you use twice the value of the ∆H⦵
f of NaHCO3.
• Organic chemistry questions often ask for the isomers of a given compound to be drawn. Beware of writing answers that are simply redrawings of the same structure! You may fi nd it easier here if you draw skeletal formulae as well as displayed formulae. It is often easier to spot two identical structures if they are drawn as skeletal formulae.
• Give answers that are as specifi c and as precise as you are able. For example, in an organic chemistry question worth two marks you have to name the functional groups in the compound H2C=CHCH2CHO. If you answer “The compound has a double bond and a carbonyl group” you will score no marks. Many compounds have double bonds, but if it is a C=C double bond then the specifi c name for the functional group is “alkene”. Many compounds have carbonyl groups, but if the carbonyl group is directly bonded to a hydrogen atom then the specifi c name for the functional group is “aldehyde”. If you answer “The compound has an alkene functional group and an aldehyde functional group” you will score two marks.
• Many questions will ask you to state the observations that will be made during an experiment. Make sure you use the accepted terms to describe colour changes that will be seen. Use examiners’ reports and textbooks (e.g. AS Level and A Level Chemistry by Ratcliff et al) to fi nd out what these accepted terms are, e.g. colours of silver chloride, silver bromide and silver iodide should be described as white, cream and yellow respectively.
Paper 3 Advanced Practical Skills• As with all exams it is essential that you read practical exam papers very carefully. You must follow the
instructions on the paper so that you do the correct experiments and record the correct observations. If the question tells you to record results or observations in a certain place you must record them in that place.
• Make sure you are well practised in handling all of the equations relating to titrations. Being able to convert between cm3 and dm3 is an essential part of this.
• Make sure you are well practised in the graphical techniques that have been necessary to answer questions on past papers. Get a set of results for each question of this sort and repeat the graphical exercises until your teacher agrees you have them right.
Section 2: Examination advice
10 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
• Don’t forget to record titration results in a suitable format, giving initial and fi nal burette readings, and recording volumes to 0.05cm3, not 0.1cm3 or 0.01cm3.
• You need to get two titration results that are within 0.10cm3 of each other. You don’t need more accurate results than this unless the question specifi cally says so.
• Have a mental checklist to use when titrating:
° No air bubble in the tip of the burette
° No air bubbles anywhere in the pipette
° The bottom of the meniscus just touches the graduation on the pipette
° The colour change you’re looking for at the end-point should be caused by a single drop from the burette
• If a question tells you that repeated readings should not be taken, don’t repeat the readings! There will be no marks given for the repeats, you may lose marks for failing to follow instructions, and you may run short of time.
• Make sure you are well practised in the correct vocabulary for recording observations, e.g. precipitate, slight, dense, soluble, insoluble, excess, gelatinous, and effervescence.
• If you are asked to record observations do so in as much detail as possible. If a solution is colourless, or a precipitate is white, say so. Don’t just describe it as a “solution” or a “precipitate”.
• If you have to add one solution to another, looking for observations, add it slowly. You need to notice the difference between an instant or sudden change and a gradual change.
• If a change is instant or sudden, say so. If a change is gradual, say so. If the change goes through intermediate stages, describe each of these stages.
Paper 4 A Level Structured Questions• As with Paper 2 there will be defi nitions to learn for Paper 4. Make sure you know them exactly. Be
strict with yourself when you are practising them.
• Some defi nitions will be essential in order to do calculations correctly. For example, you may have to do a calculation that involves Cl-Cl bonds. The data in the question says the bond energy for the Cl-Cl bond is +242 kJmol–1. Does this energy value refer to making bonds or breaking them? Does this energy term refer to one mole of Cl-Cl bonds or one mole of Cl atoms? If you don’t know the defi nition of bond energy then you are unlikely to get the right answer to the question.
• If a question requires the use of data from the Data Booklet, write down the data you have selected. There may be a mark for choosing the correct data from the booklet.
• This paper will ask you to write balanced chemical equations. Practise this skill.
• If a question gives details of a reaction and asks you to explain it there will probably be a mark for a balanced chemical equation. Write an equation, including state symbols. This gives you extra chances to pick up marks.
° There may be a mark for naming a certain product; if you forget to name it but write it in an equation you will get the mark.
° There may be a mark for saying a gas is given off; if you forget to state this but write it in an equation with (g) after it you will get the mark.
° There may be a mark for saying a precipitate forms; if you forget to state this but write it in an equation with (s) after it you may get the mark. For example, a question asks you about the thermal decomposition of the carbonates of Group 2 metals. If you write the equation MgCO3(s) → MgO(s)
Section 2: Examination advice
11 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
+ CO2(g) you will pick up any marks available for saying that the products include a metal oxide, or for saying that the products include carbon dioxide gas.
• Be defi nite and specifi c. If a question asks you to describe the structure and bonding of a substance you need to use two words. One word describes the structure – giant or simple. One word describes the bonding – metallic, ionic, or covalent. Your answer must be two words, chosen from this list of fi ve.
• However you can make them much easier for yourself by learning all of the reactions the syllabus says you need to know. If you learn these reactions and practise writing the balanced chemical equations, you will give yourself the best chance you can.
• You are very likely to have to show your knowledge of at least one organic reaction mechanism. Practise them and make sure you know which reactions go by which mechanism. Learn the equations! Have a checklist in your memory for writing mechanisms:
° Defi nitions – electrophile and nucleophile
° Which bonds have to be labelled with dipoles (δ+ and δ–)
° Curly arrows represent the movement of an electron pair, so the arrow should start on a lone pair, or a bond pair, or the delocalised electrons in a benzene ring, and the arrowhead should point towards the atom, ion or molecule that the electron pair is going to.
• You may be asked to use your skills to interpret mass spectra and NMR spectra. Practice these skills by answering as many sample questions as you can.
• If a question seems to be about an area of chemistry which you know little or nothing about, it is important not to panic.
• Let us suppose that a question seems to be in an area that is unfamiliar to you. The following is a strategy that you could use when tackling such questions.
° Read carefully through the stem of the question and try to identify the areas of the course it is based on.
° Think back to what you studied in this topic.
° Look carefully at any information/data provided in the question.
° Read each sub-question carefully and see how it links to what you know, and any of the data provided.
° Remember these questions more often test your ability to apply what you know, not to recall specifi c points covered in lessons.
° Remember – any data provided is there for a reason. You will need to use it, or to select from it, when answering one or more parts of the question.
Paper 5 Planning, Analysis and Evaluation • The planning exercise will require you to defi ne the problem and then describe a practical method.
• If you are asked to make a prediction, and to justify the prediction, make sure you do so.
• Your practical method should be detailed. Somebody else should be able to follow your method without having to come to you for clarifi cation.
• Make sure any drawings of apparatus are done clearly and simply.
• If the results obtained will then have to be processed, explain how this will be done.
• The paper may include a data handling question.
• This will involve some simple maths. Check your maths, including the choice of the number of signifi cant fi gures. If you are in doubt, work to 3 signifi cant fi gures.
• You may have to plot a graph. Number and label the axes clearly. The labels should include the quantity (eg mass) and the units (eg g). The numbering of the axes should make plotting straightforward – if 0.1 g
Section 2: Examination advice
12 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
covers ten small squares then plotting is straightforward, if 0.25 g covers ten small squares then plotting is less straightforward – and the points to be plotted should use more than half the graph paper in each direction.
• You will have to evaluate an experiment and the set of results that was obtained.
• Identify any results that don’t fi t the general trend, suggesting an explanation of how they arose.
• Consider the quality of the method.
• Comment on the apparatus chosen – was it suitable?
• You may be asked what conclusion can be drawn, and whether or not the data supports a given hypothesis.
Section 3: What will be tested?
13 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Section 3: What will be tested?
Assessment objectivesWe take account of the following in your answer papers.
Assessment objective: What this examines:
AO1 – knowledge with understanding
Remembering facts and applying these facts to new situations.
AO2 – ability in handling, applying and evaluating information
How you extract information and rearrange it in a sensible pattern. How you carry out calculations and make predictions. You also need to refl ect upon the validity and reliability of that information commenting on possible sources of error.
AO3 – use of experimental skills and investigations
Planning and carrying out experiments and recording, analysing and evaluating information. You also need to refl ect upon the validity and reliability of that information. You need to comment on possible sources of error and you need to identify ways in which to improve that experimental work.
The assessment objectives (AOs) listed below refl ect those parts of the aims of the syllabus which will be assessed. This is a brief description and your teacher will be able to provide you with more detailed information on assessment objectives.
AO1 Knowledge with understanding
Demonstrate with relation to understanding:
scientifi c phenomena, facts, laws, defi nitions, concepts, theories
scientifi c vocabulary, terminology, conventions (including symbols, quantities and units)
scientifi c instruments and apparatus, including techniques of operation and aspects of safety
scientifi c quantities and their determination
scientifi c and technological applications with their social, economic and environmental implications
present reasoned explanations for phenomena, patterns and relationships
Section 3: What will be tested?
14 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
AO2 Handling, applying and evaluating information
You should be able (in words or by using symbolic, graphical and numerical forms of presentation) to:
locate, select, organise and present information from a variety of sources
handle information, distinguishing the relevant from the extraneous
manipulate numerical and other data and translate information from one form to another
analyse and evaluate information so as to identify patterns, report trends and draw inferences
construct arguments to support hypotheses or to justify a course of action
apply knowledge, including principles, to new situations
evaluate information and hypotheses
AO3 Experimental skills and investigations
You should be able to:
plan experiments and investigations
collect, record and present observations, measurements and estimates
analyse and interpret data to reach conclusions
evaluate methods and quality of data and suggest improvements
Weighting of assessment objectivesThis table gives a general idea of the allocation of marks to the assessment objectives, however the balance on individual papers may vary slightly from year to year.
Assessment Objective Weighting (%) On which papers?
AO1 42 1, 2 and 4
AO2 35 1, 2 and 4
AO3 23 3 and 5
Data BookletA Data Booklet is available for use in Papers 1, 2 and 4. The booklet is reprinted towards the back of the syllabus. Copies of the booklet can be ordered from Cambridge Publications. Please note that changes to the Data Booklet have been made for 2016. The new booklet will be used for the fi rst time in the March 2016 examination series (for India only) and Centres will be supplied with copies at this time. Further copies will be supplied as needed.
Section 4: What you need to know
15 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Section 4: What you need to know
IntroductionWhat you need to know is presented in a table, which describes the things you may be tested on in the examinations. These are arranged into themes, each being divided into topic areas. These topics are then subdivided into specifi c things you should be able to do. These topics will be placed into one of two columns:
• The fi rst column is for learners studying AS Level.
• The second column is additional material for learners studying the full A Level.
You need only refer to the fi rst column (Learners studying AS Level) if you are studying AS Level chemistry. If you are studying A Level chemistry then both columns are needed. If you are unsure about which material to use, you should ask your teacher for advice.
How to use the tableYou can use the table throughout your chemistry course to check the theme and topic areas you have covered. You can also use it as a revision aid. When you have a good knowledge of a topic, you tick the appropriate space in the checklist column.
The themes in the table are:
Physical chemistry: Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry
Physical chemistry: Atomic structure
Physical chemistry: Chemical bonding
Physical chemistry: States of matter
Physical chemistry: Chemical energetics
Physical chemistry: Electrochemistry
Physical chemistry: Equilibria
Physical chemistry: Reaction kinetics
Inorganic chemistry: The Periodic Table/chemical periodicity
Inorganic chemistry: Group 2
Inorganic chemistry: Group 17
Inorganic chemistry: An introduction to the chemistry of transition elements
Inorganic chemistry: Nitrogen and sulfur
Section 4: What you need to know
16 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Organic chemistry: Introductory topics
Organic chemistry: Hydrocarbons
Organic chemistry: Halogen derivatives
Organic chemistry: Hydroxy compounds
Organic chemistry: Carbonyl compounds
Organic chemistry: Carboxylic acids and derivatives
Organic chemistry: Nitrogen compounds
Organic chemistry: Polymerisation
Organic chemistry: Analytical techniques
Organic chemistry: Organic synthesis
Test yourself Test yourself as follows:
• cover up the details with a piece of paper
• try to remember the details
• when you have remembered the details correctly, put a tick in the appropriate space in the checklist column.
If you use a pencil to tick the space you can retest yourself whenever you want by simply rubbing out the ticks. If you are using the table to check the topics you have covered, you can put a tick in the topic column next to the appropriate bullet point.
The Comment column can be used:
• to add further information about the details for each bullet point
• to note relevant page numbers from your textbook
• to add learning aids e.g. OIL RIG (for oxidation is loss (of electrons) and reduction is gain (of electrons))
• to highlight areas of diffi culty/things which you need to ask your teacher about.
Section 4: What you need to know
17 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
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ent
give
n th
e re
lativ
e ab
unda
nces
of
its is
otop
es, o
r its
mas
s sp
ectr
um
Section 4: What you need to know
18 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ato
ms,
mol
ecul
es a
nd s
toic
hiom
etry
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
t
1A
tom
s,
mol
ecul
es a
nd
stoi
chio
met
ry
The
calc
ulat
ion
of e
mpi
rical
an
d m
olec
ular
fo
rmul
ae
Defi
ne
and
use
the
term
s em
piric
al a
nd
mol
ecul
ar fo
rmul
ae
The
term
re
lativ
e fo
rmul
a m
ass
will
be
used
for
all
com
poun
ds
incl
udin
g io
nic
Cal
cula
te e
mpi
rical
and
m
olec
ular
form
ulae
, us
ing
com
bust
ion
data
or
com
posi
tion
by m
ass
Rea
ctin
g m
asse
s an
d vo
lum
es (o
f so
lutio
ns a
nd
gase
s)
Writ
e an
d co
nstr
uct
bala
nced
equ
atio
ns
Section 4: What you need to know
19 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ato
ms,
mol
ecul
es a
nd s
toic
hiom
etry
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
t
1A
tom
s,
mol
ecul
es a
nd
stoi
chio
met
ry
Per
form
cal
cula
tions
, in
clud
ing
use
of t
he
mol
e co
ncep
t, in
volv
ing:
(i) re
actin
g m
asse
s (f
rom
form
ulae
and
eq
uatio
ns)
(ii) v
olum
es o
f ga
ses
(e.g
. in
the
burn
ing
of
hydr
ocar
bons
)(ii
i) vo
lum
es a
nd
conc
entr
atio
ns o
f so
lutio
ns
Wor
k ou
t an
swer
s to
th
e nu
mbe
r of
sig
nifi c
ant
fi gur
es a
sked
fo
r in
the
qu
estio
n. If
a
num
ber
of
sign
ifi ca
nt
fi gur
es is
not
as
ked
for
then
th
e nu
mbe
r of
sig
nifi c
ant
fi gur
es in
the
le
ast
accu
rate
pi
ece
of d
ata
shou
ld b
e us
ed.
Ded
uce
stoi
chio
met
ric
rela
tions
hips
fro
m
calc
ulat
ions
Section 4: What you need to know
20 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ato
mic
str
uctu
reS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
2A
tom
ic
stru
ctur
eP
artic
les
in
the
atom
Iden
tify
and
desc
ribe
prot
ons,
neu
tron
s an
d el
ectr
ons
in te
rms
of
thei
r re
lativ
e ch
arge
s an
d re
lativ
e m
asse
s
Ded
uce
the
beha
viou
r of
bea
ms
of p
roto
ns,
neut
rons
and
ele
ctro
ns
in e
lect
ric fi
elds
Des
crib
e th
e di
strib
utio
n of
mas
s an
d ch
arge
with
in a
n at
om
Ded
uce
the
num
bers
of
pro
tons
, neu
tron
s an
d el
ectr
ons
pres
ent
in b
oth
atom
s an
d io
ns g
iven
pro
ton
and
nucl
eon
num
bers
and
ch
arge
Section 4: What you need to know
21 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ato
mic
str
uctu
reS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
2A
tom
ic
stru
ctur
eTh
e nu
cleu
s of
the
ato
mD
escr
ibe
the
cont
ribut
ion
of p
roto
ns
and
neut
rons
to a
tom
ic
nucl
ei in
term
s of
pr
oton
num
ber
and
nucl
eon
num
ber
Dis
tingu
ish
betw
een
isot
opes
on
the
basi
s of
diff
eren
t nu
mbe
rs
of n
eutr
ons
pres
ent
Rec
ogni
se a
nd u
se
the
sym
bolis
m x y
A f
or
isot
opes
, whe
re x is
th
e nu
cleo
n nu
mbe
r an
d y i
s th
e pr
oton
nu
mbe
r
Elec
tron
s:
ener
gy
leve
ls, a
tom
ic
orbi
tals
, io
nisa
tion
ener
gy,
elec
tron
af
fi nity
Des
crib
e th
e nu
mbe
r an
d re
lativ
e en
ergi
es
of t
he s
, p a
nd d
or
bita
ls fo
r th
e pr
inci
pal q
uant
um
num
bers
1, 2
and
3
and
also
the
4s
and
4p
orbi
tals
Section 4: What you need to know
22 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ato
mic
str
uctu
reS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
t
2A
tom
ic
stru
ctur
eD
escr
ibe
and
sket
ch t
he
shap
es o
f s
and
p or
bita
ls
Use
1s2 2s
2 2p6 et
c no
tatio
n to
sta
te t
he e
lect
roni
c co
nfi g
urat
ion
of a
tom
s an
d io
ns g
iven
the
pro
ton
num
ber
and
char
ge
Exp
lain
and
use
the
term
io
nisa
tion
ener
gyE
xpla
in a
nd u
se
the
term
ele
ctro
n af
fi nity
Exp
lain
the
fac
tors
in
fl uen
cing
the
ioni
satio
n en
ergi
es o
f el
emen
ts
Exp
lain
the
tren
ds in
io
nisa
tion
ener
gies
acr
oss
a Pe
riod
and
dow
n a
Gro
up o
f the
Per
iodi
c Ta
ble
Ded
uce
the
elec
tron
ic
confi
gur
atio
ns o
f el
emen
ts f
rom
su
cces
sive
ioni
satio
n en
ergy
dat
a
Inte
rpre
t su
cces
sive
io
nisa
tion
ener
gy d
ata
of
an e
lem
ent
in te
rms
of
the
posi
tion
of t
hat
elem
ent
with
in t
he
Per
iodi
c Ta
ble
Section 4: What you need to know
23 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Che
mic
al b
ondi
ngTh
is t
opic
intr
oduc
es t
he d
iffer
ent
way
s by
whi
ch c
hem
ical
bon
ding
occ
urs
and
the
effe
ct t
his
can
have
on
phys
ical
pro
pert
ies.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Co
mm
ent
3C
hem
ical
bo
ndin
gIo
nic
bond
ing
Des
crib
e io
nic
bond
ing,
as
in s
odiu
m
chlo
ride,
mag
nesi
um
oxid
e an
d ca
lciu
m
fl uor
ide,
incl
udin
g th
e us
e of
‘dot
-and
-cro
ss’
diag
ram
s
Cov
alen
t bo
ndin
g an
d co
-ord
inat
e (d
ativ
e co
vale
nt)
bond
ing
incl
udin
g sh
apes
of
sim
ple
mol
ecul
es
Des
crib
e, in
clud
ing
the
use
of ‘d
ot-a
nd-c
ross
’ di
agra
ms,
cov
alen
t bo
ndin
g. F
or e
xam
ple
as in
hyd
roge
n,
oxyg
en, c
hlor
ine,
hy
drog
en c
hlor
ide,
ca
rbon
dio
xide
, m
etha
ne a
nd e
then
e
Des
crib
e, in
clud
ing
the
use
of ‘d
ot-a
nd-c
ross
’ di
agra
ms,
co
-ord
inat
e (d
ativ
e co
vale
nt)
bond
ing.
For
exa
mpl
e as
in t
he fo
rmat
ion
of
the
amm
oniu
m io
n an
d in
the
Al 2C
l 6 m
olec
ule
Section 4: What you need to know
24 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Che
mic
al b
ondi
ngS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Co
mm
ent
3C
hem
ical
bo
ndin
gE
xpla
in t
he s
hape
s of
and
bon
d an
gles
in
mol
ecul
es b
y us
ing
the
qual
itativ
e m
odel
of
elec
tron
-pai
r re
puls
ion
(incl
udin
g lo
ne p
airs
). U
se s
impl
e ex
ampl
es
such
as:
B
F 3 (t
rigon
al);
CO
2 (lin
ear);
C
H4 (
tetr
ahed
ral);
N
H3 (
pyra
mid
al);
H2O
(non
-line
ar);
SF 6
(oct
ahed
ral):
PF 5
(trig
onal
bi
pyra
mid
al) t
o ill
ustr
ate
your
ans
wer
s
Des
crib
e co
vale
nt
bond
ing
in te
rms
of
orbi
tal o
verla
p, g
ivin
g σ
and π
bond
s
Section 4: What you need to know
25 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Che
mic
al b
ondi
ngS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
3C
hem
ical
bo
ndin
gD
escr
ibe
the
conc
ept
of h
ybrid
isat
ion
to fo
rm
sp, s
p2 , and
sp3 o
rbita
ls
Pre
dict
the
sha
pes
of
and
bond
ang
les
in
mol
ecul
es s
imila
r to
th
ose
stat
ed a
bove
Inte
rmol
ecul
ar
forc
es,
elec
tron
egat
ivity
an
d bo
nd
prop
ertie
s
Exp
lain
the
term
s bo
nd
ener
gy, b
ond
leng
th
and
bond
pol
arity
and
us
e th
em to
com
pare
th
ere
activ
ities
of
cova
lent
bo
nds
Section 4: What you need to know
26 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Che
mic
al b
ondi
ngS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
3C
hem
ical
bo
ndin
gD
escr
ibe
hydr
ogen
bo
ndin
g, u
sing
am
mon
ia a
nd w
ater
as
sim
ple
exam
ples
of
mol
ecul
esco
ntai
ning
N-H
and
O
-H g
roup
s
Des
crib
e in
term
olec
ular
forc
es
(van
der
Waa
ls’ f
orce
s),
base
d on
per
man
ent
and
indu
ced
dipo
les,
as
in C
HC
l 3(l);
B
r 2(l)
and
the
liqu
id
Gro
up 1
8 el
emen
ts
App
ly t
he c
once
pt o
f el
ectr
oneg
ativ
ity to
ex
plai
n bo
nd p
olar
ity,
dipo
le m
omen
ts a
nd
the
beha
viou
r of
oxi
des
with
wat
er
Section 4: What you need to know
27 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Che
mic
al b
ondi
ngS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
3C
hem
ical
bo
ndin
gM
etal
lic
bond
ing
Des
crib
e m
etal
lic b
ondi
ng
in te
rms
of a
latt
ice
of
posi
tive
ions
sur
roun
ded
by
delo
calis
ed e
lect
rons
Bon
ding
an
d ph
ysic
al
prop
ertie
s
Des
crib
e, in
terp
ret
and
pred
ict
the
effe
ct
of d
iffer
ent
type
s of
bo
ndin
g (io
nic
bond
ing;
co
vale
nt b
ondi
ng;
hydr
ogen
bon
ding
; oth
er
inte
rmol
ecul
ar in
tera
ctio
ns;
met
allic
bon
ding
) on
the
phys
ical
pro
pert
ies
of
subs
tanc
es
Ded
uce
the
type
of
bond
ing
pres
ent
from
giv
en
info
rmat
ion
Sho
w u
nder
stan
ding
of
chem
ical
reac
tions
in
term
s of
ene
rgy
tran
sfer
s as
soci
ated
with
the
br
eaki
ng a
nd m
akin
g of
ch
emic
al b
onds
Section 4: What you need to know
28 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Sta
tes
of m
atte
r Th
e st
udy
of t
he p
artic
les
in s
olid
s, li
quid
s an
d ga
ses
and
the
inte
ract
ions
bet
wee
n th
em is
impo
rtan
t in
und
erst
andi
ng t
he p
hysi
cal p
rope
rtie
s of
su
bsta
nces
.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
4S
tate
s of
m
atte
r
The
gase
ous
stat
e:
idea
l and
rea
l gas
es
and
pV =
nR
T
Sta
te t
he b
asic
as
sum
ptio
ns o
f th
e ki
netic
th
eory
as
appl
ied
to a
n id
eal g
as
Exp
lain
qua
litat
ivel
y in
te
rms
of in
term
olec
ular
fo
rces
and
mol
ecul
ar s
ize
the
cond
ition
s ne
cess
ary
for
a ga
s to
app
roac
h id
eal
beha
viou
r
Exp
lain
qua
litat
ivel
y in
te
rms
of in
term
olec
ular
fo
rces
and
mol
ecul
ar s
ize
the
limita
tions
of
idea
lity
at v
ery
high
pre
ssur
es a
nd
very
low
tem
pera
ture
s
Sta
te a
nd u
se t
he g
ener
al
gas
equa
tion
pV =
nR
T in
ca
lcul
atio
ns, i
nclu
ding
the
de
term
inat
ion
of M
r
The
liqui
d st
ate
Des
crib
e, u
sing
a k
inet
ic-
mol
ecul
ar m
odel
, the
liqu
id
stat
e; m
eltin
g; v
apor
isat
ion
and
vapo
ur p
ress
ure
Section 4: What you need to know
29 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Sta
tes
of m
atte
rS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
4S
tate
s of
m
atte
rTh
e so
lid
stat
e:la
ttic
e st
ruct
ures
Des
crib
e, in
sim
ple
term
s,
the
latt
ice
stru
ctur
e of
a
crys
talli
ne s
olid
whi
ch is
:(i)
ioni
c, a
s in
sod
ium
ch
lorid
e, m
agne
sium
oxi
de(ii
) sim
ple
mol
ecul
ar, a
s in
io
dine
and
the
ful
lere
ne
allo
trop
es o
f ca
rbon
(C6
0
and
nano
tube
s on
ly)
(iii)
gian
t m
olec
ular
, as
in
silic
on(IV
) oxi
de a
nd t
he
grap
hite
, dia
mon
d an
d gr
aphe
ne a
llotr
opes
of
carb
on(iv
) hyd
roge
n-bo
nded
, as
in ic
e(v
) met
allic
, as
in c
oppe
r
Section 4: What you need to know
30 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Sta
tes
of m
atte
rS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
4S
tate
s of
m
atte
rD
iscu
ss t
he fi
nite
nat
ure
of
mat
eria
ls a
s re
sour
ces
and
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f re
cycl
ing
proc
esse
s
Out
line
the
impo
rtan
ce
of h
ydro
gen
bond
ing
to
the
phys
ical
pro
pert
ies
of
subs
tanc
es, i
nclu
ding
ice
and
wat
er (f
or e
xam
ple,
bo
iling
and
mel
ting
poin
ts,
visc
osity
and
sur
face
te
nsio
n)
Sug
gest
fro
m q
uote
d ph
ysic
al d
ata
the
type
of
stru
ctur
e an
d bo
ndin
g pr
esen
t in
a s
ubst
ance
Section 4: What you need to know
31 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Che
mic
al e
nerg
etic
sS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
5C
hem
ical
en
erge
tics
Ent
halp
y ch
ange
, ∆H
Exp
lain
tha
t ch
emic
al re
actio
ns
are
acco
mpa
nied
by
ener
gy
chan
ges,
prin
cipa
lly in
the
form
of
hea
t en
ergy
; the
ene
rgy
chan
ges
can
be e
xoth
erm
ic (∆
H
nega
tive)
or
endo
ther
mic
(∆H
po
sitiv
e)
Exp
lain
and
use
the
term
s:en
thal
py c
hang
e of
reac
tion
and
stan
dard
con
ditio
ns,
with
par
ticul
ar re
fere
nce
to: f
orm
atio
n; c
ombu
stio
n;
hydr
atio
n; s
olut
ion;
ne
utra
lisat
ion;
ato
mis
atio
n
Exp
lain
and
use
the
term
: bon
d en
ergy
(∆H
pos
itive
, i.e
. bon
d br
eaki
ng)
Exp
lain
and
use
the
term
s:
latt
ice
ener
gy (∆
H n
egat
ive,
i.e.
ga
seou
s io
ns to
sol
id la
ttic
e)
Cal
cula
te e
ntha
lpy
chan
ges
from
app
ropr
iate
exp
erim
enta
l re
sults
, inc
ludi
ng t
he u
se o
f th
e re
latio
nshi
p en
thal
py c
hang
e ∆H
=
–m
c∆T
Exp
lain
, in
qual
itativ
e te
rms,
th
e ef
fect
of
ioni
c ch
arge
and
of
ioni
c ra
dius
on
the
num
eric
al
mag
nitu
de o
f a
latt
ice
ener
gy
Section 4: What you need to know
32 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Che
mic
al e
nerg
etic
sS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
5C
hem
ical
en
erge
tics
Hes
s’ L
aw,
incl
udin
g B
orn-
Hab
er
cycl
es
App
ly H
ess’
Law
to
cons
truc
t si
mpl
e en
ergy
cy
cles
, and
car
ry o
ut
calc
ulat
ions
invo
lvin
g su
chcy
cles
and
rele
vant
ene
rgy
term
s, w
ith p
artic
ular
re
fere
nce
to d
eter
min
ing
enth
alpy
cha
nges
tha
t ca
nnot
be
foun
d by
dire
ct
expe
rimen
t, e
.g. a
nen
thal
py c
hang
e of
fo
rmat
ion
from
ent
halp
y ch
ange
s of
com
bust
ion
App
ly H
ess’
Law
to
cons
truc
t si
mpl
e en
ergy
cy
cles
, and
car
ry o
ut
calc
ulat
ions
invo
lvin
g su
chcy
cles
and
rele
vant
ene
rgy
term
s, w
ith p
artic
ular
re
fere
nce
to t
he fo
rmat
ion
of a
sim
ple
ioni
c so
lid a
nd o
f its
aqu
eous
sol
utio
n
App
ly H
ess’
Law
to
cons
truc
t si
mpl
e en
ergy
cy
cles
, and
car
ry o
ut
calc
ulat
ions
invo
lvin
g su
chcy
cles
and
rele
vant
ene
rgy
term
s, w
ith p
artic
ular
re
fere
nce
to a
vera
ge b
ond
ener
gies
App
ly H
ess’
Law
to
cons
truc
t si
mpl
e en
ergy
cy
cles
, and
car
ry o
ut
calc
ulat
ions
invo
lvin
g su
chcy
cles
and
rele
vant
ene
rgy
term
s, w
ith p
artic
ular
re
fere
nce
to B
orn-
Hab
er
cycl
es (i
nclu
ding
ioni
satio
n en
ergy
and
ele
ctro
n af
fi nity
)
Con
stru
ct a
nd in
terp
ret
a re
actio
n pa
thw
ay d
iagr
am,
in te
rms
of t
he e
ntha
lpy
chan
ge o
f th
e re
actio
n an
d of
the
act
ivat
ion
ener
gy
Section 4: What you need to know
33 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Che
mic
al e
nerg
etic
sS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
5C
hem
ical
en
erge
tics
Entr
opy
chan
ge,
∆S
⦵ex
plai
n th
at e
ntro
py is
a
mea
sure
of
the
‘dis
orde
r’
of a
sys
tem
, and
tha
t a
syst
em b
ecom
es m
ore
stab
le w
hen
its e
nerg
y is
spr
ead
out
in a
mor
e di
sord
ered
sta
te
expl
ain
the
entr
opy
chan
ges
that
occ
ur: (
i) du
ring
a ch
ange
in s
tate
e.
g. (s
) → (I
); (I)
→ (g
); (s
) → (a
q); (
ii) d
urin
g a
tem
pera
ture
cha
nge
(iii)
durin
g a
reac
tion
in
whi
ch t
here
is a
cha
nge
in t
he n
umbe
r of
gas
eous
m
olec
ules
pred
ict
whe
ther
the
en
trop
y ch
ange
for
a gi
ven
proc
ess
is p
ositi
ve o
r ne
gativ
e
calc
ulat
e th
e en
trop
y ch
ange
for
a re
actio
n,
∆S
⦵ , giv
en t
he s
tand
ard
entr
opie
s, S
⦵ , of
the
reac
tant
s an
d pr
oduc
ts
Section 4: What you need to know
34 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Che
mic
al e
nerg
etic
sS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
5C
hem
ical
en
erge
tics
Gib
bs f
ree
ener
gy,
∆G
⦵de
fi ne
stan
dard
Gib
bs f
ree
ener
gy c
hang
e of
reac
tion
by m
eans
of
the
equa
tion
∆G
⦵ = ∆H ⦵ –
T∆
S ⦵
calc
ulat
e ∆
G ⦵ fo
r a
reac
tion
usin
g th
e eq
uatio
n ∆
G⦵ =
∆
H ⦵ –
T∆
S ⦵
stat
e w
heth
er a
reac
tion
or p
roce
ss w
ill b
e sp
onta
neou
s by
usi
ng t
he
sign
of ∆
G ⦵
pred
ict
the
effe
ct o
f te
mpe
ratu
re c
hang
e on
the
sp
onta
neity
of
a re
actio
n,
give
n st
anda
rd e
ntha
lpy
and
entr
opy
chan
ges
Section 4: What you need to know
35 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ele
ctro
chem
istr
yTh
is to
pic
illus
trat
es t
he re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n el
ectr
icity
and
che
mic
al c
hang
es. C
hem
ical
reac
tions
can
be
inve
stig
ated
by
look
ing
at e
lect
rode
po
tent
ials
.
Syl
lab
us
Sec
tio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
6El
ectr
oche
mis
try
Red
ox
proc
esse
s:
elec
tron
tr
ansf
er
and
chan
ges
in
oxid
atio
n nu
mbe
r (o
xida
tion
stat
e)
Cal
cula
te o
xida
tion
num
bers
of
elem
ents
in
com
poun
ds a
nd io
ns
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n re
dox
proc
esse
s in
term
s of
ele
ctro
n tr
ansf
er a
nd
chan
ges
inox
idat
ion
num
ber
Use
cha
nges
in o
xida
tion
num
bers
to h
elp
bala
nce
chem
ical
equ
atio
ns.
Section 4: What you need to know
36 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ele
ctro
chem
istr
yS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
6El
ectr
oche
mis
try
Sta
ndar
d el
ectr
ode
pote
ntia
ls
E⦵ :
stan
dard
ce
ll po
tent
ials
E
⦵ cel
l and
th
e N
erns
t eq
uatio
n
Defi
ne
the
term
s:(i)
sta
ndar
d el
ectro
de
(redo
x) p
oten
tial
(ii) s
tand
ard
cell
pote
ntia
l
Des
crib
e th
e st
anda
rd
hydr
ogen
ele
ctro
de
Des
crib
e m
etho
ds u
sed
to m
easu
re t
he s
tand
ard
elec
trod
e po
tent
ials
of:
(i) m
etal
s or
non
-met
als
in
cont
act
with
the
ir io
ns in
aq
ueou
s so
lutio
n(ii
) ion
s of
the
sam
e el
emen
t in
diff
eren
t ox
idat
ion
stat
es
Section 4: What you need to know
37 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ele
ctro
chem
istr
yS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
6El
ectr
oche
mis
try
Sta
ndar
d el
ectr
ode
pote
ntia
ls E
⦵ : st
anda
rd c
ell
pote
ntia
ls E
an
d th
e N
erns
t eq
uatio
n
Cal
cula
te a
sta
ndar
d ce
ll po
tent
ial b
y co
mbi
ning
tw
o st
anda
rd e
lect
rode
pot
entia
ls
Use
sta
ndar
d ce
ll po
tent
ials
to
exp
lain
/ded
uce
the
dire
ctio
n of
ele
ctro
n fl o
w in
a
sim
ple
cell
Use
sta
ndar
d ce
ll po
tent
ials
to
pre
dict
the
feas
ibili
ty o
f a
reac
tion
Ded
uce
from
E⦵ v
alue
s th
e re
lativ
e re
activ
ity o
f el
emen
ts
of G
roup
17
(the
hal
ogen
s)
chlo
rine,
bro
min
e an
d io
dine
, as
oxi
disi
ng a
gent
s
See
con
tent
on
rela
tive
reac
tivity
of
hal
ogen
s as
ox
idis
ing
agen
ts in
E
lect
roch
emis
try
(Sec
tion
6),
Sta
ndar
d el
ectr
ode
pote
ntia
ls
Con
stru
ct re
dox
equa
tions
us
ing
the
rele
vant
hal
f-eq
uatio
ns
Pre
dict
qua
litat
ivel
y ho
w t
he
valu
e of
an
elec
trod
e po
tent
ial
varie
s w
ith t
he c
once
ntra
tion
of t
he a
queo
us io
n
Section 4: What you need to know
38 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ele
ctro
chem
istr
yS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
6El
ectr
oche
mis
try
Use
the
Ner
nst
equa
tion,
e.
g. E
= E
⦵ + (0
.059
/z)
log
[oxi
dise
d sp
ecie
s] /
[red
uced
spe
cies
] to
pred
ict
quan
titat
ivel
y ho
w t
he v
alue
of
an
elec
trod
e po
tent
ial
varie
s w
ith th
e co
ncen
trat
ions
of
the
aqu
eous
ions
; ex
ampl
es in
clud
e C
u(s)
+
2e– ⇌ Cu2+
(aq)
, Fe3+
(aq)
+ e
– ⇌ Fe
2+(a
q), C
l2(g)
+ 2
e– ⇌ 2Cl– (aq)
Bat
terie
s an
d fu
el c
ells
Sta
te t
he p
ossi
ble
adva
ntag
es
of d
evel
opin
g ot
her
type
s of
ce
ll, e
.g. t
he H
2/O
2 fue
l cel
l an
d th
e ni
ckel
-met
al h
ydrid
e an
d lit
hium
-ion
rech
arge
able
ba
tter
ies
Section 4: What you need to know
39 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Ele
ctro
chem
istr
yS
ylla
bu
s S
ecti
on
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
6El
ectr
oche
mis
try
Elec
trol
ysis
Pre
dict
the
iden
tity
of t
he
subs
tanc
e lib
erat
ed d
urin
g el
ectr
olys
is f
rom
the
sta
te
of e
lect
roly
te (m
olte
n or
aq
ueou
s), p
ositi
on in
the
re
dox
serie
s (e
lect
rode
po
tent
ial)
and
conc
entr
atio
n
Sta
te a
nd a
pply
the
re
latio
nshi
p,
F =
Le,
bet
wee
n th
e Fa
rada
y co
nsta
nt, t
he
Avo
gadr
o co
nsta
nt a
nd t
he
char
ge o
n th
e el
ectr
on
Cal
cula
te:
(i) t
he q
uant
ity o
f ch
arge
pa
ssed
dur
ing
elec
trol
ysis
(ii) t
he m
ass
and/
or v
olum
e of
sub
stan
ce li
bera
ted
durin
g el
ectr
olys
is, i
nclu
ding
th
ose
in t
he e
lect
roly
sis
of
H2S
O4(
aq);
Na 2
SO
4(aq
)
Des
crib
e th
e de
term
inat
ion
of a
val
ue o
f th
e A
voga
dro
cons
tant
by
an e
lect
roly
tic
met
hod
Section 4: What you need to know
40 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Equ
ilibr
iaTh
is t
opic
illu
stra
tes
that
man
y ch
emic
al r
eact
ions
are
rev
ersi
ble
and
invo
lve
an e
quili
briu
m p
roce
ss. T
he c
onsi
dera
tion
of t
he m
any
fact
ors
that
can
af
fect
an
equi
libriu
m is
an
impo
rtan
t as
pect
of
phys
ical
che
mis
try.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
7Eq
uilib
riaR
ever
sibl
e re
actio
nsE
xpla
in, i
n te
rms
of
rate
s of
the
forw
ard
and
reve
rse
reac
tions
, wha
t is
mea
nt b
y a
reve
rsib
lere
actio
n
Dyn
amic
eq
uilib
rium
Exp
lain
, in
term
s of
ra
tes
of t
he fo
rwar
d an
d re
vers
e re
actio
ns, w
hat
is m
eant
by
a dy
nam
ic
equi
libriu
m
Fact
ors
affe
ctin
g ch
emic
al
equi
libria
Sta
te L
e C
hate
lier’s
P
rinci
ple
and
appl
y it
to d
educ
e th
e qu
alita
tive
effe
cts
of
chan
ges
in te
mpe
ratu
re,
conc
entr
atio
n or
pr
essu
re, o
n a
syst
em a
teq
uilib
rium
Section 4: What you need to know
41 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Equ
ilibr
iaS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
7Eq
uilib
riaS
tate
whe
ther
cha
nges
in
con
cent
ratio
n,
pres
sure
, tem
pera
ture
or
the
pre
senc
e of
a
cata
lyst
, aff
ect
the
valu
e of
the
equ
ilibr
ium
co
nsta
nt fo
r a
reac
tion
Equ
ilibr
ium
co
nsta
nts
Ded
uce
expr
essi
ons
for
equi
libriu
m c
onst
ants
in
term
s of
con
cent
ratio
ns,
K c, a
nd p
artia
l pre
ssur
es,
K p
Trea
tmen
t of
the
re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n K p
and
Kc i
s no
t re
quire
d
Cal
cula
te t
he v
alue
s of
eq
uilib
rium
con
stan
ts in
te
rms
of c
once
ntra
tions
or
par
tial p
ress
ures
fro
m
appr
opria
te d
ata
Section 4: What you need to know
42 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Equ
ilibr
iaS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
7Eq
uilib
riaC
alcu
late
the
qua
ntiti
es
pres
ent
at e
quili
briu
m,
give
n ap
prop
riate
dat
a
Suc
h ca
lcul
atio
ns
will
not
re
quire
the
so
lvin
g of
qu
adra
tic
equa
tions
The
Hab
er
proc
ess
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e co
nditi
ons
used
in t
he
Hab
er p
roce
ss
The
Con
tact
pr
oces
sD
escr
ibe
and
expl
ain
the
cond
ition
s us
ed in
the
C
onta
ct p
roce
ss
Ioni
c eq
uilib
riaS
how
und
erst
andi
ng o
f, an
d us
e, t
he B
rons
ted-
Low
ry t
heor
y of
aci
ds
and
base
s, in
clud
ing
the
use
of t
he a
cid-
I, ba
se-II
co
ncep
t
Exp
lain
qua
litat
ivel
y th
e di
ffer
ence
s in
beh
avio
ur
betw
een
stro
ng a
nd
wea
k ac
ids
and
base
s in
term
s of
the
ext
ent
of
diss
ocia
tion
Exp
lain
the
term
s pH
, K
a, pK
a and
Kwan
d us
e in
ca
lcul
atio
ns
Section 4: What you need to know
43 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Equ
ilibr
iaS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
7Eq
uilib
riaC
alcu
late
[H+(a
q)] a
nd p
H
valu
es fo
r st
rong
and
wea
k ac
ids
and
stro
ng b
ases
Exp
lain
the
cho
ice
of
suita
ble
indi
cato
rs fo
r ac
id-b
ase
titra
tions
, giv
en
appr
opria
te d
ata
Des
crib
e th
e ch
ange
s in
pH
du
ring
acid
-bas
e tit
ratio
ns
and
expl
ain
thes
e ch
ange
s in
term
s of
the
str
engt
hs o
f th
e ac
ids
and
base
s
Section 4: What you need to know
44 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Equ
ilibr
iaS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
7Eq
uilib
riaB
uffe
r so
lutio
nsE
xpla
in h
ow b
uffe
r so
lutio
ns
cont
rol p
H
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
eir
uses
, inc
ludi
ng t
he ro
le o
f H
CO
3- io
n in
con
trol
ling
pH
in b
lood
Cal
cula
te t
he p
H o
f bu
ffer
so
lutio
ns, g
iven
app
ropr
iate
da
ta
Sol
ubili
ty
prod
uct
Sho
w u
nder
stan
ding
of,
and
use,
the
con
cept
of
solu
bilit
y pr
oduc
t, K
sp
Cal
cula
te K
sp f
rom
co
ncen
trat
ions
and
vic
e ve
rsa
The
com
mon
io
n ef
fect
Sho
w u
nder
stan
ding
of
the
com
mon
ion
effe
ct
Par
titio
n co
effi c
ient
sS
tate
wha
t is
mea
nt
by p
artit
ion
coef
fi cie
nt;
calc
ulat
e an
d us
e a
part
ition
co
effi c
ient
for
a sy
stem
in
whi
ch t
he s
olut
e is
in t
he
sam
e m
olec
ular
sta
te in
the
tw
o so
lven
ts
Section 4: What you need to know
45 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Rea
ctio
n ki
netic
sTh
e in
vest
igat
ion
of t
he f
acto
rs t
hat
affe
ct t
he r
ate
of a
che
mic
al re
actio
n is
impo
rtan
t in
the
stu
dy o
f ph
ysic
al c
hem
istr
y. T
he te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd t
he
addi
tion
of a
cat
alys
t ca
n bo
th a
ffec
t th
e pr
ogre
ssio
n of
a c
hem
ical
reac
tion.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
8R
eact
ion
kine
tics
Term
inol
ogy
Exp
lain
and
use
the
term
ra
te o
f re
actio
nE
xpla
in a
nd u
se t
he te
rms:
ra
te e
quat
ion;
ord
er o
f re
actio
n; r
ate
cons
tant
; ha
lf-lif
e of
a re
actio
n; r
ate-
dete
rmin
ing
step
Col
lisio
n th
eory
Exp
lain
qua
litat
ivel
y, in
te
rms
of c
ollis
ions
, the
ef
fect
of
conc
entr
atio
n ch
ange
s on
the
rat
e of
a
reac
tion
Rat
e co
nsta
nt
Cal
cula
te a
rat
e co
nsta
nt
usin
g th
e in
itial
rat
es
met
hod
Effe
ct o
f te
mpe
ratu
re
on re
actio
n ra
tes
and
rate
co
nsta
nts;
the
co
ncep
t of
ac
tivat
ion
ener
gy
Exp
lain
and
use
the
te
rm a
ctiv
atio
n en
ergy
, in
clud
ing
refe
renc
e to
the
B
oltz
man
n di
strib
utio
n
Section 4: What you need to know
46 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Rea
ctio
n ki
netic
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
8R
eact
ion
kine
tics
Exp
lain
qua
litat
ivel
y, in
te
rms
of t
he B
oltz
man
n di
strib
utio
n an
d th
e co
llisi
on f
requ
ency
, the
ef
fect
of
tem
pera
ture
ch
ange
on
the
rate
of
a re
actio
n
Exp
lain
qua
litat
ivel
y th
e ef
fect
of
tem
pera
ture
ch
ange
on
a ra
teco
nsta
nt a
nd h
ence
the
rat
e of
a r
eact
ion
Hom
ogen
eous
an
d he
tero
gene
ous
cata
lyst
s in
clud
ing
enzy
mes
Exp
lain
and
use
the
term
ca
taly
sis
Exp
lain
tha
t ca
taly
sts
can
be h
omog
enou
s or
he
tero
gene
ous
Exp
lain
tha
t, in
the
pr
esen
ce o
f a
cata
lyst
, a
reac
tion
has
a di
ffer
ent
mec
hani
sm, i
.e. o
ne o
f lo
wer
act
ivat
ion
ener
gy
Section 4: What you need to know
47 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Rea
ctio
n ki
netic
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
8R
eact
ion
kine
tics
Inte
rpre
t th
is c
atal
ytic
ef
fect
in te
rms
of t
he
Bol
tzm
ann
dist
ribut
ion
Des
crib
e en
zym
es a
s bi
olog
ical
cat
alys
ts
(pro
tein
s) w
hich
may
ha
ve s
peci
fi city
Rat
e eq
uatio
nsC
onst
ruct
and
use
rat
e eq
uatio
ns o
f th
e fo
rm r
ate
= k
[A]m
[B]n
Lim
ited
to s
impl
e ca
ses
of
sing
le s
tep
reac
tions
an
d m
ulti-
step
pr
oces
ses
with
a r
ate-
dete
rmin
ing
step
for
whi
ch m
and
n
are
0, 1
or
2
Ord
er o
f re
actio
nD
educ
e th
e or
der
of
a re
actio
n, o
r th
e ra
te
equa
tion
for
a re
actio
n by
th
e in
itial
rat
es m
etho
d
Ded
uce
the
orde
r of
a
reac
tion,
or
the
rate
eq
uatio
n fo
r a
reac
tion
by
the
half-
life
met
hod
Section 4: What you need to know
48 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Rea
ctio
n ki
netic
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
8R
eact
ion
kine
tics
Ded
uce,
for
zero
- and
fi r
st-o
rder
reac
tions
, the
or
der
of re
actio
n, o
r th
e ra
te e
quat
ion
for
a re
actio
n fr
om c
once
ntra
tion-
time
grap
hs
Cal
cula
te a
n in
itial
rat
e us
ing
conc
entr
atio
n da
taIn
tegr
ated
fo
rms
of
rate
are
not
re
quire
d
Sho
w u
nder
stan
ding
tha
t th
e ha
lf-lif
e of
a fi
rst-
orde
r re
actio
n is
inde
pend
ent
of
conc
entr
atio
n
Use
the
hal
f-lif
e of
a
fi rst
-ord
er re
actio
n in
ca
lcul
atio
ns
Section 4: What you need to know
49 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Rea
ctio
n ki
netic
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
8R
eact
ion
kine
tics
For
a m
ultip
-ste
p re
actio
n,
sugg
est
a re
actio
n m
echa
nism
tha
t is
co
nsis
tent
with
the
rat
e eq
uatio
n an
d th
e eq
uatio
n fo
r th
e ov
eral
l rea
ctio
n
For
a m
ulti-
step
reac
tion,
pr
edic
t th
e or
der
that
w
ould
resu
lt fr
om a
giv
en
reac
tion
mec
hani
sm (a
nd
vice
ver
sa)
Dev
ise
a su
itabl
e ex
perim
enta
l tec
hniq
ue
for
stud
ying
the
rat
e of
a
reac
tion,
fro
m g
iven
in
form
atio
n
Cha
ract
eris
tics
and
mod
es
of a
ctio
n in
ho
mog
eneo
us
and
hete
roge
neou
s ca
taly
sis
Out
line
the
cata
lytic
role
of
iron
in t
he H
aber
pro
cess
Out
line
the
cata
lytic
re
mov
al o
f ox
ides
of
nitr
ogen
in t
he e
xhau
st
gase
s fr
om c
ar e
ngin
es
Section 4: What you need to know
50 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Phy
sica
l che
mis
try:
Rea
ctio
n ki
netic
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
8R
eact
ion
kine
tics
Out
line
the
cata
lytic
role
of
atm
osph
eric
oxi
des
of
nitr
ogen
in t
he o
xida
tion
of
atm
osph
eric
sul
fur
diox
ide
Out
line
the
cata
lytic
role
of
Fe2+
Fe3+
in t
he I
- / S
2O82-
re
actio
n
Out
line
the
cata
lytic
rol
e of
enz
ymes
, inc
ludi
ng t
he
expl
anat
ion
of s
peci
fi city
us
ing
a si
mpl
e lo
ck a
nd
key
mod
el
Inhi
bitio
n of
en
zym
es is
no
t re
quire
d
Section 4: What you need to know
51 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
The
Per
iodi
c Ta
ble:
che
mic
al p
erio
dici
tyTh
is to
pic
illus
trat
es t
he re
gula
r pa
tter
ns in
che
mic
al a
nd p
hysi
cal p
rope
rtie
s of
the
ele
men
ts in
the
Per
iodi
c Ta
ble.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
9Th
e P
erio
dic
Tabl
e/ch
emic
al
perio
dici
ty
Per
iodi
city
of
phy
sica
l pr
oper
ties
of
the
elem
ents
ac
ross
the
th
ird p
erio
d (s
odiu
m to
ar
gon)
Des
crib
e qu
alita
tivel
y (a
nd
indi
cate
the
per
iodi
city
in
) the
var
iatio
ns in
at
omic
rad
ius,
ioni
c ra
dius
, mel
ting
poin
t an
d el
ectr
ical
con
duct
ivity
of
the
elem
ents
(see
the
D
ata
Boo
klet
)
Exp
lain
qua
litat
ivel
y th
e va
riatio
n in
ato
mic
rad
ius
and
ioni
c ra
dius
Inte
rpre
t th
e va
riatio
n in
mel
ting
poin
t an
d in
el
ectr
ical
con
duct
ivity
in
term
s of
the
pre
senc
e of
si
mpl
e m
olec
ular
, gia
nt
mol
ecul
ar o
r m
etal
lic
bond
ing
in t
he e
lem
ents
Exp
lain
the
var
iatio
n in
fi r
st io
nisa
tion
ener
gy (s
ee
the
Dat
a B
ookl
et)
Section 4: What you need to know
52 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
The
Per
iodi
c Ta
ble:
che
mic
al p
erio
dici
tyS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
9Th
e P
erio
dic
Tabl
e/ch
emic
al
perio
dici
ty
Per
iodi
city
of
che
mic
al
prop
ertie
s of
th
e el
emen
ts
in t
he t
hird
pe
riod
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns,
if an
y, o
f th
e el
emen
ts
with
oxy
gen
to g
ive
Na 2
O;
MgO
; Al 2O
3; P
4O10
; SO
2;
SO
3
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns,
if an
y, o
f th
e el
emen
ts
with
chl
orin
e to
giv
e N
aCl;
MgC
l 2; A
l 2Cl 6;
SiC
l 4; P
Cl 5
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns, i
f an
y, o
f th
e el
emen
ts N
a an
d M
g on
ly w
ith w
ater
Sta
te a
nd e
xpla
in t
he
varia
tion
in o
xida
tion
num
ber
of t
he o
xide
s an
d ch
lorid
es in
tert
ms
of t
heir
vake
nce
shel
l ele
ctro
ns
Oxi
des
of
sodi
um to
su
lfur
only
; ch
lorid
es o
f so
dium
to
phos
phor
ous
only
Section 4: What you need to know
53 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
The
Per
iodi
c Ta
ble:
che
mic
al p
erio
dici
tyS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
9Th
e P
erio
dic
Tabl
e/ch
emic
al
perio
dici
ty
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns o
f th
e ox
ides
with
wat
erTr
eatm
ent
of p
erox
i-de
s an
d su
pero
x-id
es is
not
re
quire
d
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e ac
id/b
ase
beha
viou
r of
ox
ides
and
hyd
roxi
des,
in
clud
ing,
whe
re re
leva
nt,
amph
oter
ic b
ehav
iour
in
reac
tion
with
bas
es
(sod
ium
hyd
roxi
de o
nly)
an
d ac
ids
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e re
actio
ns o
f th
e ch
lorid
es
with
wat
er
Inte
rpre
t th
e va
riatio
ns
and
tren
ds in
che
mic
al
prop
ertie
s in
term
s of
bon
ding
and
el
ectr
oneg
ativ
ity
Sug
gest
the
typ
es o
f ch
emic
al b
ondi
ng p
rese
nt
in c
hlor
ides
and
oxi
des
from
obs
erva
tions
of
thei
r ch
emic
al a
nd p
hysi
cal
prop
ertie
s
Section 4: What you need to know
54 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
The
Per
iodi
c Ta
ble:
che
mic
al p
erio
dici
tyS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
9Th
e P
erio
dic
Tabl
e/ch
emic
al
perio
dici
ty
Pre
dict
the
cha
ract
eris
tic
prop
ertie
s of
an
elem
ent
in a
giv
en g
roup
by
usin
g kn
owle
dge
of c
hem
ical
pe
riodi
city
Ded
uce
the
natu
re,
poss
ible
pos
ition
in
the
Per
iodi
c Ta
ble,
and
id
entit
y of
unk
now
n el
emen
ts f
rom
giv
en
info
rmat
ion
of p
hysi
cal
and
chem
ical
pro
pert
ies
Section 4: What you need to know
55 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
Gro
up 2
The
phys
ical
and
che
mic
al p
rope
rtie
s of
the
ele
men
ts o
f G
roup
2 (t
he a
lkal
ine
Ear
th m
etal
s) a
re in
trod
uced
in t
his
topi
c.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
10G
roup
2S
imila
ritie
s an
d tr
ends
in
the
prop
ertie
s of
the
Gro
up
2 m
etal
s m
agne
sium
to
bar
ium
an
d th
eir
com
poun
ds
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns
of t
he e
lem
ents
with
: ox
ygen
, wat
er a
nd d
ilute
ac
ids
Des
crib
e th
e be
havi
our
of
the
oxid
es, h
ydro
xide
s an
d ca
rbon
ates
with
wat
er a
nd
with
dilu
te a
cids
Des
crib
e th
e th
erm
al
deco
mpo
sitio
n of
the
ni
trat
es a
nd c
arbo
nate
s
Inte
rpre
t an
d ex
plai
n qu
alita
tivel
y th
e tr
end
in t
he t
herm
al s
tabi
lity
of t
he n
itrat
es a
nd
carb
onat
es in
term
s of
the
cha
rge
dens
ity
of t
he c
atio
n an
d th
e po
laris
abili
ty o
f th
e la
rge
anio
n
Inte
rpre
t an
d m
ake
pred
ictio
ns f
rom
the
tr
ends
in p
hysi
cal a
nd
chem
ical
pro
pert
ies
of t
heel
emen
ts a
nd t
heir
com
poun
ds
Section 4: What you need to know
56 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
Gro
up 2
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
10G
roup
2S
tate
the
var
iatio
n in
th
e so
lubi
litie
s of
the
hy
drox
ides
and
sul
fate
s
Inte
rpre
t an
d ex
plai
n qu
alita
tivel
y th
e va
riatio
n in
sol
ubili
ty
of t
he h
ydro
xide
s an
d su
lfate
s in
term
s of
re
lativ
e m
agni
tude
s of
th
e en
thal
py c
hang
e of
hyd
ratio
n an
d th
e co
rres
pond
ing
latt
ice
ener
gy
Som
e us
es
of G
roup
2
com
poun
ds
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e us
e of
cal
cium
hyd
roxi
de
and
calc
ium
car
bona
te
(pow
dere
d lim
esto
ne) i
n ag
ricul
ture
Section 4: What you need to know
57 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
Gro
up 1
7S
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
11G
roup
17
Cha
ract
eris
tic
phys
ical
pr
oper
ties
Des
crib
e th
e co
lour
s of
ch
lorin
e, b
rom
ine
and
iodi
ne
Des
crib
e th
e tr
end
in
vola
tility
of c
hlor
ine,
bro
min
e an
d io
dine
Inte
rpre
t th
e vo
latil
ity o
f th
e el
emen
ts c
hlor
ine,
bro
min
e an
d io
dine
, in
term
s of
van
de
r W
aals
’ for
ces
The
chem
ical
pr
oper
ties
of
the
elem
ents
an
d th
eir
hydr
ides
Des
crib
e th
e re
lativ
e re
activ
ity o
f th
e el
emen
ts
chlo
rine,
bro
min
e an
d io
dine
as
oxi
disi
ng a
gent
s
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e re
actio
ns o
f th
e el
emen
ts
with
hyd
roge
n
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e re
lativ
e th
erm
al s
tabi
litie
s of
th
e hy
drid
es.
Section 4: What you need to know
58 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
Gro
up 1
7S
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
11G
roup
17
Inte
rpre
t th
ese
rela
tive
stab
ilitie
s in
term
s of
bon
d en
ergi
es
Som
e re
actio
ns o
f th
e ha
lide
ions
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e re
actio
ns o
f ha
lide
ions
w
ith a
queo
us s
ilver
ions
fo
llow
ed b
y aq
ueou
s am
mon
ia
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e re
actio
ns o
f ha
lide
ions
w
ith c
once
ntra
ted
sulfu
ric
acid
Section 4: What you need to know
59 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
Gro
up 1
7S
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
11G
roup
17
The
reac
tions
of
chl
orin
e w
ith a
queo
us
sodi
um
hydr
oxid
e
Des
crib
e an
d in
terp
ret
in te
rms
of c
hang
es o
f ox
idat
ion
num
ber
the
reac
tion
of c
hlor
ine
with
col
d, a
nd w
ith h
ot,
aque
ous
sodi
um h
ydro
xide
Som
e im
port
ant
uses
of
the
halo
gens
and
of
hal
ogen
co
mpo
unds
Exp
lain
the
use
of
chlo
rine
in w
ater
pur
ifi ca
tion
Sta
te t
he in
dust
rial
impo
rtan
ce a
nd
envi
ronm
enta
l sig
nifi c
ance
of
the
hal
ogen
s an
d th
eir
com
poun
ds, i
nclu
ding
: bl
each
, PV
C, h
alog
enat
ed
hydr
ocar
bons
as
solv
ents
, as
refr
iger
ants
, and
in
aero
sols
.
See
als
o co
nten
t on
use
s in
S
ectio
n 16
, H
alog
en
deriv
ativ
es
Section 4: What you need to know
60 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
An
intr
oduc
tion
to th
e ch
emis
try
of tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
The
phys
ical
and
che
mic
al p
rope
rtie
s of
the
tra
nsiti
on e
lem
ents
are
intr
oduc
ed in
thi
s to
pic.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
12A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
the
ch
emis
try
of t
rans
ition
el
emen
ts
Gen
eral
phy
sica
l pr
oper
ties
of
the
elem
ents
(t
itani
um to
co
pper
)
Exp
lain
the
mea
ning
of
tran
sitio
n el
emen
t, in
term
s of
d-b
lock
ele
men
ts fo
rmin
g on
e or
mor
e st
able
ions
with
in
com
plet
e d
orbi
tals
Ske
tch
the
shap
e of
a d
or
bita
l
Sta
te t
he e
lect
roni
c co
nfi g
urat
ion
of t
he fi
rst
row
tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
and
of
thei
r io
ns
Con
tras
t, q
ualit
ativ
ely,
the
m
eltin
g po
int
and
dens
ity o
f th
e tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
with
th
ose
of c
alci
um a
s a
typi
cal
s-bl
ock
elem
ent
Des
crib
e th
e te
nden
cy o
f tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
to h
ave
varia
ble
oxid
atio
n st
ates
Pre
dict
fro
m a
giv
en
elec
tron
ic c
onfi g
urat
ion,
the
lik
ely
oxid
atio
n st
ates
of
a tr
ansi
tion
elem
ent
Section 4: What you need to know
61 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
An
intr
oduc
tion
to th
e ch
emis
try
of tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
12A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
the
ch
emis
try
of t
rans
ition
el
emen
ts
Gen
eral
ch
arac
teris
tic
chem
ical
pr
oper
ties
of
the
fi rst
set
of
tra
nsiti
on
elem
ents
, tit
atin
ium
to
copp
er
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e re
actio
ns o
f tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
with
liga
nds
to
form
com
plex
es, i
nclu
ding
th
e co
mpl
exes
of
copp
er(II)
and
coba
lt (II)
ions
with
w
ater
, and
am
mon
ia
mol
ecul
es a
nd h
ydro
xide
and
ch
lorid
e io
ns
Defi
ne
a lig
and
as a
spe
cies
th
at h
as a
lone
pai
r of
el
ectr
ons
and
can
form
a
dativ
e bo
nd to
a c
entr
al
met
al a
tom
or
ion
incl
udin
g m
onod
enta
te, b
iden
tate
and
po
lyde
ntat
e lig
ands
.
Defi
ne
a co
mpl
ex a
s a
mol
ecul
e or
ion
form
ed b
y a
cent
ral m
etal
ato
m o
r io
n su
rrou
nded
by
one
or m
ore
ligan
ds.
Des
crib
e tr
ansi
tion
met
al
com
plex
es a
s lin
ear,
octa
hedr
al, t
etra
hedr
al, o
r sq
uare
pla
nar
Section 4: What you need to know
62 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
An
intr
oduc
tion
to th
e ch
emis
try
of tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
12A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
the
ch
emis
try
of t
rans
ition
el
emen
ts
Sta
te w
hat
is m
eant
by
co-o
rdin
atio
n nu
mbe
r an
d pr
edic
t th
e fo
rmul
a an
d ch
arge
of
a co
mpl
ex io
n,
give
n th
e m
etal
ion,
its
char
ge, t
he li
gand
and
its
co-
ordi
natio
n nu
mbe
r
Section 4: What you need to know
63 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
An
intr
oduc
tion
to th
e ch
emis
try
of tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
12A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
the
ch
emis
try
of t
rans
ition
el
emen
ts
Exp
lain
qua
litat
ivel
y th
at
ligan
d ex
chan
ge m
ay o
ccur
in
clud
ing
the
com
plex
es o
f co
pper
(II)
ions
with
wat
er
and
amm
onia
mol
ecul
es a
nd
hydr
oxid
e an
d ch
lorid
e io
ns
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e us
e of
Fe3+
/Fe2+
, MnO
4- /M
n2+ a
nd
Cr 2
O72-
/Cr3+
as
exam
ples
of
redo
x sy
stem
s
See
als
o co
nten
t on
redo
x eq
uatio
ns
in E
lect
ro-
chem
istr
y (S
ectio
n 6)
S
tand
ard
elec
trod
e po
tent
ials
Pre
dict
, usi
ng E
o val
ues,
the
lik
elih
ood
of re
dox
reac
tions
Col
our
of
com
plex
esD
escr
ibe
the
split
ting
of d
egen
erat
e d
orbi
tals
in
to t
wo
ener
gy le
vels
in
octa
hedr
al a
nd te
trah
edra
l co
mpl
exes
Exp
lain
the
orig
in o
f co
lour
in
tra
nsiti
on e
lem
ent
com
plex
es (l
ight
ene
rgy
abso
rbed
as
an e
lect
ron
mov
es b
etw
een
two
non-
dege
nera
te d
orb
itals
Section 4: What you need to know
64 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
An
intr
oduc
tion
to th
e ch
emis
try
of tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
12A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
the
ch
emis
try
of t
rans
ition
el
emen
ts
Des
crib
e qu
alita
tivel
y th
e ef
fect
of
diff
eren
t lig
ands
on
abs
orpt
ion
and
ther
efor
e co
lour
: eg
copp
er(II)
ions
w
ith w
ater
, hyd
roxi
de,
amm
onia
and
chl
orid
e lig
ands
App
ly t
hese
idea
s of
liga
nds
and
com
plex
es to
oth
er
met
als,
giv
en in
form
atio
n.
Ste
reoi
som
eris
m
in t
rans
ition
el
emen
t co
mpl
exes
desc
ribe
the
type
s of
st
ereo
isom
eris
m s
how
n by
co
mpl
exes
, inc
ludi
ng t
hose
as
soci
ated
with
bid
enta
te
ligan
ds:
(i) c
is-t
rans
isom
eris
m,
e.g.
cis
- and
tra
ns-p
latin
P
t(N
H3)
2Cl 2
(ii) o
ptic
al is
omer
ism
, e.g
. [N
i(NH
2CH
2CH
2NH
2)3]
2+
desc
ribe
the
use
of c
ispl
atin
as
an
antic
ance
r dr
ug a
nd it
s ac
tion
by b
indi
ng t
o D
NA
in
canc
er c
ells
, pre
vent
ing
cell
divi
sion
Section 4: What you need to know
65 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
An
intr
oduc
tion
to th
e ch
emis
try
of tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
12A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
the
ch
emis
try
of t
rans
ition
el
emen
ts
Sta
bilit
y co
nsta
nts,
Kst
ab
desc
ribe
and
expl
ain
ligan
d ex
chan
ges
in te
rms
of
com
petin
g eq
uilib
ria)
See
als
o E
quili
bria
(S
ectio
n 7)
stat
e th
at t
he s
tabi
lity
cons
tant
, Kst
ab, o
f a
com
plex
io
n is
the
equ
ilibr
ium
co
nsta
nt fo
r th
e fo
rmat
ion
of
the
com
plex
ion
in a
sol
vent
fr
om it
s co
nstit
uent
ions
or
mol
ecul
es
dedu
ce e
xpre
ssio
ns fo
r th
e st
abili
ty c
onst
ant
of a
liga
nd
subs
titut
ion
expl
ain
ligan
d ex
chan
ge in
te
rms
of s
tabi
lity
cons
tant
s,
Kst
ab, a
nd u
nder
stan
d th
at a
larg
e K
stab
is d
ue to
th
e fo
rmat
ion
of a
sta
ble
com
plex
ion
Section 4: What you need to know
66 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
Nitr
ogen
and
sul
fur
This
topi
c in
trod
uces
som
e of
the
che
mis
try
asso
ciat
ed w
ith n
itrog
en a
nd s
ulfu
r.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
T
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
13N
itrog
en
and
sulfu
rN
itrog
en: I
ts
unre
activ
ityE
xpla
in t
he la
ck o
f re
activ
ity
of n
itrog
en
Am
mon
ia,
amm
oniu
m io
n,
nitr
ic a
cid
and
fert
ilise
rs
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e ba
sici
ty o
f am
mon
iaS
ee a
lso
cont
ent
in
Equ
ilibr
ia
(Sec
tion
7), I
onic
eq
uilib
ria
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e fo
rmat
ion
(by
an a
cid-
base
re
actio
n) a
nd t
he s
truc
ture
of
the
amm
oniu
m io
n
Des
crib
e th
e di
spla
cem
ent
of
amm
onia
fro
m it
s sa
lts
Sta
te t
he in
dust
rial
impo
rtan
ce o
f am
mon
ia a
nd
nitr
ogen
com
poun
ds d
eriv
ed
from
am
mon
ia
Section 4: What you need to know
67 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
Nitr
ogen
and
sul
fur
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
T
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
13N
itrog
en
and
sulfu
rN
itrog
en: T
he
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
of
nitr
ogen
oxi
des
and
nitr
ates
Sta
te a
nd e
xpla
in t
he
envi
ronm
enta
l con
sequ
ence
s of
the
unc
ontr
olle
d us
e of
ni
trat
e fe
rtili
sers
Sta
te a
nd e
xpla
in t
he n
atur
al
and
man
-mad
e oc
curr
ence
of
oxid
es o
f ni
trog
en
Sta
te a
nd e
xpla
in t
he
cata
lytic
rem
oval
of
oxid
es
of n
itrog
en f
rom
car
exh
aust
ga
ses
Exp
lain
why
atm
osph
eric
ox
ides
of
nitr
ogen
are
po
lluta
nts,
incl
udin
g th
eir
cata
lytic
role
in t
he o
xida
tion
of a
tmos
pher
ic s
ulfu
r di
oxid
e
See
als
o co
nten
t in
R
eact
ion
kine
tics
(Sec
tion
8), H
omo
-ge
neou
s an
d he
tero
-ge
neou
s ca
taly
sts
incl
udin
g en
zym
es
Section 4: What you need to know
68 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Inor
gani
c ch
emis
try:
Nitr
ogen
and
sul
fur
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
T
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
13N
itrog
en
and
sulfu
rS
ulfu
r: T
he
form
atio
n of
at
mos
pher
ic
sulfu
r di
oxid
e,
its ro
le in
aci
d ra
in
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of
atm
osph
eric
sul
fur
diox
ide
from
the
com
bust
ion
of
sulfu
r co
ntam
inat
ed fo
ssil
fuel
s
Sta
te t
he ro
le o
f su
lfur
diox
ide
in t
he fo
rmat
ion
of a
cid
rain
and
des
crib
e th
e m
ain
envi
ronm
enta
l co
nseq
uenc
es o
f ac
id r
ain
Section 4: What you need to know
69 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try:
Intr
oduc
tory
topi
csS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Alth
ough
the
re a
re fe
atur
es o
f or
gani
c ch
emis
try
topi
cs t
hat
are
dist
inct
ive,
it is
inte
nded
tha
t yo
u m
ake
cros
s-re
fere
nces
with
oth
er t
hem
es/t
opic
s in
th
e sy
llabu
s. W
hen
desc
ribin
g pr
epar
ativ
e re
actio
ns, y
ou w
ill b
e ex
pect
ed to
quo
te t
he re
agen
ts, e
.g. a
queo
us N
aOH
, the
ess
entia
l pra
ctic
al c
ondi
tions
, e.
g. re
fl ux,
and
the
iden
tity
of e
ach
of t
he m
ajor
pro
duct
s. D
etai
led
know
ledg
e of
pra
ctic
al p
roce
dure
s ar
e no
t re
quire
d: h
owev
er, y
ou m
ay b
e ex
pect
ed
to s
ugge
st (f
rom
you
r kn
owle
dge
of t
he re
agen
ts, e
ssen
tial c
ondi
tions
and
pro
duct
s) w
hat
step
s m
ay b
e ne
eded
to p
urify
/ ex
trac
t a
requ
ired
prod
uct
from
the
reac
tion
mix
ture
. In
equa
tions
for
orga
nic
redo
x re
actio
ns, t
he s
ymbo
ls [O
] and
[H] a
re a
ccep
tabl
e.
In e
ach
of t
he s
ectio
ns b
elow
, you
will
be
expe
cted
to b
e ab
le to
pre
dict
the
reac
tion
prod
ucts
of
a gi
ven
com
poun
d in
reac
tions
tha
t ar
e ch
emic
ally
si
mila
r to
tho
se s
peci
fi ed.
Section 4: What you need to know
70 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try:
Intr
oduc
tory
topi
csS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
14A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
org
anic
ch
emis
try
Mol
ecul
ar,
stru
ctur
al
and
empi
rical
fo
rmul
ae
Writ
e st
ruct
ural
fo
rmul
ae e
.g.
CH
3CH
2CH
2OH
for
prop
an-1
-ol a
nd n
ot
C3H
7OH
.
For
mor
e de
tails
, se
e sy
llabu
s S
ectio
n 5.
4
Writ
e di
spla
yed
form
ulae
sho
win
g th
e re
lativ
e pl
acin
g of
all
atom
s an
d th
e nu
mbe
r of
bon
ds b
etw
een
all
the
atom
s
The
hexa
gon
sym
bol f
or
cycl
ohex
ane
is
acce
ptab
le
Writ
e sk
elet
al fo
rmul
ae,
deriv
ed f
rom
the
di
spla
yed
form
ulae
, sh
owin
g th
e ca
rbon
-ca
rbon
bon
ds in
the
ca
rbon
ske
leto
n an
d th
e as
soci
ated
fun
ctio
nal
grou
ps. S
kele
tal
form
ulae
mus
t be
un
ambi
guou
s.
For
mor
e de
tails
, se
e sy
llabu
s S
ectio
n 5.
4
Dra
w o
ptic
al is
omer
s gi
ving
thr
ee-
dim
ensi
onal
str
uctu
res
acco
rdin
g to
the
co
nven
tion
used
For
mor
e de
tails
, se
e sy
llabu
s S
ectio
n 5.
4
Section 4: What you need to know
71 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try:
Intr
oduc
tory
topi
csS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
14A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
org
anic
ch
emis
try
Func
tiona
l gr
oups
and
th
e na
min
g of
org
anic
co
mpo
unds
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
fo
rmul
ae o
f al
kane
s an
d al
kene
s
Kno
wle
dge
of
benz
ene
or it
s co
mpo
unds
is n
ot
requ
ired
for
AS
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
fo
rmul
ae o
f ar
enes
You
will
be
expe
cted
to
reco
gnis
e th
e sh
ape
of t
he
benz
ene
ring
The
circ
le-
in-a
-hex
agon
co
nven
tion
for
repr
esen
ting
the
arom
atic
rin
g is
pr
efer
red
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
form
ulae
of
halo
geno
alka
nes
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
form
ulae
ha
loge
noar
enes
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
fo
rmul
ae o
f al
coho
ls
(incl
udin
g pr
imar
y,
seco
ndar
y an
d te
rtia
ry)
Inte
rpre
t, a
nd u
se t
he
gene
ral,
stru
ctur
al,
disp
laye
d an
d sk
elet
al
form
ulae
of
phen
ols
Section 4: What you need to know
72 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try:
Intr
oduc
tory
topi
csS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
14A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
org
anic
ch
emis
try
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
fo
rmul
ae o
f al
dehy
des
and
keto
nes
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
fo
rmul
ae o
f ca
rbox
ylic
ac
ids
and
este
rs
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
fo
rmul
ae o
f ac
yl
chlo
rides
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
fo
rmul
ae o
f am
ines
(p
rimar
y on
ly) a
nd
nitr
iles
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e ge
nera
l, st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed
and
skel
etal
fo
rmul
ae o
f am
ides
and
am
ino
acid
s
Und
erst
and
and
use
syst
emat
ic
nom
encl
atur
e of
si
mpl
e al
ipha
tic
orga
nic
mol
ecul
es w
ith
func
tiona
l gro
ups
give
n ab
ove
with
up
to s
ix
carb
on a
tom
s.
Six
plu
s si
x ca
rbon
ato
ms
for
este
rs a
nd
amid
es, s
trai
ght
chai
ns o
nly)
Und
erst
and
and
use
syst
emat
ic
nom
encl
atur
e of
sim
ple
arom
atic
mol
ecul
es
with
one
ben
zene
rin
g an
d on
e or
mor
e si
mpl
e su
bstit
uent
s,
for
exam
ple
3-ni
trob
enzo
ic a
cid,
2,
4,6-
trib
rom
ophe
nol
Section 4: What you need to know
73 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try:
Intr
oduc
tory
topi
csS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
14A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
org
anic
ch
emis
try
Ded
uce
the
poss
ible
is
omer
s fo
r an
org
anic
m
olec
ule
of k
now
n m
olec
ular
form
ula
Cha
ract
eris
tic
orga
nic
reac
tions
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e te
rm: f
unct
iona
l gro
up
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e te
rms:
hom
olyt
ic a
nd
hete
roly
tic fi
ssio
n,
free
rad
ical
, ini
tiatio
n,
prop
agat
ion
and
term
inat
ion
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e te
rms:
nuc
leop
hile
, el
ectr
ophi
le, a
dditi
on,
subs
titut
ion,
el
imin
atio
n, h
ydro
lysi
s an
d co
nden
satio
n
Section 4: What you need to know
74 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try:
Intr
oduc
tory
topi
csS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
14A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
org
anic
ch
emis
try
Inte
rpre
t an
d us
e th
e te
rms:
oxi
datio
n an
d re
duct
ion
In e
quat
ions
for
orga
nic
redo
x re
actio
ns, t
he
sym
bols
[O]
and
[H] a
re
acce
ptab
le
Sha
pes
of o
rgan
ic
mol
ecul
es; σ
an
d π
bond
s
Des
crib
e th
e sh
apes
of
, and
bon
d an
gles
in,
the
etha
ne a
nd e
then
e m
olec
ules
Des
crib
e th
e sh
ape
of,
and
bond
ang
les
in, t
he
benz
ene
mol
ecul
e
Pre
dict
the
sha
pes
of,
and
bond
ang
les
in,
othe
r re
late
d m
olec
ules
Exp
lain
the
sha
pes
of,
and
bond
ang
les
in,
the
etha
ne a
nd e
then
e m
olec
ules
in te
rms
of
σ an
d π
carb
on-c
arbo
n bo
nds
Exp
lain
the
sha
pe o
f, an
d bo
nd a
ngle
s in
, the
be
nzen
e m
olec
ule
in
term
s of
σ a
nd π
car
bon-
carb
on b
onds
Section 4: What you need to know
75 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try:
Intr
oduc
tory
topi
csS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
14A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
org
anic
ch
emis
try
Isom
eris
m:
stru
ctur
al;
cis-
tran
sn
and
ster
eo-
isom
eris
m
Des
crib
e st
ruct
ural
is
omer
ism
and
its
divi
sion
into
cha
in,
posi
tiona
l, an
d fu
nctio
nal g
roup
is
omer
ism
Des
crib
e st
ereo
isom
eris
m a
nd it
s di
visi
on in
to g
eom
etric
al
(cis
-tra
ns) a
nd o
ptic
al
isom
eris
m
Use
of
E, Z
no
men
clat
ure
is
acce
ptab
le b
ut is
no
t req
uire
d
Des
crib
e ci
s-tr
ans
isom
eris
m in
alk
enes
, an
d ex
plai
n its
orig
in
in te
rms
of re
stric
ted
rota
tion
due
to t
he
pres
ence
of π
bond
s
Exp
lain
wha
t is
mea
nt
by a
chi
ral c
entr
e an
d th
at s
uch
a ce
ntre
gi
ves
rise
to o
ptic
al
isom
eris
m
You
shou
ld
appr
ecia
te t
hat
com
poun
ds
can
cont
ain
mor
e th
an o
ne
chira
l cen
tre,
bu
t kn
owle
dge
of m
eso
com
poun
ds, o
r no
men
clat
ure
such
as
dias
tere
oiso
mer
s is
not
req
uire
d.
Section 4: What you need to know
76 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try:
Intr
oduc
tory
topi
csS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
14A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
org
anic
ch
emis
try
Iden
tify
chira
l cen
tres
an
d/or
cis
-tra
ns
isom
eris
m in
a m
olec
ule
of g
iven
str
uctu
ral
form
ula
Ded
uce
the
mol
ecul
ar
form
ula
of a
com
poun
d fr
om it
s st
ruct
ural
, di
spla
yed,
or
skel
etal
fo
rmul
a.
Section 4: What you need to know
77 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roca
rbon
sC
ompo
unds
con
tain
ing
only
car
bon
and
hydr
ogen
are
cal
led
hydr
ocar
bons
. Thi
s cl
ass
of c
ompo
und
can
be s
ub-d
ivid
ed in
to a
lkan
es, a
lken
es a
nd
aren
es.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
15H
ydro
carb
ons
Alk
anes
Und
erst
and
the
gene
ral
unre
activ
ity o
f al
kane
s,
incl
udin
g to
war
ds p
olar
re
agen
ts
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of a
lkan
es: c
ombu
stio
n,
subs
titut
ion
by c
hlor
ine
and
subs
titut
ion
by
brom
ine
Exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
eth
ane
Des
crib
e th
e m
echa
nism
of
free
-ra
dica
l sub
stitu
tion
at
met
hyl g
roup
s w
ith
part
icul
ar re
fere
nce
to t
he in
itiat
ion,
pr
opag
atio
n an
d te
rmin
atio
n re
actio
ns
Exp
lain
the
use
of
crud
e oi
l as
a so
urce
of
alip
hatic
and
aro
mat
ic
hydr
ocar
bons
Section 4: What you need to know
78 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roca
rbon
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
15H
ydro
carb
ons
Sug
gest
how
‘cra
ckin
g’
can
be u
sed
to o
btai
n m
ore
usef
ul a
lkan
es
and
alke
nes
of lo
wer
Mr
from
larg
er h
ydro
carb
on
mol
ecul
es
Alk
enes
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of a
lken
es: a
dditi
on
of h
ydro
gen,
ste
am,
hydr
ogen
hal
ides
and
ha
loge
ns
Exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
eth
ene
and
prop
ene
Des
crib
e M
arko
vnik
ov
addi
tion
of a
sym
met
ric
elec
trop
hile
s to
pro
pene
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of a
lken
es: o
xida
tion
by c
old,
dilu
te a
cidi
fi ed
man
gana
te(VII
) ion
s to
fo
rm t
he d
iol
Section 4: What you need to know
79 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roca
rbon
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
15H
ydro
carb
ons
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of a
lken
es: o
xida
tion
by h
ot, c
once
ntra
ted
acid
ifi ed
man
gana
te(VII
) io
ns r
uptu
ring
the
carb
on-t
o-c
arbo
n do
uble
bo
nd, d
eter
min
ing
the
posi
tion
of a
lken
e lin
kage
s C
=C
in la
rger
m
olec
ules
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of a
lken
es:
poly
mer
isat
ion
See
als
o po
lym
er-
isat
ion
Des
crib
e th
e m
echa
nism
of
elec
trop
hilic
add
ition
in
alke
nes,
usi
ng b
rom
ine/
ethe
ne a
nd H
Br/p
rope
ne
as e
xam
ples
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e in
duct
ive
effe
cts
of a
lkyl
gr
oups
on
the
stab
ility
of
cat
ions
form
ed d
urin
g el
ectr
ophi
lic a
dditi
on
Section 4: What you need to know
80 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roca
rbon
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
15H
ydro
carb
ons
Des
crib
e th
e ch
arac
teris
tics
of
addi
tion
poly
mer
isat
ion
as e
xem
plifi
ed b
y po
ly(e
then
e) a
nd P
VC
Ded
uce
the
repe
at u
nit
of a
n ad
ditio
n po
lym
er
obta
ined
fro
m a
giv
en
mon
omer
Iden
tify
the
mon
omer
(s)
pres
ent
in a
giv
en
sect
ion
of a
n ad
ditio
n po
lym
er m
olec
ule
Rec
ogni
se t
he d
iffi c
ulty
of
the
dis
posa
l of
poly
(alk
ene)
s, i.
e. n
on-
biod
egra
dabi
lity
and
harm
ful c
ombu
stio
n pr
oduc
ts
Section 4: What you need to know
81 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roca
rbon
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
15H
ydro
carb
ons
Hyd
roca
rbon
s as
fue
ldD
escr
ibe
and
expl
ain
how
the
com
bust
ion
reac
tions
of
alka
nes
led
to t
heir
use
as f
uels
in
the
hom
e, in
dust
ry a
nd
tran
spor
t
Are
nes
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of a
rene
s: s
ubst
itutio
n re
actio
ns w
ith c
hlor
ine
and
with
bro
min
e
Exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
benz
ene
and
met
hylb
enze
ne
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of
aren
es: n
itrat
ion
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of a
rene
s: F
riede
l-Cra
fts
alky
latio
n an
d ac
ylat
ion
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of a
rene
s: ‘c
ompl
ete’
ox
idat
ion
of t
he s
ide-
chai
n to
giv
e a
benz
oic
acid
Des
crib
e th
e ch
emis
try
of
aren
es: h
ydro
gena
tion
of
the
benz
ene
ring
to fo
rm
a cy
cloh
exan
e rin
g
Section 4: What you need to know
82 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roca
rbon
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
15H
ydro
carb
ons
Des
crib
e th
e m
echa
nism
of
ele
ctro
phili
c su
bstit
utio
n in
are
nes,
us
ing
the
mon
onitr
atio
n an
d br
omin
atio
n of
be
nzen
e as
exa
mpl
es
Sug
gest
the
mec
hani
sm
of o
ther
ele
ctro
phili
c su
bstit
utio
n re
actio
ns,
give
n da
ta.
Des
crib
e th
e ef
fect
of
the
delo
calis
atio
n of
ele
ctro
ns
in t
he e
lect
roph
ilic
subs
titut
ion
of a
rene
s
Inte
rpre
t th
e di
ffer
ence
in
reac
tivity
bet
wee
n be
nzen
e an
d ch
loro
benz
ene
Pre
dict
whe
ther
ha
loge
natio
n w
ill o
ccur
in
the
side
-cha
in o
r ar
omat
ic
nucl
eus
in a
rene
s de
pend
ing
on re
actio
n co
nditi
ons
App
ly t
he k
now
ledg
e of
po
sitio
ns o
f su
bstit
utio
n in
the
ele
ctro
phili
c su
bstit
utio
n of
are
nes
Section 4: What you need to know
83 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roca
rbon
sS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
15H
ydro
carb
ons
Rec
ogni
se t
he
envi
ronm
enta
l co
nseq
uenc
es o
f ca
rbon
mon
oxid
e,
oxid
es o
f ni
trog
en a
nd
unbu
rnt
hydr
ocar
bons
ar
isin
g fr
om t
he in
tern
al
com
bust
ion
engi
ne
Rec
ogni
se t
he
envi
ronm
enta
l co
nseq
uenc
es o
f th
e ca
taly
tic re
mov
al o
f po
lluta
nt g
ases
Rec
ogni
se t
he
envi
ronm
enta
l co
nseq
uenc
es o
f ga
ses
that
con
trib
ute
to t
he
enha
nced
gre
enho
use
effe
ct
Out
line
the
use
of in
fra-
red
spec
tros
copy
in
mon
itorin
g ai
r po
llutio
n
See
als
o co
nten
t on
in
fra-
red
spec
tros
copy
in
Ana
lytic
al
tech
niqu
es
Section 4: What you need to know
84 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hal
ogen
der
ivat
ives
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
T
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
16H
alog
en
deriv
ativ
esH
alog
enoa
lkan
es
and
halo
geno
aren
es
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
hal
ogen
oalk
anes
as
exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
the
follo
win
g nu
cleo
phili
c su
bstit
utio
n re
actio
ns
of b
rom
oeth
ane:
hy
drol
ysis
; for
mat
ion
of n
itrile
s; fo
rmat
ion
of p
rimar
y am
ines
by
reac
tion
with
am
mon
ia
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
hal
ogen
oalk
anes
as
exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
the
elim
inat
ion
of
hydr
ogen
bro
mid
e fr
om
2-br
omop
ropa
ne
Des
crib
e th
e m
echa
nism
of
nucl
eoph
ilic
subs
titut
ion
in h
alog
enoa
lkan
es
Des
crib
e S
N1
and
SN2
mec
hani
sms
incl
udin
g th
e in
duct
ive
effe
cts
of
alky
l gro
ups
See
als
o co
nten
t on
el
ectr
ophi
lic
effe
ct o
f al
kyl
grou
ps in
H
ydro
carb
ons
(Sec
tion
15),
Alk
enes
Section 4: What you need to know
85 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hal
ogen
der
ivat
ives
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
T
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
16H
alog
en
and
deriv
ativ
es
Rec
all t
hat
prim
ary
halo
geno
alka
nes
tend
to
rea
ct v
ia t
he S
N2
mec
hani
sm; t
ertia
ry
halo
geno
alka
nes
via
the
SN1
mec
hani
sm
and
seco
ndar
y ha
loge
noal
kane
s by
a
mix
ture
of
the
two,
de
pend
ing
on s
truc
ture
Rel
ativ
e st
reng
th
of t
he C
-Hal
bon
dIn
terp
ret
the
diff
eren
t re
activ
ities
of
halo
geno
alka
nes
with
pa
rtic
ular
refe
renc
e to
hyd
roly
sis
and
the
rela
tive
stre
ngth
s of
C
-Hal
bon
ds
Inte
rpre
t th
e di
ffer
ent
reac
tiviti
es o
f ha
loge
noal
kane
s an
d ch
loro
benz
ene
with
pa
rtic
ular
refe
renc
e to
hyd
roly
sis
and
the
rela
tive
stre
ngth
s of
C
-Hal
bon
ds.
Exp
lain
the
use
s of
fl u
oroa
lkan
es a
nd
fl uor
ohal
ogen
oalk
anes
in
term
s of
the
ir re
lativ
e ch
emic
al in
ertn
ess
R
ecog
nise
the
con
cern
ab
out
the
effe
ct o
f ch
loro
fl uor
oalk
anes
on
the
ozon
e la
yer
Section 4: What you need to know
86 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roxy
com
poun
dsTh
is to
pic
intr
oduc
es t
he c
hem
istr
y of
a v
ersa
tile
clas
s of
org
anic
com
poun
ds, h
ydro
xyl c
ompo
unds
, whi
ch c
onta
in a
–O
H g
roup
.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
17H
ydro
xy
com
poun
dsA
lcoh
ols
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
al
coho
ls, e
xem
plifi
ed b
y et
hano
l: co
mbu
stio
n
(exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
eth
anol
)
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
al
coho
ls, e
xem
plifi
ed b
y et
hano
l: su
bstit
utio
n to
gi
ve h
alog
enoa
lkan
es
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
al
coho
ls, e
xem
plifi
ed b
y et
hano
l: re
actio
n w
ith
sodi
um
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
al
coho
ls, e
xem
plifi
ed
by e
than
ol: o
xida
tion
to
carb
onyl
com
poun
ds a
nd
carb
oxyl
ic a
cids
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
al
coho
ls, e
xem
plifi
ed b
y et
hano
l: de
hydr
atio
n to
al
kene
s
Section 4: What you need to know
87 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roxy
com
poun
dsS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
17H
ydro
xy
com
poun
dsR
ecal
l the
che
mis
try
of
alco
hols
, exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
etha
nol:
este
r fo
rmat
ion
by e
ster
ifi ca
tion
with
ca
rbox
ylic
aci
ds
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
al
coho
ls, e
xem
plifi
ed
by e
than
ol: f
orm
atio
n of
es
ters
by
acyl
atio
n w
ith
acyl
chl
orid
es u
sing
eth
yl
etha
noat
e an
d ph
enyl
be
nzoa
te a
s ex
ampl
es
Cla
ssify
hyd
roxy
co
mpo
unds
into
prim
ary,
se
cond
ary
and
tert
iary
al
coho
ls
Sug
gest
cha
ract
eris
tic
dist
ingu
ishi
ng re
actio
ns,
e.g.
mild
oxi
datio
n
Ded
uce
the
pres
ence
of
a C
H3C
H(O
H)-
grou
p in
an
alco
hol f
rom
its
reac
tion
with
alk
alin
e aq
ueou
s io
dine
to fo
rm
tri-i
odom
etha
ne
Phe
nol
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
ph
enol
, as
exem
plifi
ed b
y th
e re
actio
n w
ith b
ases
Section 4: What you need to know
88 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Hyd
roxy
com
poun
dsS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
17H
ydro
xy
com
poun
dsR
ecal
l the
che
mis
try
of
phen
ol, a
s ex
empl
ifi ed
by
the
reac
tion
with
sod
ium
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
ph
enol
, as
exem
plifi
ed
by t
he n
itrat
ion
of a
nd
brom
inat
ion
of t
he a
rom
atic
rin
g
Rec
all t
he c
hem
istr
y of
ph
enol
, as
exem
plifi
ed b
y th
e re
actio
n w
ith d
iazo
nium
sa
lts
See
als
o co
nten
t on
fo
rmat
ion
of p
heno
l in
Nitr
ogen
co
mpo
unds
(S
ectio
n 20
), Pr
imar
y am
ines
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e re
lativ
e ac
iditi
es o
f w
ater
, ph
enol
and
eth
anol
Section 4: What you need to know
89 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Car
bony
l com
poun
dsTh
is to
pic
intr
oduc
es t
he c
hem
istr
y of
the
car
bony
l com
poun
ds, a
ldeh
ydes
and
ket
ones
.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
t
18C
arbo
nyl
com
poun
dsA
ldeh
ydes
Keto
nes
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of a
ldeh
ydes
and
ket
ones
fr
om p
rimar
y an
d se
cond
ary
alco
hols
resp
ectiv
ely
usin
g C
r 2O
72-/
H+
Des
crib
e th
e re
duct
ion
of
alde
hyde
s an
d ke
tone
s us
ing
NaB
H4 o
r Li
AlH
4
Des
crib
e th
e m
echa
nism
of
the
nuc
leop
hilic
ad
ditio
n re
actio
ns o
f hy
drog
en c
yani
de w
ith
alde
hyde
s an
d ke
tone
s
Des
crib
e th
e us
e of
2,
4-d
initr
ophe
nylh
ydra
zine
re
agen
t (2
,4-D
NP
H) t
o de
tect
the
pre
senc
e of
ca
rbon
yl c
ompo
unds
Section 4: What you need to know
90 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Car
bony
l com
poun
ds
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
t
18C
arbo
nyl
com
poun
dsD
educ
e th
e na
ture
(a
ldeh
yde
or k
eton
e) o
f an
unk
now
n ca
rbon
yl
com
poun
d fr
om t
he
resu
lts o
f si
mpl
e te
sts
(i.e.
Feh
ling’
s an
d To
llens
’ rea
gent
s; e
ase
of
oxid
atio
n)
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
n of
C
H3C
O- co
mpo
unds
with
al
kalin
e aq
ueou
s io
dine
to
give
tri-
iodo
met
hane
Section 4: What you need to know
91 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Car
boxy
lic a
cids
and
der
ivat
ives
This
topi
c in
trod
uces
the
che
mis
try
of c
arbo
xylic
aci
ds a
nd t
heir
deriv
ativ
es.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
t
19C
arbo
xylic
ac
ids
and
deriv
ativ
es
Car
boxy
lic
acid
sD
escr
ibe
the
form
atio
n of
car
boxy
lic a
cids
fro
m
alco
hols
, ald
ehyd
es a
nd
nitr
iles
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns
of c
arbo
xylic
aci
ds in
the
fo
rmat
ion
of s
alts
, usi
ng
reac
tive
met
als,
alk
alis
, or
car
bona
tes
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns o
f ca
rbox
ylic
aci
ds in
th
e fo
rmat
ion
of a
cyl
chlo
rides
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns
of c
arbo
xylic
aci
ds in
the
fo
rmat
ion
of e
ster
s
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns
of c
arbo
xylic
aci
ds in
the
fo
rmat
ion
of a
lcoh
ols,
by
use
of L
iAl H
4
Rec
ogni
se t
hat
som
e ca
rbox
ylic
aci
ds c
an
be f
urth
er o
xidi
sed:
th
e ox
idat
ion
of
met
hano
ic a
cid,
H
CO
2H, w
ith
Fehl
ing’
s an
d To
llens
’ re
agen
ts
Section 4: What you need to know
92 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Car
boxy
lic a
cids
and
der
ivat
ives
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
t
19C
arbo
xylic
ac
ids
and
deriv
ativ
es
Rec
ogni
se t
hat
som
e ca
rbox
ylic
aci
ds c
an
be f
urth
er o
xidi
sed:
th
e ox
idat
ion
of
etha
nedi
oic
acid
, H
O2C
CO
2H, w
ith
war
m a
cidi
fi ed
man
gana
te(VII
)
Exp
lain
the
rel
ativ
e ac
iditi
es o
f ca
rbox
ylic
ac
ids,
phe
nols
and
alco
hols
Use
the
con
cept
of
elec
tron
egat
ivity
to
exp
lain
the
ac
iditi
es o
f ch
lorin
e-su
bstit
uted
eth
anoi
c ac
ids
Acy
l ch
lorid
es
Des
crib
e th
e hy
drol
ysis
of
acyl
ch
lorid
es
Exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
etha
noyl
chl
orid
e
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
ns o
f ac
yl
chlo
rides
with
al
coho
ls, p
heno
ls,
amm
onia
and
pr
imar
y am
ines
Section 4: What you need to know
93 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Car
boxy
lic a
cids
and
der
ivat
ives
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
t
19C
arbo
xylic
ac
ids
and
deriv
ativ
es
Exp
lain
the
rela
tive
ease
of
hydr
olys
is o
f ac
yl c
hlor
ides
, alk
yl
chlo
rides
and
ary
l ch
lorid
es in
clud
ing
the
cond
ensa
tion
(add
ition
-elim
inat
ion)
m
echa
nism
for
the
hydr
olys
is o
f ac
yl
chlo
rides
Est
ers
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of e
ster
s fr
om c
arbo
xylic
ac
ids
usin
g et
hyl
etha
noat
e as
an
exam
ple
Exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
eth
yl
etha
noat
e
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of e
ster
s fr
om a
cyl c
hlor
ides
us
ing
phen
yl
benz
oate
as
an
exam
ple
Exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
phen
yl b
enzo
ate
Des
crib
e th
e ac
id a
nd
base
hyd
roly
sis
of e
ster
s
Sta
te t
he m
ajor
co
mm
erci
al u
ses
of
este
rs e
.g. s
olve
nts;
pe
rfum
es; fl
avo
urin
gs
Section 4: What you need to know
94 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Nitr
ogen
com
poun
dsM
any
biol
ogic
al m
olec
ules
con
tain
nitr
ogen
. Thi
s to
pic
intr
oduc
es t
he c
hem
istr
y of
a v
arie
ty o
f or
gani
c co
mpo
unds
tha
t co
ntai
n ni
trog
en.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
20N
itrog
en
com
poun
dsP
rimar
y am
ines
D
escr
ibe
the
form
atio
n of
alk
yl a
min
es b
y th
e re
actio
n of
am
mon
ia w
ith
halo
geno
alka
nes.
Exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
ethy
lam
ine
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of a
lkyl
am
ines
by
the
redu
ctio
n of
am
ides
with
Li
AlH
4
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of a
lkyl
am
ines
by
the
redu
ctio
n of
nitr
iles
with
Li
AlH
4 or
H2/N
i
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of p
heny
lam
ine
by t
he
redu
ctio
n of
nitr
oben
zene
by
Sn/
conc
HC
l
Des
crib
e an
d ex
plai
n th
e ba
sici
ty o
f am
ines
Exp
lain
the
rela
tive
basi
citie
s of
am
mon
ia, e
thyl
amin
e an
d ph
enyl
amin
e in
term
s of
th
eir
stru
ctur
es
Section 4: What you need to know
95 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Nitr
ogen
com
poun
dsS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
20N
itrog
en
com
poun
dsD
escr
ibe
the
reac
tion
of
phen
ylam
ine
with
aqu
eous
br
omin
e
Des
crib
e th
e re
actio
n of
ph
enyl
amin
e w
ith n
itrou
s ac
id to
giv
e th
e di
azon
ium
sa
lt an
d ph
enol
Des
crib
e th
e co
uplin
g of
be
nzen
edia
zoni
um c
hlor
ide
and
phen
ol a
nd t
he u
se
of s
imila
r re
actio
ns in
the
fo
rmat
ion
of d
yest
uff
Am
ides
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of
amid
es f
rom
the
reac
tion
betw
een
RN
H2 a
nd R
’CO
Cl
Exe
mpl
ifi ed
by
etha
nam
ide
Rec
ogni
se t
hat
amid
es a
re
neut
ral
Des
crib
e am
ide
hydr
olys
is
on t
reat
men
t w
ith a
queo
us
alka
li or
aci
d
Des
crib
e th
e re
duct
ion
of
amid
es w
ith L
iAlH
4
Section 4: What you need to know
96 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Nitr
ogen
com
poun
dsS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
20N
itrog
en
com
poun
dsA
min
o ac
ids
Des
crib
e th
e ac
id/b
ase
prop
ertie
s of
am
ino
acid
s an
d th
e fo
rmat
ion
of
zwitt
erio
ns
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of
pept
ide
bond
s be
twee
n am
ino
acid
s to
giv
e di
- and
tr
i-pep
tides
Des
crib
e si
mpl
y th
e pr
oces
s of
ele
ctro
phor
esis
and
th
e ef
fect
of
pH, u
sing
pe
ptid
es a
nd a
min
o ac
ids
as
exam
ples
Section 4: What you need to know
97 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Pol
ymer
isat
ion
This
topi
c ill
ustr
ates
how
sm
all m
olec
ules
join
toge
ther
to fo
rm p
olym
ers
and
how
the
ir pr
oper
ties
are
usef
ul in
eve
ryda
y lif
e.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
21P
olym
eris
atio
nA
dditi
on
Con
dens
atio
n po
lym
eris
atio
nD
escr
ibe
the
char
acte
ristic
s of
con
dens
atio
n po
lym
eris
atio
n in
pol
yest
ers
as e
xem
plifi
ed b
y Te
ryle
ne
Des
crib
e th
e ch
arac
teris
tics
of c
onde
nsat
ion
poly
mer
isat
ion
in p
olya
mid
es a
s ex
empl
ifi ed
by
poly
pept
ides
, pro
tein
s,
nylo
n 6,
nyl
on 6
,6 a
nd
Kevl
ar
Ded
uce
the
repe
at u
nit
of
a co
nden
satio
n po
lym
er
obta
ined
fro
m a
giv
en
mon
omer
or
pair
ofm
onom
ers
Iden
tify
the
mon
omer
(s)
pres
ent
in a
giv
en s
ectio
n of
a c
onde
nsat
ion
poly
mer
mol
ecul
e
Section 4: What you need to know
98 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Pol
ymer
isat
ion
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
21P
olym
eris
atio
nP
redi
ctin
g th
e ty
pe o
f po
lym
eris
atio
n
Des
crib
e th
e fo
rmat
ion
of
poly
este
rs a
nd p
olya
mid
es
Pre
dict
the
typ
e of
po
lym
eris
atio
n re
actio
n fo
r a
give
n m
onom
er o
r pa
ir of
m
onom
ers
Ded
uce
the
type
of
poly
mer
isat
ion
reac
tion
whi
ch p
rodu
ces
a gi
ven
sect
ion
of a
poly
mer
mol
ecul
e
Bio
degr
adab
le
poly
mer
sR
ecog
nise
tha
t po
lyal
kene
s ar
e ch
emic
ally
iner
t an
d ca
n th
eref
ore
be d
iffi c
ult
to
biod
egra
de
Rec
ogni
se t
hat
a nu
mbe
r of
pol
ymer
s ca
n be
de
grad
ed b
y th
e ac
tion
of
light
Rec
ogni
se t
hat
poly
este
rs
and
poly
amid
es a
re
biod
egra
dabl
e by
hy
drol
ysis
Des
crib
e th
e hy
drol
ysis
of
prot
eins
Section 4: What you need to know
99 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Pol
ymer
isat
ion
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
21P
olym
eris
atio
nP
rope
rtie
s of
po
lym
ers
Dis
cuss
the
pro
pert
ies
and
stru
ctur
es o
f po
lym
ers
base
d on
the
ir m
etho
ds o
f fo
rmat
ion
Bot
h ad
ditio
n an
d co
nden
satio
n sh
ould
be
cons
ider
ed
Dis
cuss
how
the
pr
esen
ce o
f si
de-c
hain
s an
d in
term
olec
ular
forc
es
affe
ct t
he p
rope
rtie
s of
po
lym
eric
mat
eria
ls
For
exam
ple,
po
lyal
kene
s,
PTF
E (T
efl o
n,
Kevl
ar)
Exp
lain
the
sig
nifi c
ance
of
hydr
ogen
-bon
ding
in t
he
pairi
ng o
f ba
ses
in D
NA
in
rela
tion
to t
he re
plic
atio
n of
gen
etic
info
rmat
ion
Dis
tingu
ish
betw
een
the
prim
ary,
sec
onda
ry
and
tert
iary
str
uctu
re o
f pr
otei
ns
Sta
te t
hat
the
seco
ndar
y st
ruct
ures
foun
d in
pr
otei
ns a
re α
-hel
ix a
nd
β-p
leat
ed s
heet
Section 4: What you need to know
100 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Pol
ymer
isat
ion
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
be
able
to
do
Co
mm
ent
21P
olym
eris
atio
nE
xpla
in t
he s
tabi
lisat
ion
of s
econ
dary
str
uctu
re
by h
ydro
gen
bond
ing
betw
een
C=
O a
nd N
-H
grou
ps in
the
bac
kbon
e
Exp
lain
the
sta
bilis
atio
n of
tert
iary
str
uctu
re b
y R
-gro
up in
tera
ctio
ns
Des
crib
e ho
w p
olym
ers
have
bee
n de
sign
ed t
o ac
t as
non
-sol
vent
bas
ed
adhe
sive
s, e
.g. e
poxy
re
sins
and
sup
ergl
ues
Des
crib
e ho
w p
olym
ers
have
bee
n de
sign
ed t
o ac
t as
con
duct
ing
poly
mer
s,
e.g.
pol
yace
tyle
ne
Section 4: What you need to know
101 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Ana
lytic
al te
chni
ques
Ana
lytic
al te
chni
ques
are
impo
rtan
t to
ols
for
inve
stig
atin
g or
gani
c co
mpo
unds
.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
22A
naly
tical
te
chni
ques
Chr
omat
ogra
phy
Exp
lain
and
use
the
te
rms
Rf va
lue
in t
hin
laye
r ch
rom
atog
raph
y an
d re
tent
ion
time
in g
as/
liqui
d ch
rom
atog
raph
y fr
om
chro
mat
ogra
ms
Inte
rpre
t ga
s/liq
uid
chro
mat
ogra
ms
in t
erm
s of
th
e pe
rcen
tage
com
posi
tion
of a
mix
ture
Infr
a-re
d sp
ectr
osco
pyA
naly
se a
n in
fra-
red
spec
trum
of
a si
mpl
e m
olec
ule
to id
entif
y fu
nctio
nal g
roup
s
See
the
D
ata
Boo
klet
fo
r fu
nctio
nal
grou
ps
requ
ired
Mas
s sp
ectr
omet
ryD
educ
e th
e m
olec
ular
mas
s of
an
orga
nic
mol
ecul
e fr
om
the
mol
ecul
ar io
n pe
ak in
a
mas
s sp
ectr
umde
duce
the
nu
mbe
r of
car
bon
atom
s in
a
com
poun
d us
ing
the
M+1
pe
ak
Section 4: What you need to know
102 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Ana
lytic
al te
chni
ques
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
22A
naly
tical
te
chni
ques
Ded
uce
the
pres
ence
of
brom
ine
and
chlo
rine
atom
s in
a c
ompo
und
usin
g th
e M
+2
peak
Sug
gest
the
iden
tity
of
mol
ecul
es fo
rmed
by
sim
ple
frag
men
tatio
n in
a g
iven
m
ass
spec
trum
Car
bon-
13 N
MR
sp
ectr
osco
pyA
naly
se a
car
bon-
13 N
MR
sp
ectr
um o
f a
sim
ple
mol
ecul
e to
ded
uce:
(i) t
he d
iffer
ent
envi
ronm
ents
of
the
car
bon
atom
s pr
esen
t
(ii) t
he p
ossi
ble
stru
ctur
es fo
r th
e m
olec
ule
Pre
dict
the
num
ber
of
peak
s in
a c
arbo
n-13
NM
R
spec
trum
for
a gi
ven
mol
ecul
e
Section 4: What you need to know
103 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Ana
lytic
al te
chni
ques
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
22A
naly
tical
te
chni
ques
Prot
on ( 1
H) N
MR
sp
ectr
osco
pyA
naly
se a
nd in
terp
ret
a pr
oton
NM
R s
pect
rum
of
a si
mpl
e m
olec
ule
to d
educ
e:
(i) t
he d
iffer
ent
type
s of
pro
ton
pres
ent
usin
g ch
emic
al s
hift
val
ues
(ii) t
he re
lativ
e nu
mbe
rs o
f ea
ch t
ype
of p
roto
n pr
esen
t fr
om re
lativ
e pe
ak a
reas
(iii)
the
num
ber
of n
on-
equi
vale
nt p
roto
ns a
djac
ent
to a
giv
en p
roto
n fr
om t
he
split
ting
patt
ern,
usi
ng t
he n
+
1 r
ule
(iv) t
he p
ossi
ble
stru
ctur
es
for
the
mol
ecul
e
Pre
dict
the
che
mic
al s
hift
s an
d sp
littin
g pa
tter
ns o
f th
e pr
oton
s in
a g
iven
mol
ecul
e
Des
crib
e th
e us
e of
te
tram
ethy
lsila
ne, T
MS
, as
the
stan
dard
for
chem
ical
sh
ift m
easu
rem
ents
Section 4: What you need to know
104 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Ana
lytic
al te
chni
ques
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
22A
naly
tical
te
chni
ques
Sta
te t
he n
eed
for
deut
erat
ed s
olve
nts,
e.g
. C
DC
l 3, w
hen
obta
inin
g an
N
MR
spe
ctru
m
Des
crib
e th
e id
entifi
cat
ion
of O
–H a
nd N
–H p
roto
ns b
y pr
oton
exc
hang
e us
ing
D2O
Section 4: What you need to know
105 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Org
anic
syn
thes
isTh
is to
pic
intr
oduc
es t
he s
trat
egie
s us
ed in
syn
thes
is o
f or
gani
c m
olec
ules
.
Syl
lab
us
sect
ion
Th
eme
Top
icLe
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
AS
Lev
elAdditional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
23O
rgan
ic
synt
hesi
sS
ynth
esis
of
chira
l dru
g m
olec
ules
Sta
te t
hat
mos
t ch
iral d
rugs
ex
trac
ted
from
nat
ural
so
urce
s of
ten
cont
ain
only
a
sing
le o
ptic
al is
omer
Sta
te re
ason
s w
hy t
he
synt
hetic
pre
para
tion
of d
rug
mol
ecul
es o
ften
requ
ires
the
prod
uctio
n of
a s
ingl
e op
tical
isom
er, e
.g. b
ette
r th
erap
eutic
act
ivity
, few
er
side
eff
ects
Syn
thet
ic ro
utes
For
an o
rgan
ic m
olec
ule
cont
aini
ng s
ever
al f
unct
iona
l gr
oups
:
(i) id
entif
y or
gani
c fu
nctio
nal
grou
ps u
sing
the
reac
tions
in
the
syl
labu
s
(ii) p
redi
ct p
rope
rtie
s an
d re
actio
ns
Dev
ise
mul
ti-st
age
synt
hetic
ro
utes
for
prep
arin
g or
gani
c m
olec
ules
usi
ng t
he
reac
tions
in t
he s
ylla
bus
Section 4: What you need to know
106 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701
Org
anic
che
mis
try
and
anal
ysis
: Org
anic
syn
thes
isS
ylla
bu
s se
ctio
nT
hem
eTo
pic
Lear
ner
s st
ud
yin
g A
S L
evel
Additional
mat
eria
l fo
r le
arn
ers
stu
dyi
ng
th
e fu
ll A
Lev
el
Th
ing
s yo
u s
ho
uld
b
e ab
le t
o d
oC
om
men
tT
hin
gs
you
sh
ou
ld b
e ab
le
to d
oC
om
men
t
23O
rgan
ic
synt
hesi
sA
naly
se a
giv
en s
ynth
etic
ro
ute
in te
rms
of t
ype
of
reac
tion
and
reag
ents
use
d fo
r ea
ch s
tep
of it
, and
po
ssib
le b
y-pr
oduc
ts
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