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The Braun Corporation 631 West 11th street P.O. Box 310
TECHNICA
ELECT
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INTRODUCTION
Electron flow
The Atom
Induction
Electric circuit
Resistance
Static electricity
The conductor
Ohms law
Cable nomogram
Kirchhoffs laws
Circuits
Joules
Measuri
Multime
TRMS
Meter re
Circuit c
Relay
Fuse
Circuit b
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WHY LEARNING ELECTR
To be more confidenTo be more confiden
approaching electricapproaching electric
To improve diagnosiTo improve diagnosi
To get it right the firTo get it right the fir
To improve CustomTo improve Custome
Why le
electro
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ELECTRON FLOW
When electrons flow from one atom to the
an organised matter, electric current flow e
Simply stated Electron flow = electricity.
Electricity is not something that must be gaconstructed . It is everywhere and in all thi
the attracting or repelling force that must bgathered.
This force is called Electro-motive For
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THE ATOMIs the basic unit of matter.
The smallest particle that we can find in a chemical sub
atoms, and by combining them to different molecules w
When a substance consists of one or more equal atoms i
The atom consists of a central, positively charged core,
electrons that are found in orbits around the nucleus. Pro
Nucleus of the Atom. For a neutral atom, the number of
have a positive charge. Neutrons have no charge. Electr
Ordinary electric current is the flow of electrons through
constituents of matter. An atom consists of a small, denelectrons that whirl about it in orbits, forming a cloud o
electrons to balance the positive charge of the nucleus, a
an atom determine its chemical and electrical propertie
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THE ATOMElectrons in each shell has a defined energy. Th
the electron is distanced to the nucleus, the highenergy in that electron shell.
Electrons in the outer shell are not strongly bon
the nucleus, and the atom may give up these ele
Because metals have few outermost electrons an
give them up easily, they are good conductors o
electricity or heat.
In substances like metals, electrons in the outer
basically moving freely. Connecting an electric
the metal exposes the charge carriers (electrons)
force, causing the electrons to relocate accordin
polarity.
In a conductor, the electrons will move towards the pos
This movement of electrons is called electric current.
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THE ATOMElectric current is defined by electrons moving
material.
Conductor
Electric conductors are materials where the elec
move between different atoms. Good conductors of elements containing less than 4 electrons in their outer rings.
Semi conductors
In a semiconductor there is a limited movement
electrons, depending upon the crystal structure omaterial used. The substances first used for sem
were the elements germanium, silicon, and gray
There are few free electrons compared to condu
Insulators (dielectric)
Is a substance that does not readily conduct hea
electricity. The electrons are bound and cannot
between the atoms.
Glass, porcelain and plastics are commonly used
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INDUCTIONElectromagnetic induction. is the production
of an electromotive force (emf) in a conductoras a result of a changing magnetic field about
the conductor.
Variation in the field around a conductor may
be produced by relative motion between the
conductor and the source of the magnetic
field, as in an electric generator, or by varying
the strength of the entire field, so that the field
around the conductor is also changing. Since
a magnetic field is produced around a current-
carrying conductor, such a field can be
changed by changing the current.
On figure A and C, the magnet is standing
still, the induced voltage (and current) is
equal to zero.
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INDUCTIONBy changing the magnetic field about the
conductor, there will be produced an
electromotive force (emf) in the conductor
The direction on the voltage (and current) idepending on if the magnetic field is
increasing or decreasing.
The level on the induced voltage is dependon how fast the magnetic field is changing.
The level on the induced voltage is dependon how strong the magnetic field is.
The direction on the induced voltage isdepending on the direction of the magnetic
field, (in case it is the north/south pole that
closest to the coil.
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INDUCTION
1 cycle
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ALTERNATOR
Cycle
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THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
The battery
Generates a direct current (DC) by a chemical p
current is in one direction only, and the battery
therefore be marked with (+) and (-).
The alternator
By revolving the coil in a magnetic field, an alte
(AC) is being induced. The polarity will alterna
The technical direction of current is from plus t
If the direction of current is defined in a el. sche
direction will be in force.
The actual direction of current, (electron current flow)
hand from minus to plus.
The electrons move from a negative charged area to a p
area.
A simple electric circuit consists of one power s
Example of power sources are:
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RESISTANCEResistance
-property of an electric conductor by which it
opposes a flow of electricity and dissipates elec
energy away from the circuit, usually as heat.
Optimum resistance is provided by a conductor
is long, small in cross section, and of a material
conducts poorly.
There is always a certain resistance in a conduct
There will always be a power loss due to a voltadrop during net movement or flow of electric ch
from one point to another or across some bound
The voltage drop will increase the greater the linresistance is. Usually we are aiming at a low lin
resistance by choosing the appropriate cable siz
material.
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STATIC ELECTRICITY-CH
Positive and negative charges behave in interesting ways. Two things w
charges (a positive and a negative) will attract, or pull towards each oth
charge (two positives or two negatives) will push away from each other
A charged object will also attract something that is neutral. Think abou
balloon stick to the wall. If you charge a balloon by rubbing it on your
electrons and has a negative charge. Holding it near a neutral object wi
object move. If it is a conductor, many electrons move easily to the oth
balloon as possible. If it is an insulator, the electrons in the atoms and mvery slightly to one side, away from the balloon. In either case, there ar
closer to the negative balloon. The balloon sticks. (At least until the ele
leak off.) It works the same way for neutral and positively charged obje
As you walk across a carpet, electrons move from the rug to you. Now
Touch a door knob and ZAP! The door knob is a conductor. The electro
knob. You get a shock.
We usually only notice static electricity in the winter when the air is ve
the air is more humid. The water in the air helps electrons move off you
not build up as big a charge.
As you walk across a carpet, electrons move from the rug to you. Now
Touch a door knob and ZAP! The door knob is a conductor. The electroknob. You get a shock.
We usually only notice static electricity in the winter when the air is ve
the air is more humid. The water in the air helps electrons move off you
not build up as big a charge. OBS! Things with the same charge repel e
get as far from each other as possible.
Static electricity is the imbalance of positive and negative charges.
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STATIC ELECTRICITY-ES
Electronic components are susceptible to damage from Electro
Discharge (ESD), when an ESD event occurs across their termfields. Electrostatic Discharge Susceptibility (ESDS) parts c
electrical and ground connections. Components found to be
resistors, resistor chips, discrete semiconductors, other thick- a
common ESDS component types and their relative sensitivitie
ESDS parts are usually as sensitive as the most sensitive ESDS
Device Type Range of Susceptibility (Volts)
VMOS 30 to 1800
MOSFET 100 to 200
GaAsFET 100 to 300
EPROM 100 +JFET 140 to 7000
SAW 150 to 500
OP AMP 190 to 5000
CMOS 250 to 3000
Schottky Diodes 300 to 2500
Film Resistors (Thick, Thin) 300 to 3000
Bipolar Transistors 380 to 7800
ECL (PDC Board Level) 500 to 1500
SCR 680 to 1000
Schottky TTL 100 to 2500
STATIC ELECTRICITY ES
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STATIC ELECTRICITY-ESElectrostatic Discharge (ESD)
Electrostatic discharge is a single, fast, high current transfer of electrost
Direct contact transfer between two objects at different potentials, or a h
between two objects when they are in close proximity. The prime sourc
mostly insulators and are typically synthetic materials, e.g., vinyl or pla
shoes, finished wood chairs, Scotch tape, bubble pack, soldering irons w
Voltage levels generated by these sources can be extremely high since t
distributed over their surfaces or conducted to other objects. The genera
caused by rubbing (or squeezing) two substances together is called the tExamples of sources of triboelectric electrostatic charge generation in a
environment include:
Walking across a carpet 1000 V1500
Walking across a vinyl floor 150 V250 V
Handling material protected by clear plastic covers 400 V600 V
Handling polyethylene bags 1000 V1200
Pouring polyurethane foam into a box 1200 V150
ICs sliding down an open antistatic shipping tube 25 V250 V
Note: For low RH (1
What can be done?
Treat floors with static dissipative treatments (benefit of this will pr
while.)
Raise air humidity to 40-50% rh with a humidifier
Use an antistatic wrist strap, which connects to your AC ground.Use different Shoes and clothing
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THE CONDUCTOR
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THE CONDUCTOR
Materials which have loosely held electrons are
Which variable makes an influence on the cable resistan
Length of the conductor. The longer, the greater the re
travel further and this takes more energy so the resistanc
is greater.
The cross sectional area. A large cross section will hathrough it at the same time.
Material specification. Silver,Copper,Gold and Alumi
because they have less than 4 electrons in their outer rin
Temperature. The temperature effects different materi
Other: (Number of strands, cooling effect, insulation
Resistivity ( ), is the material specific resistance. The
L = conductor length (m)
A = cross-sectional area for the conductor (m2 ) = Resistivity (m) Find the factor from a table
R = Resistance ()
R = x L/A AcabletwinondropVoltage
=
2:
OHMS LAW
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Ohms law is stating that the electric current i
flowing through a given resistance r
is equal to the applied voltage e
divided by the resistance, or i=e/r.
Ohms is the unit of resistance or how hard a
conductor resists the flow of electrical current.
For any circuit the electric current
is directly proportional to the voltage,
and is inversely proportional to the resistance.
OHMS LAW
U = R x I
R = U / I
I = U / R
U = Voltage, measured in Volt (V)
R = Resistance measured in ohm ()
I = Current, measured in Ampere (A)
OHMS LAW
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OHMS LAW
CABLE NOMOGRAM
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CABLE NOMOGRAM
KIRCHHOFFS LAW
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KIRCHHOFF S LAWKirchhoff's laws [for Gustav R. Kirchhoff], pa
of laws stating general restrictions on the curren
and voltage in an electric circuit.
The first of these states that at any junction of
paths, or node, in a network the sum of the
currents arriving at any instant is equal to the
sum of the currents flowing away.
[ I= 0 ]
[ I1 + I2 + + In = 0]
The second states that at any given instant the
sum of the voltages, (electromotive forces)
around any closed path, or loop, in the network
zero.[ E + U = 0]
[U = U1 + U2 + + Un]
E = e l ect r om ot i ve fo r ce , (emf), difference in electric potential, or volt
from which no current is being drawn. When current is drawn, the poten
SERIES CIRCUIT
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SERIES CIRCUIT
In a closed loop, the sum
of all voltage drops isequal to the supplied
voltage.
The current is the same in
each component
throughout the circuit.
When two circuit elements
are connected in series,
their effective resistance is
equal to the sum of theseparate resistances.
(U1 + U
I = I1 = I2
Reff. = R1
SERIES CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
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SERIES CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
Voltage drop is a condition that occurs in all cir
flows through a resistance producing work. Whpath, the supply voltage divides itself across the
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
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PARALLEL CIRCUIT
The elements of a parallel
circuit are connected so thateach component has the
same voltage across its
terminals.
The current flow is divided
among its parts, and the
total current is equal to the
sum of the currents in the
individual branches.
The total resistance is less
than that of the element
having the least resistance.
U = U1 = U
(I1 + I2 +
=
1
T
R
Ex. Find the total resistance for
the circuit. R1=100 and R2=200
1T R
1
R
1=
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
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PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A Parallel circuit has more than one path
for current to flow through. The loads maybe side by side and operate independent of
each other but are connected to the same
power source. In this way each component
can have a different current flow through it
while operating at full source voltage.
JOULES LAW
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JOULE S LAW
The relation between effect (power), current an
the formula P = U x I.Watt [for James Watt], (W),
Unit of power, or work done per unit time, equ
measure of electrical and mechanical power.
One watt is the amount of power that is deliver
a current of 1 ampere flows through the compo
P = power, measured in Watt (W)
U = Voltage, measured in Volt (V)R = Resistance measured in ohm ()
I = Current, measured in Ampere (A)
Q = Electric charge in Coulumb (C)
t = Time (s)
P = U x I
JOULES LAW
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JOULE S LAW
MEASURING
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MEASURINGVoltmeter
Measuring the voltage in a circuit, we use a volt
Always clamp your test pins parallel to the com
wish to measure. The measurement can be made
on the circuit without affecting the voltage level
that you have a multimeter with good quality).
Ammeter (Amp meter)
To measure the current in a circuit, we use a Am
Always clamp your test pins in series to the com
you wish to measure. (Except an clip-on ammet
Ohm meter
Instrument used to measure the electrical resista
conductor. It is usually included in a single packvoltmeter, and often an ammeter. Always clamp
pins in series to the components you wish to me
Whenever testing resistance, the circuit must be
voltage!
MULTIMETER
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MULTIMETERMost modern multimeters are digital and traditional an
Here is how a typical measurement are made in typical digital mu
DC voltage: The A/D circuitry in the multimeter is designed to
For higher voltages the input voltage is divided by a voltage di
amplifier.
AC voltage: Basically same idea as the DC measurement, exce
DC current: Input current is run through a known low ohm resiThis voltage is fed to the DC voltage measurement circuitry.
AC current: This is measures in the same way as DC current, e
electronics.
Diode test: A low current (typically less than 1 mA) is fed to th
voltage between measurement leads is measurement with DC v
Resistance measurement: An accurately known low current (va
The voltage (directly proportional to the resistance connected)
Some multimeters can have some of the following functionalities
Continuity tester: Works like the resistance measurement, if th
value (usually 50 to 300 ohms) it would make the beeper to sig Frequency: Input signal is converted to square wave first. The
gives output in Hz) or frequency to voltage converter.
Capacitance: Feed known frequency low amplitude signal thro
the capacitor. Other option is to measure the capacitor charge a
Temperature: Voltage from thermocouple sensor is amplified a
electronics.
METER RESISTANCE
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All meters have resistance.
The value of this resistance depends upon the voltagerange selected.A typical moving coil meter has aSENSITIVITY of 20,000 ohms per volt.This meansthat when the 1 volt range is selected the meter hasa resistance of 20,000 ohms.When the 10 volt rangeis selected it has a resistance of 200,000 ohms andso on.When the meter is connected to a circuit tomeasure voltage, this resistance will affect the circuitand therefore the accuracy of the measurement obtained.In Fig.1 the voltage across each resistor can be calculated. (However, it can be shown that since the resistors are of the s
them, and the voltage across each will be 15 volts.
Now if wevoltage, its resistance will be 20 x 20,000 = 400,000 ohms = If we connect it across the top resistor, as in Fig.2 then we hthis gives us 200,000 ohms and the circuit looks like Fig.3 Thresistor and 20 volts across the lower resistor.The meter wilvolts.Similarly, connecting the meter across the lower resisto
10v = 20 volts across the two resistors, when in fact there is meter on the highest range possible.This means that its resi
Digital meter have a very high resistance, typicallobtained are more accurate than those obtained u
meter look for a sensitivity greater than 20,000 oh
THE EFFECT OF METER RESISTANCE
TRMS
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True RMS (True Root Mean Square) = True effect
Definition of TRMS:In a circuit whose impedance consists of a pure resistan
the rms value of an AC wave is often called the effectiv
value. For example, if an AC source of 100 volts rms is
connected across a resistor, and the resulting current
causes 50 watts of heat to be dissipated by the resistor,
then 50 watts of heat will also be dissipated if a 100-vo
DC source is connected to the resistor.
Remember that an average responding multimeter willexhibit substantial errors when measuring other wave
forms as sine waves, as shown below.
CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
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There are a number of terms used to describe va
and some refer to specific circuit faults.These terms are:
Closed circuitOpen circuitShorted circuitShort to ground
1. Closed Circuit
When the circuit provides a continuous path fro
back to the power source, it is called a closed ci
CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
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2. Open Circuit
If a circuit is broken by any means, such as opean open circuit and current will cease to flow. T
since they need to be switched OFF at various
such as when a wire is damaged or a switch fai
CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
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3. Shorted (Short) Circuit
A short circuit means that the original circuit ha
An example of this would be when the insulatio
causing the windings to touch together or beco
normal current flow, resulting in an increase in
effectiveness and life of that coil.(A fuse may al
CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
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4. Short to Ground
A short to ground occurs when a wire or termin
Movement wearing away insulation or a wire be
component can cause this. A short circuit will c
blow.
RELAYS
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A relay is a switching device operated by a low
and closing of another circuit of higher current c
consuming component to operate with minimal
high current carrying circuit to a minimum.
Applying voltage to the relay coil causes a elect
changes the contacts from their normal position
Relays may be divided into four types
1.Normally open
2.Normally closed
3.Transfer types
4.Mixed types
RELAYS
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1. A normally open (N.O) relay will not allow
2. The contacts of a normally closed (N.C) re
high current to flow through the contacts.
3. A transfer relay has two operational states,
to another when its windings are not energi
circuit when energised. In the relay schema
are switched OFF. Current will flow from t
terminal # 4.
4. A mixed relay is used to open and close tw
SW 1 Battery
Flow
Flow
Mixed typ
FUSE
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A fuse is generally inserted into an electrical ci
power source which includes the wire that conn
device, or to protect the electronic equipment. T
specify a fuse rated to open the electrical circui
open the circuit if the electronic device fails in
excessive current when they fail). If a fuse larg
mistake when installing the equipment may cau
WHEN, not if, WHEN you're thinking of repla
ask yourself if you know more than the enginee
a hurry when installing electronic equipment. T
cents for a fuse is better than $50 labour plus thjob.
Fuse Opening Time
A fuse does not blow when the current reachesrated current without opening. A fuse will take
conditions. A fuse will pass significantly more
may take 10 minutes or more to blow a fuse at
CIRCUIT BREAKER / FUSE
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A circuit breaker's function is, like a fuse, to break a circ
predetermined amount of current is passed. The picture
version of a self-resetting circuit breaker. In this device, from the battery terminal, through the bi-metal strip and
terminal. The bi-metal strip is made of two different typ
have different coefficients of expansion. This means tha
more than the other when the rise in temperature is the s
In this case, the two metals are bonded to each other. (N
that this is a simplified diagram). When the strip heats u
flow through it, one type of metal expands more than the
the black metal expands more than the red and the strip t
upward and disconnect the contacts. You can see that th
bend as the current increases. When the temperature reac
the piece will snap into the open position and the curren
bi-metal strip is stamped into a special shape, which cau
This will assure that there is EITHER a solid connection
disconnect. You can see a similar snap action in the top If you push down on the top it starts to bend downward.
reaches a certain point, the top will snap down. If you re
slowly, the top will snap into its original position. This i
when the bi-metal strip cools in the breaker.
RESISTOR
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The resistance value can be printed on the comp
with different colour rings around the resistance
The value is given by for rings. The first two rin
The third ring states the number of zeros that h
The fourth ring states the tolerance value, from
Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Band 5 Band 6
Color 1st Digit2nd Digit3rd Digit Multiplier ToleranceReliability
Black 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 1 10 1% 1%
Red 2 2 2 100 2% 0.10%
Orange 3 3 3 1,000 3% 0.01%
Yellow 4 4 4 10,000 0.00%
Green 5 5 5 100,000
Blue 6 6 6 1,000,000
Violet 7 7 7 10,000,000
Gray 8 8 8 100,000,000
White 9 9 9 1,000,000,000
Gold x 0.1 5%
Precision Resistor Color Codes
Read the resistance value by means
of the colour codes.
Verify the value with an ohmmeter.Co
Bla
Bro
Re
Ora
Yel
Gre
Bl
Vio
Gr
Wh
Go
INDUCTIVE SWITCH
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Proximity Switches allow the user to detect
the presence of material without having to
make physical contact. Inductive sensors are
used when the target is metal. These are the
most widely used switches in industry today.
Proximity switches are available in either
Shielded or Unshielded versions. Shielded
versions will detect metal only at the sensing
face. Unshielded versions usually have a
larger sensing range, but the drawback is that
they will detect metal around the sensinghead. This means that the surrounding area
(normally 3 times the switch diameter, and
twice as deep as the sensing range) must be
free from metal objects.An inductive proximity switch consists of 4 main components: coil, osc
DC switches, thyristor in AC switches). The oscillator creates a high fre
target enters that field, eddy currents are induced in the metal target (he
maintain the eddy currents in the target. As the target enters the sensing
oscillator, and it stops. The detection circuit senses this and signals the
range, the oscillator resumes functioning, and the switch returns to its n
DIODE
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The Diode is a two-terminal electronic device th
only one direction.
A diode has a low resistance to electric current i
the reverse direction. This property makes a dio
alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC
direction exceeds a certain value, a semiconduc
heavily in the direction of normally high resista
breakdown occurs remains nearly constant for a
called avalanching. A diode using this property
regulate the voltage in a circuit. (See Zener diod
When voltage is applied to a diode and current i
flowing through the diode, there will be approxi
a 0.6 volt drop across the diode.
Rectifier
LED
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A light-emitting diode (LED) produces light as
act as the light source of lasers. The emitted col
commonly available colours are red, green, amb
yellow and amber have a working voltage of ap
data sheet for each LED to find the exact value.
by the breakdown voltage of the particular semi
When using an LED in a circuit, the exact working
voltage is not extremely important. The most
important thing is the current flow through the
LED. A series resistor must limit the current
through the diode. An LED has a specifiedmaximum continuous current rating. Most LEDs
can pass 20 milliamps continuously without
damage but it is not necessary to use the maximum
rated current. An LED will light with much less
current. The difference between high current andlow current will be the brightness of the LED. To
decide what resistor value is needed, you subtract
the working (forward) voltage from the power
supply voltage and divide that number by the
desired current flow.
ZENER DIODE 1
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Zener diodes are generally used for voltage regu
The diodes are used with reverse polarity when
compared to their rectifier counterparts (you ho
them up backwards to make them work properly
All diodes have a point at which they will condu
current when sufficient reverse voltage is applie
Most diodes are damaged when the reverse volt
reaches the breakdown (or avalanche) voltage.
diode circuits have a current limiting resistor in
with the diode as part of their design. The other
of the resistor is connected to the cathode of theThe other end of the zener, the anode, is connec
zener, the voltage on the cathode of the zener w
going to be close the rated zener voltage. You c
rated zener voltage by varying the value of the rthrough the diode.
Sym
ZENER DIODE 2
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If you look at the curve,
you can see that a
change in current (near
the breakdown voltage)
corresponds to a smallchange in the
breakdown voltage.
This type of circuit is
good for use as a
voltage reference but it
is not very good to
supply regulated
voltage to circuits that
draw a large amount ofcurrent.
CAPASITORA it i l t i d i hi h i t f
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A capacitor is an electronic device which consists of
by an insulator. The capacitor's value (its 'capacitance
plates and the distance between the plates (determinecommonly referred to in microfarads, one millionth o
farad is such a large amount of capacitance that it wo
capacitor works basically as a resistor that is dependi
The capacitor is used to store charge in an electrical cor remove unwanted electrical pulses in a circuit. A c
and discharges much more efficiently (batteries, thou
called electrolytic, meaning that their dielectric is ma
or tantalum foil conductor. A capacitor has a value o
charge with one volt across it.
These capacitors are often used to
stabilize a pulsating direct current. The
capacitors have a defined conducting
direction and are marked positive and/or
negative, (as a battery).
r
nl
A
U
QC
0
)1(
=
==
C = Capacitanc
Q = Electric cha
U = Voltage V
= Permittivity
0 = Permittivit
CAPASITORN l i d fi d it
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Non-polarized fixed capacitor
A non-polarized ("non polar") capacitor is a type of cap
connected either way in a circuit. Ceramic, mica and so
also sometimes hear people call them bipolar capacito
Polarized fixed capacitor
A polarized ("polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor thaone way in a circuit. The positive lead is shown on the s
"+" symbol. The negative lead is generally not shown o
capacitor with a bar or "-" symbol. Polarized capacitors
Note that you really need to pay attention to correctly h
to polarity, as well as not pushing a capacitor past its ra
hard enough, it is possible to begin "electrolyzing" the m
usually have a pressure relief vent to prevent catastroph
eyesight on this).
Termin
Unit table
1pF = 10-12F = 1/1000 000 000 000
1F = 10-6F = 1/1000 000
1mF = 10-3 F = 1/1000
TRANSISTOR
Th t i t ll h 3 t i l Th
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The transistor generally has 3 terminals. The co
terminal is called the base. The other 2 terminal
known as the emitter and the collector and they
virtually all of the current flowing through the tThere are 2 basic configurations of bipolar trans
one is an 'NPN' the other is a 'PNP'. The two are
similar. The biggest difference is the direction ocurrent flow through the collector and emitter.
On an NPN transistor, the base must have a pos
voltage with respect to the emitter.
By varying IB , we can control a large current thIK .The transistor uses a small current to control
larger current, a little like a relay.
The transistor function can also be looked on asdiodes connected together like on the picture to
right. A transistor needs to have a small amount
voltage difference between the base and the emi
The required voltage is usually about 0.6 volts.
TRANSISTOR
Th i t l l h th di ti f th
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The pictures clearly shows the directions of the
-
+
+
TRANSISTOR
The transistor is being used in many different el
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The transistor is being used in many different el
small current to control a larger current, a little l
the transistor, is that it works much faster comp
breaker contacts that can get burned. You can al
ON/OFF). Compared to the relay, the transistor
not as flexible regarding the size
of the control current in relationto the working current.
In order to use a weak signal,
for handling a high working
current, there are often beingused several transistors
connected to each other.
The NPN transistor to the right isused as a switch.
WORK TASKS
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WORK TAN
TEAMW
DEVIDE IN
2-3 PERSONS O
THE LEARNING PYRAMID
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Lectures
Reading
Audio visual (see/h
Demonstration
Discussion group
Learning by doing (pra
Teach others / Immediate use
BREAK
CORRECT PROC
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CORRECT PROC
RECTIFICATION OF EL
THEORY & PRACTICE
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Theory put into
practice
You will be
making practical
lab tasks,
makingelectrical
circuits
combined with
theoreticalcalculations on
different
circuits.
WORK TASKS -INSTRUM
If h l i h i
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If you connect the multimeter to the circu
to the picture on the right, what can be me
How do you hook up an ammeter in a circ
Which value does the instrument show?
If you connect a multimeter to this circuit
be measured?
How do you hook up the voltmeter in the shown to the right?
Which value does the instrument show?
WORK TASKS RESISTAN
Connect according to the figure. Measure t
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g g
Unscrew the bulb. What is the voltage over
What can we learn based on this experienc
WORK TASKS SERIES
Connect according to drawing A, use a 12V
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g g ,
voltage between 0 and 10V. What happens
Connect according to figure B, E = 10V. Hilluminating when using:
Why?
Connect according to figure C, U = 10V. H
illuminating now, and why?
What do we name this kind of circuit and wresistance.
47
WORK TASKS SERIES
Set the input voltage to exactly 12,00
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p g y
Measure and calculate every part voltage a
note in the table below.
Sum up all part voltages and note this on th
table.
U Measured U Calculated
UAD -----
UAB
UBC
UCD
Total: U AB + U BC + U CD =
WORK TASKS PARALLE
U = 10V R1 = 47 R2 = 100 R3 = 47
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Make the connection, and use only the 470does the lamp illuminate?
Add only the 100 resistance. How strong
now?
Now, add on the 47 resistance. How stronilluminating now?
Why?
What do we name this kind of circuit and wthe total resistance.
WORK TASKS PARALLESet input voltage to exact 16,00 V
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Measure and calculate each part current an
note in the table below.Sum up all part currents and note this on th
the table, IR1, IR2 and IR3 .
IMeasured ICalculated
UR
UR1
UR2
UR3
Total: IR1 + IR2 + IR3 =
WORK TASKS POWER
What is the heating effect for the total circu
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Which heating effect is produced by each p
What is the voltage supplied, when the 20 kapprox. 5 mW?
a) What is the resistance when it emits 9supplied 30V to the circuit?
b) Connect the resistance, calculated from
circuit, turn on the power. What happens to
WORK TASKS THERMIC RE
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Measure and fill in the missing values.
Calculate and fill in the resistance of the bu
and the three resistances.
A) Why is there a difference between themeasured and the calculated resistance?
B) Why is it important to understand thisphenomena, and can you come up with
practical examples for this.
WORK TASKS RELAY
Based on what you have learned about induction
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Explain why, on some relays that a diode iconnected in parallel to the relay coil.
Explain the process and what will happenwhen we turn the power on, (activate the
relay) and then off (deactivate the relay).
Connect the multimeter to 85 and 86. Set
the multimeter on Min/Max record, 1ms an
set the range to 4000V (1000V). Connect
and disconnect the power plug(set the powsupply to 12V). Read the Min/Max values
recorded. Explain your findings.
WORK TASKS TRANSIST
NPN transistor as a switch
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Given information:HFE = 100 Iload = 1 A
UKE = 0,5 V UB = 10 V
UBE = 0,5 V
Calculate and fill in the missing values.
URL = ?RL = ?
Ib = ?
RB = ?
PRL = ? (Load effect on RL)
HFE =IK
IB
WORK TASKS TRANSIST
NPN transistor as a regulator
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Estimate a serial resistance between baseand source to protect the transistor.
U source = 10V, Imax (load) = 0,2A
Connect a 12V/0,2A light bulb and use theNPN transistor to adjust/variate the light
intensity on the bulb.
U source = 10V
Use the multimeter and measure the
resistance when there is no illumination.
What is the Max/Min resistance?
WORK TASKS ZENER DI
Connect according to fig. 1 and set the powexactly 4 5V Verify that the buzzer gives a
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exactly 4,5V. Verify that the buzzer gives a
Turn off the power and connect according Set the power to exactly 4,5V. Does the bu
now?
Increase the voltage to 5,5V. Does the buzznow?
Explain the results and your findings from 3.
NOTES
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TRMS
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Course participant
Cut off here
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