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3D silicon detectors
R. L. Bates∗
SUPA School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of GlasgowGlasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
∗E-mail: [email protected]://ppewww.physics.gla.ac.uk/∼batesr/
Significant process in 3D detectors has taken place since Sherwood parker pro-
posed the 3D silicon detector in 1997. The 3D detector was conceived as amethod to overcome the radiation induced reduction in carrier lifetime in heav-ily irradiated silicon detectors via the use of advanced MEMS device fabrica-
tion techniques. This paper reviews the state of the art in 3D detectors. Workperformed within the major fabrication institutes will be discussed, includingmodifications to the original design to reduce complexity and increase deviceyield. Characterization of 3D detectors up to the maximum radiation fluence
expected at the high luminosity LHC operation will be presented. Results fromboth strip and pixel devices will be shown using characterization methods thatinclude 90-Sr betas, focused laser and high-energy pions.
Keywords: silicon detector, 3D detector, radiation hard, pixel detector
1. Introduction
The LHC saw a change in the paradigm in the use of silicon detectors, in
particle physics, from small scale vertex detectors to their use as large area
trackers using both silicon strip and pixel detector assemblies. The predicted
radiation fluence of the LHC experiments drove the development of silicon
sensors that can be operable at fluence levels of 1015 cm−2 1MeV neq, which
was unprecedented at the time of planing the LHC experiments.
Over the next ten years the LHC based experiments will undergo up-
grades to extend their physics reach. For example, the ATLAS exper-
iment will place an additional pixel layer inside the existing pixel sub-
detector at a minimum radius of 31 mm from the interaction point, known
as the Inner B–layer1 (IBL). This will expose the silicon detectors to a
fluence of 3 x 1015 cm−2 1MeV neq. Including necessary safety factors,
the design requires the silicon detectors to be operable at a fluence of
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5 x 1015 cm−2 1MeV neq. In addition the LHC will be upgraded, to the
high luminosity LHC (HL-LHC), to deliver a factor of ten increase in the
integrated luminosity. This will, in turn, increase the radiation field inside
the experiments by the same ratio. As a consequence the silicon pixel de-
tectors will have to survice a fluence up to 1016 cm−2 1MeV neq. Which
is a new radiation tolerance frontier. To this end new operational modes
and device structures are being investigated for silicon detectors. The 3D
detector is such a new device structure.
2. 3D silicon detector design
The 3D detector was first suggested by S. Parker2 as a method to over-
come the radiation induced reduction in the charge carrier mean free
lifetime3,4 which becomes a problem after a radiation fluence of order
1015 cm−2 1MeV neq. At such a high radiation level full charge collection
in planar silicon detector is not expected.
The 3D detector has an array of n- and p-type electrode columns passing
through the silicon substrate rather than being implanted on its surface, as
shown in Fig. 1. These electrodes are realised by a combination of deep re-
active ion etching to realise the holes and low pressure vapour deposition to
fill them with a dopant.5,6 Standard detector technologies are used for sur-
face structures. The design allows the combination of a standard substrate
thickness with a lateral electrode spacing of a few tens of micrometers.
Therefore the depletion and charge collection distances are reduced, with-
out reducing the sensitive thickness of the detector. This implies that the
device is extremely fast, has high charge collection and a low operating
voltage, and therefore low power consumption, even after a high irradiation
dose. The enclosed structure of the unit cell of the 3D detector will also
reduce the amount of charge sharing, which could be advantageous in in-
creasing the signal in a given pixel after heavy irradiation. These features
should make 3D detectors substantially more radiation hard than standard
planar devices.7
2.1. Full 3D sensors
The original 3D detector, known as the full 3D detector, is fabricated using
one sided processing. It requires the sensor wafer to be wafer bonded to
a support wafer and for the electrode holes to be completely filled with
doped polysilicon. Both electrode types are connected together on the top
side of the device as the fabrication is a single sided process. The back side
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Fig. 1. Schematic of a 3D detector.
handeling wafer maybe removed to reduce material. The full 3D detector
allows the addition of an electrode around the full detector matrix that
contains the electric field and allows the detector to be active all the way
to the edge of the device, known as an active edge.8 Full 3D detectors have
been fabricated at both Sintef9,10 and Stanford.5
Sensors that are compatible with the ATLAS FE-I311 front-end pixel
readout chip have been fabricated at Sintef, assembled and tested at
CERN.12 They show good electrical characteristics and full charge collec-
tion. The carrier lifetime in the filled column should be sufficient to collect
significant charge from radiation incident upon the column. However, the
charge collected in this region has been observed, with a fined focused x-ray
beam, to be reduced from that expected. It is believed that the reason is
that during the fabrication process an oxide is formed on the edge of the
column which forms a barrier to carrier collection from the column.13 A
change in the dopant chemistry removing oxygen should reduce the trap-
ping and increase charge collection from inside the column.
2.2. Double-sided 3D sensors
An alternative fabrication process, know as the double-sided 3D detector,
was introduced6,14 to reduce 3D detector fabrication complexity. This uti-
lizes double-sided mask alignment technology which enables the columns of
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one type to be etched from the opposite side of the wafer to the other type,
removing the need for a support wafer. The holes may pass all or part-way
through the sensor wafer. To reduce stress in the wafer the holes are not
completely filled with polysilicon and are therefore not active. The reduced
fabrication complexity has increased the yield of the 3D device. However if
the columns do not penetrate the full thickness of the wafer the sensor per-
formance is sensitive to the penetration depth of the columns which needs
to be well controlled. There is a lower field region in the detector directly
above a column which requires the detector to be over depleted to be fully
active.15
The double-sided 3D detector lacks the active edge, therefore to min-
imise the edge dead region the guard fence structure was developed.16 This
consists of multiple ohmic columns around the active silicon. The ohmic
columns stop the depletion region spreading from the pixel to the cut edge.
With a guard fence ohmic column spacing of 50 µm the cut edge can be
as close as 100 µm from the active silicon without adversely affecting the
device current-voltage characteristics.
3. 3D for CMS
Full 3D pixel sensors compatible with the CMS pixel readout chip have
been fabricated by Sintef.17 The pixel unit cell is 150 µm x 100 µm in
size. Two different device configurations have been investigated: four junc-
tion columns (4E) and two junction columns (2E) per pixel. The distances
between the centers of neighbouring junction and bias columns of the 2E
and 4E sensors are 62.5 µm and 45 µm, respectively, while the diameter of
the columns are 14 µm. The matrix is surrounded by an active edge. The
sensors have been integrated into assemblies and tested.18
The device breakdown takes place at 100 V, well above the full depletion
voltage of less than 40 V. The four electrode device has, as expected, higher
noise than the 2E device due to the higher capacitance load. The noise is
observed to fall at full depletion to between 250 and 300 electrons for the
2E configuration, compared to 100 electrons for a planar device.
From the preliminary beam test studies with 120 GeV protons, a signal
to noise ratio (S/N) of 80 and a signal to threshold ratio (S/T) of 3 have
been obtained for the non-irradiated 285 µm thick 2E detector. This S/T
value is too low for the successful operation in the CMS detector and more
work is being undertaken to lower the threshold value.
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4. ATLAS IBL campaign
The double-sided 3D sensor has been recommended to be used for either
25% or 50% of the sensors in the ATLAS IBL. Both FBK and CNM are
processing the sensors using a mask set that is as common as possible. Pixel
sensors compatible with the ATLAS FE-I419 front-end pixel amplifier chip
have been fabricated and extensively tested both before and after irradia-
tion.20,21 The sensor show a good uniformity over the matrix for threshold,
noise and detection response. A noise performance of 150 electrons at a
threshold of 3200 electrons have been routinely obtained before irradiation.
After an irradiation of 5 x 1015 cm−2 1 MeV neq from reactor neutrons
the module threshold and noise performance is only slightly altered, with a
noise increase of only 5 electrons to 155 electrons, when measured at -15◦C.
The current of the device increased as expected.
Test beam results show good detection efficiency and charge collection
efficiency over the matrix before irradiation with and without a magnet
field.20 After irradiation to 6 x 1015 cm−2 1 MeV neq 3D and planar sensors
coupled to the FE-I4 pixel chip show similar hit detection efficiencies of
approximately 97%. For tracks normal to the device low efficiency regions
are observed around the electrodes. These appear as smeared regions of
reduced efficiency for non-normal track angles.22
5. 3D detector test beam analysis
Many test beams have been performed on 3D detector modules. This paper
concentrates on a test beam performed in a 120 GeV pion beam with CNM
double-sided 3D pixel detectors coupled to the TimePix23 readout chip,
with pixel size of 55 µm x 55 µm. The columns have a diameter of 10 µm,
with a depth of 250 µm in a 285 µm thick substrate. The devices collect holes
with an n-type substrate and p-doped columns connected to the readout
electronics. Using electrical characterisation lateral depletion was measured
at 2 V and full depletion at 10 V. The devices was operated over depleted
at 20 V, where it had a leakage current of 3.8 mA at room temperature.
The 3D detector assembly was placed on a precision x-y-theta stage at
the centre of a beam telescope made from 6 TimePix planar silicon detector
assemblies. The telescope has a pointing resolution for reconstructed tracks
at the device under test of 2.3 ± 0.1 µm.24
The energy collected in the pixel unit cell was reconstructed as a func-
tion of incident position of the pion beam, as shown in Fig. 2. Full charge
collection was observed for regions distant from the columns. Areas at the
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edge of the pixel cell exhibited charge sharing, manifested as a low energy
peak in the pulse height spectra, see Fig. 2d. When the energy deposited
in the neighbouring pixel is combined into a cluster, the cluster shows full
charge collection all the way to the edge of the pixel cell, see Fig. 2e. The
centre of the pixel cell shows full charge collection from the silicon above
the column, that is 35 µm of silicon. The charge collected at the corner
of the pixel is low as the charge collected in the 35 µm of silicon above
the ohmic columns are shared between four pixels and falls below the pixel
threshold. The average detection efficiency of the full pixel was found to
Fig. 2. The pulse height spectra as a function of incident position, obtained from adouble-sided 3D detector fabricated by CNM connected to a TimePix pixel chip andilluminated by a high energy pion beam. The histograms are of the ToT counts in the
central electrode region (a), away from the central electrode and pixel edges (b). Pixelmaps showing the mean energy deposition across the pixel matrix, for a single pixel (c)and the energy in clusters (f). (d) and (e) show the histograms of the energy deposited
at the pixel edges for the single pixel and the clusters.
be 93% for normal incidence due to the low efficiency in the corners of the
pixel unit cell. As the angle of incidence was increase to 10 degrees the
detection efficiency increased to 99.8 ± 0.5% across the pixel matrix. At
an angle of 10 degrees the track traverses a full pixel within the thickness
of the sensors. This is also the angle at which the best spatial resolution
of 9.18 ± 0.1µm24 is obtained. At normal incidence the spatial resolution
is 15.8 ± 0.1µm which is in agreement with the binary resolution of the
pixel of pitch 55 µm. This is due to the low charge sharing present in the
3D detector structure. More details of the test beam analysis can be found
in.25
6. Charge collection in 3D detectors
Short 285 µm thick 3D double-sided strip sensors have been fabricated to
study charge collection after heavy irradiation. The short strip device has
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an 80 µm pitch between columns of the same type, strips of pitch 80 µm and
4 mm strip length. They were irradiated up to a fluence of 2 x 1016 cm−2
1 MeV neq. They were tested with a 90-Sr source and readout with the
LHC speed analogue front-end Beetle chip26 integrated into the Alibava
data acquisition system.27 The detectors were cooled to -13.4 ◦C. For a full
description see.28
The results of the charge collections as a function of fluence for the de-
vice biased to 150 V in shown in Fig. 3. The 3D detectors give full charge
collection up to a fluence of 1015 cm−2 1 MeV neq. The collected charge
falls to 47% of the expected charge deposition after a fluence of 1016 cm−2
1 MeV neq. The noise remains constant as a function of fluence and there-
fore the signal-to-noise ratio as a function of fluence follows the collected
charge curve. The collected charge in the 3D detector is well modelled by
TCAD simulation without any high field effects being required. The col-
lected charge is more than that observed in a 300 µm thick planar device
operated at a bias voltage of 1000 V, which collected 30% of the expected
deposited charge after a fluence of 1016 cm−2 1 MeV neq. The larger col-
lected charge in the 3D detector is due to the higher electric fields inside
the 3D sensor and the shorter collection distances compared to the planar
devices.
0 2 4 6 8 10 120
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
Col
lect
ed c
harg
e (e
lect
rons
)
Fluence (1015 1 MeV neq cm-2)
Fig. 3. The collected charge as a func-tion of fluence for a 285 µm thick 3Dsensor operated at 150 V (open circles)and a 300 µm thick planar sensor oper-ated at 1000 V (closed diamonds).
0 5 10 15 200
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
0
10
20
30
40
50
Col
lect
ed C
harg
e (e
lect
rons
)
Fluence / 1015 (1MeV neq cm-2)
Sig
nal t
o no
ise
ratio
Fig. 4. The collected charge as a func-tion of fluence for the 3D sensor oper-ated at 250–350 V (open circles) and theplanar sensor operated at 1000 V (opensquares). The 3D sensor’s S/N is shown(closed diamonds).
The collected charge in the 3D detector increases greatly with a increase
in bias voltage.28 This is shown in Fig. 4 for bias voltages up to 350 V.
The increase in charge is due to charge multiplication, which is evident for
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devices irradiated to less than 2 x 1015 cm−2 1 MeV neq. The multiplication
is believed to be due to impact ionisation which take place in the high field
regions around the electrodes which extend through the device thickness.
At these higher bias voltages a charge of 50% of that expected is collected
after a fluence of 2 x 1016 cm−2 1 MeV neq. The charge multiplication also
leads to increased noise at the highest bias voltages and therefore lower
S/N than expected, see Fig. 4.
The Sr-90 measurements described above probe the average response
of the detector, allowing the absolute charge collection efficiency and sig-
nal to noise ratios to be extracted. To probe the relative charge collection
efficiency as a function of position in a unit cell of the device a focused
laser system is employed. A 4 µm diameter focused infrared laser spot is
raster scanned in 2 µm steps across the front surface of the sensor.29 As
the absorption depth of the 974 nm wavelength light in silicon is about
100 µm the charge collection process in the upper portion of the detector
is investigated preferentially.
Laser scans on un-irradiated sensors show a uniform collection of charge
outside of the electrode regions. In contrast to this large areas of non-
uniformity can be seen in the unit pixel of irradiated sensors. Fig. 5 shows
the charge collected when the laser is scanned across a part of the unit cell
illustrated. The sensor was irradiated to 2 x 1015 cm−2 1 MeV neq) and
biased at 260 V. Less charge is collected in regions of low field between
columns of the same doping type and an enhanced signal in the region
of high field between columns of opposite doping is observed. A higher
field region will result in faster charge collection and less time for charge
trapping resulting in greater charge collection. The relative signal from
these regions was investigated for increasing bias voltage. The shape of
the signal as a function of bias voltage was the same for all regions with a
difference between the high and low field regions of about 30%. Below 150V
an increasing voltage leads to an increase in the volume of depletion region
throughout the device and therefore an increase in the charge collected in
both regions. However, the increase in charge collection is modest. When
the voltage is increased from 150 V to 260 V the charge collection increases
dramatically to be over twice that collected at 150 V. This is due to charge
multiplication effects as mentioned above.
7. Conclusions
3D silicon detectors are now well developed. The full 3D and the double-
sided 3D detector can both be fabricated in industry. The double-sided
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Fig. 5. Left: Diagram of the 3D strip detector under test with the scanned area showedas a dashed square. Three areas of differing electric field magnitude are labelled. Right:The response of the 3D detector biased to 260 V to collimated laser light after a fluence
of 2 x 1015 cm−2 1 MeV neq.
device to date has a better yield due to the less demanding processing tech-
nology. The double-sided 3D detector has been chosen as a sensor solution
for the first upgrade to the ATLAS silicon system; namely the IBL.
Precision scans of the pixel have been preformed in high energy test
beams. The charge deposition in a unit cell has been mapped and full
charge collection is observed in the majority of the cell outwith the elec-
trode columns. High detection efficiency across the 3D pixel matrix at zero
degree beam incident angle has been observed. This increases to 100% at
an angle of incidence of 10 degrees where charge is never deposited only
in the electrodes. The charge sharing has been shown to be less than for a
planar device resulting in lower spatial resolution (consistent with binary
readout) however, this might result in more charge being collected in the
hit pixel after irradiation.
90-Sr source test shows higher charge collected in the 3D detector com-
pered to the planar device. After an irradiation dose of 1016 cm−2 1 MeV neq
a 3D detector operated at a modest bias voltage of 150 V collected charge of
47% of the deposited charge compared to 30% in the planar device operated
at 1000 V. At higher bias voltages, (typically 300 V), charge multiplication
was observed in the 3D irradiated device. Spatially resolved laser scanning
showed a uniform response across the unit cell outside the column region
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for an un-irradiated sensor when operated above full depletion. After heavy
irradiation the response was non-uniform with an area of enhanced signal
in the region of high field between columns of opposite doping.
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