8/11/2019 1 Concepts in Teaching Forensic Anthropology
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Concepts in Teaching Forensic Anthropology
Author(s): M. Yaar IcanSource: Medical Anthropology Newsletter, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Nov., 1981), pp. 10-12Published by: American Anthropological AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/648007.
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DISSERTATIONSNPROGRESS: ing, human (1979:ix).
Similarly, in a brochure
explaining
functions anl procedures of the American Board of Forensic
A CALL OR APERS
Anthropology, forensic anthropology is defined as the
study and practice of the application of the methods
of
Again this year the student members of the Medical physical anthropology to the process
of the law.
Both
Sociology Section Council of the American Sociological definitions, however,
are narrow in the sense that they fail
to
Association are organizing an evening session, Dissertations
incorporate the concepts and methods of other
subdis-
in Progress, to be held at the Annual Meeting in September ciplines of anthropology, especially archeology; yet, in
a
1982 in San Francisco. Graduate students in medical sociol- forensic sense, archeological
techniques may be the most
ap-
ogy, medical anthropology, public health, or nursing are in- propriate for the investigation of an outdoor crime scene
vited to deliver a 15-minute talk on the substantive
content (Morse, Crusoe, and Smith
1976).
of their dissertations and on an issue involved in the disser- In addition, forensic anthropology is far from being
solely
tation process (e.g., negotiating with gatekeepers, emergent a field of human
skeletal identification, as the former
defini-
ethical problems, dealing with advisors, funding). The
tion seems to imply. Rather, it is best conceptualized
more
dissertation
need not be completed; works in the planning broadly as a field of forensic assessment of human
remains
stage are acceptable. Papers will be assessed on the basis of and their environments.
This assessment includes not
only
topical interest and research design. Contributions are the identification
process (e.g., of age, sex, race,
and
solicited
from graduate students who will have received their stature) but also the determination of cause and manner
of
degrees no earlier than December 1981. death. Reconstruction of an ante-mortem
biological
biog-
Contributions should include a paper on the substantive raphy, including attempted
reconstruction of a victim's
way
issues of the dissertation and the particular process
issues to of life up to the time of death, is also a part of the
assess-
be discussed, and carry the contributor's name, year of ment. This modified definition also places forensic
anthro-
study, departmental affiliation, and address. Papers must pology alongside the other forensic
disciplines, on
equal
be submitted in duplicate, one copy each to the following: footing, in terms of its achievement, with forensic pathol-
Robe rta Lessor, Department of Social and Behavioral
ogy. This last statement is particularly significant
because
Sciences, N-631Y, University of California, San Francisco, before the formal organization of forensic anthropology,
the
CA 94143 (415/666-3407); and Barbara Altman, Sociology forensic pathologists
played the most authoratative role
in
Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
the entire forensic profession, a role still justified
because
20742 (301/454-5036).
most of the medical examiners are also professionals
trained
in pathology.
A short history of forensic anthropology may be useful
in
CONCEPTSNTEACHING order to understand
the processes the subdiscipline has
gone
through to reach its current level of sophistication.
Accord-
FORENSICNTHROPOLOGY* ing to Stewart (1979)
the field started in 1878 with
a
publication
by Thomas Dwight on the use of skeletal re-
by M. Ya,ar Ican (Dept. of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic mains
in
medicolegal
practice. From that date until
about
University) 1970, research on human skeletons increased but
the
number of practitioners remained marginally small. Among
In the last
10 years, a new subdiscipline of anthropology the most active anthropologists in these earlier periods
were
has received increasing attention from anthropologists and W. M. Krogman
(in the 1930s and 1940s), T. D. Stewart
(in
various nonacademic agencies such as law enforcement
and the 1940s and 1950s), and J.L. Angel (in the 1960s), all
of
jurisprudence. This new subspecialty, now called forensic whom are widely known in the forensic
and law enforcement
anthropology, is a multidisciplinary field combining
field.
physical anthropology, archeology, and other
fields of an- Although the number of practicing anthropologists
was
thropology
with the forensic sciences, including forensic few during the pre-1970 era, it was the most scientifically
ac-
dentistry, pathology, and criminalistics. Since many of the tive time, a developmental period
in which sound
osteolog-
principal practitioners of this new subdiscipline are or will ical techniques and methods were devised and tested.
These
be anthropologically trained, it is timely to think about
how achievements may be attributed, first, to two major
wars
a course in forensic anthropology
can be most appropriately (World War II and the Korean War), and second,
to
structured and taught. The purpose of this paper, therefore, assemblage of several large skeletal series with known
in-
is to introduce essential concepts that can be used in teach- dividual identity (i.e., the Terry and Todd Collections).
ing a course in forensic anthropology. These
two major but unrelated events led physical
anthro-
In his recent book, T. Dale Stewart defines forensic
an- pologists to refine the techniques used in estimating
age
thropology as that branch of physical anthropology which, (McKern and Stewart 1957; Stewart and Trotter
1954),
for forensic purposes, deals with the identification of more determining
sex, assessing race, and approximating
stature
or less skeletonized remains known to be, or suspected of be- (Trotter 1970). The results
of these and many other
studies
were immediately utilized by forensic pathologists
in their
Dr.
I5can is an assistant professor of anthropology at Florida Atlantic University,
practice
and incorporated into reference
books.
Boca Raton, Florida 33431. He is also Associate Medical Examiner for the Medical Ex. A few anthropologists sensed the need to demonstrate
the
aminer's Office,
west
Palm Beach, Florida. The author wishes to thank Dr. walda value of the anthropological perspective to other
forensic
Ican for her editorial assistance, and Dr. Harry F. Todd, Jr., for his
constructive
criticisms
and comments.
specialists,
law enforcement agents, and criminal
lawyers,
10
DISSERTATIONSNPROGRESS: ing, human (1979:ix).
Similarly, in a brochure
explaining
functions anl procedures of the American Board of Forensic
A CALL OR APERS
Anthropology, forensic anthropology is defined as the
study and practice of the application of the methods
of
Again this year the student members of the Medical physical anthropology to the process
of the law.
Both
Sociology Section Council of the American Sociological definitions, however,
are narrow in the sense that they fail
to
Association are organizing an evening session, Dissertations
incorporate the concepts and methods of other
subdis-
in Progress, to be held at the Annual Meeting in September ciplines of anthropology, especially archeology; yet, in
a
1982 in San Francisco. Graduate students in medical sociol- forensic sense, archeological
techniques may be the most
ap-
ogy, medical anthropology, public health, or nursing are in- propriate for the investigation of an outdoor crime scene
vited to deliver a 15-minute talk on the substantive
content (Morse, Crusoe, and Smith
1976).
of their dissertations and on an issue involved in the disser- In addition, forensic anthropology is far from being
solely
tation process (e.g., negotiating with gatekeepers, emergent a field of human
skeletal identification, as the former
defini-
ethical problems, dealing with advisors, funding). The
tion seems to imply. Rather, it is best conceptualized
more
dissertation
need not be completed; works in the planning broadly as a field of forensic assessment of human
remains
stage are acceptable. Papers will be assessed on the basis of and their environments.
This assessment includes not
only
topical interest and research design. Contributions are the identification
process (e.g., of age, sex, race,
and
solicited
from graduate students who will have received their stature) but also the determination of cause and manner
of
degrees no earlier than December 1981. death. Reconstruction of an ante-mortem
biological
biog-
Contributions should include a paper on the substantive raphy, including attempted
reconstruction of a victim's
way
issues of the dissertation and the particular process
issues to of life up to the time of death, is also a part of the
assess-
be discussed, and carry the contributor's name, year of ment. This modified definition also places forensic
anthro-
study, departmental affiliation, and address. Papers must pology alongside the other forensic
disciplines, on
equal
be submitted in duplicate, one copy each to the following: footing, in terms of its achievement, with forensic pathol-
Robe rta Lessor, Department of Social and Behavioral
ogy. This last statement is particularly significant
because
Sciences, N-631Y, University of California, San Francisco, before the formal organization of forensic anthropology,
the
CA 94143 (415/666-3407); and Barbara Altman, Sociology forensic pathologists
played the most authoratative role
in
Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
the entire forensic profession, a role still justified
because
20742 (301/454-5036).
most of the medical examiners are also professionals
trained
in pathology.
A short history of forensic anthropology may be useful
in
CONCEPTSNTEACHING order to understand
the processes the subdiscipline has
gone
through to reach its current level of sophistication.
Accord-
FORENSICNTHROPOLOGY* ing to Stewart (1979)
the field started in 1878 with
a
publication
by Thomas Dwight on the use of skeletal re-
by M. Ya,ar Ican (Dept. of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic mains
in
medicolegal
practice. From that date until
about
University) 1970, research on human skeletons increased but
the
number of practitioners remained marginally small. Among
In the last
10 years, a new subdiscipline of anthropology the most active anthropologists in these earlier periods
were
has received increasing attention from anthropologists and W. M. Krogman
(in the 1930s and 1940s), T. D. Stewart
(in
various nonacademic agencies such as law enforcement
and the 1940s and 1950s), and J.L. Angel (in the 1960s), all
of
jurisprudence. This new subspecialty, now called forensic whom are widely known in the forensic
and law enforcement
anthropology, is a multidisciplinary field combining
field.
physical anthropology, archeology, and other
fields of an- Although the number of practicing anthropologists
was
thropology
with the forensic sciences, including forensic few during the pre-1970 era, it was the most scientifically
ac-
dentistry, pathology, and criminalistics. Since many of the tive time, a developmental period
in which sound
osteolog-
principal practitioners of this new subdiscipline are or will ical techniques and methods were devised and tested.
These
be anthropologically trained, it is timely to think about
how achievements may be attributed, first, to two major
wars
a course in forensic anthropology
can be most appropriately (World War II and the Korean War), and second,
to
structured and taught. The purpose of this paper, therefore, assemblage of several large skeletal series with known
in-
is to introduce essential concepts that can be used in teach- dividual identity (i.e., the Terry and Todd Collections).
ing a course in forensic anthropology. These
two major but unrelated events led physical
anthro-
In his recent book, T. Dale Stewart defines forensic
an- pologists to refine the techniques used in estimating
age
thropology as that branch of physical anthropology which, (McKern and Stewart 1957; Stewart and Trotter
1954),
for forensic purposes, deals with the identification of more determining
sex, assessing race, and approximating
stature
or less skeletonized remains known to be, or suspected of be- (Trotter 1970). The results
of these and many other
studies
were immediately utilized by forensic pathologists
in their
Dr.
I5can is an assistant professor of anthropology at Florida Atlantic University,
practice
and incorporated into reference
books.
Boca Raton, Florida 33431. He is also Associate Medical Examiner for the Medical Ex. A few anthropologists sensed the need to demonstrate
the
aminer's Office,
west
Palm Beach, Florida. The author wishes to thank Dr. walda value of the anthropological perspective to other
forensic
Ican for her editorial assistance, and Dr. Harry F. Todd, Jr., for his
constructive
criticisms
and comments.
specialists,
law enforcement agents, and criminal
lawyers,
10
8/11/2019 1 Concepts in Teaching Forensic Anthropology
3/4
and
began
to
publish
review articles in
nonanthropological
periodicals-in
law
enforcement
journals
(Krogman
1939),
criminal law
journals
(Brues
1958),
and
in
general
forensic
science
books
(Stewart 1968).
The
general
theme in
these
publications
by
anthropologists
was
simply
what
nonanthro-
pologically
trained
specialists
could learn from
a
skeleton.
The
writings
of
the
post-1970 period,
on the other
hand,
emphasized
an almost
completely opposite
theme,
that
is,
what
anthropologists
can
tell
specialists
from
analyzing
a
skeleton. Thus, the transition from one period to another
was
from
one
of
being
an
advisor to one of
being
an
authori-
ty.
The
year
1971
signified
this
change
in role
due to
the
establishment of forensic
anthropology
as a branch of
the
American
Academy
of
Forensic
Sciences,
an action that
led
to forensic
anthropologists becoming
an
integral
part
of
forensic
investigation
teams. Forensic
anthropologists
in-
creasingly
came to be included as
part
of
forensic teams
for
various
mass disasters
(e.g.,
C.
C. Snow
in
the
1979
DC-10
disaster
and M.
Charney
in
the 1976
Big
Thompson
Flood),
mass
murders
(e.g.,
C.
P. Warren in the
Gacy
Case),
and an
assassination case
(E.
R.
Kerley
and
C. C. Snow
in
a recent
reinvestigation
of the
1963 assassination of
John
F.
Kennedy).
As the
teaching
of
detailed
gross
anatomy
courses
in
medical
schools
has declined
and
emphasis
on
skeletal
struc-
tures
has
diminished,
and as
anthropologists
have
refined
their
forensic
techniques, pathologists,
dentists,
criminal
lawyers,
and law
enforcement officers
have
increasingly
called
upon
anthropologists
to
provide
this kind
of
training.
Now,
it
has
become
almost
mandatory
for
a
prosecuting
or
defense
attorney
to call
on an
anthropologist
for
his
expert
opinion
in
court when
the
investigation
was handled
by
an
anthropologist
or when
the case
involved
skeletonized re-
mains.
The
American Board
of
Forensic
Anthropology
was
es-
tablished
in
1977 to control the
quality
of
practicing
an-
thropologists,
to
provide
assistance to the
judicial
system,
and to
encourage
research
in
forensic
anthropology.
To
be
certified
by
this
board,
candidates
must meet
certain re-
quirements, among
them,
a doctoral
degree
in
physical
an-
thropology,
an
examination,
and
professional experience
or
postdoctoral
training.
The
courts,
however,
have
yet
to
establish
strict criteria for
selecting
their
expert
witnesses
and
hence often
fail
to
recognize
the
soundness
of
the foren-
sic
anthropologist's
training,
and
have
yet
to
capitalize fully
on
this
training.
It is
perhaps
for this
very
reason that
the
number
of
anthropologists assisting
medical
examiners
and
law
enforcement
agencies
is
probably
equal
to,
if
not
greater
than,
those who
meet the
board
requirements.
It would be helpful at this point to define the function of
forensic
anthropology.
Two main
issues form the
essence of
a
forensic skeletal
investigation
(I4can
1980).
The first is
when a
forensic
anthropologist
identifies
the
general
biology
of the
victim.
This
procedure
simply
classifies an
unknown
individual as a member of a
population
with a
specific
sex,
age,
race,
and
stature. Most
anthropological
efforts
are
spent
trying
the
techniques
for
determining
these four
aspects.
As
Kerley (1978)
has
noted,
our
ability
to
detect
these
biological
characteristics at the
population
level has
been
fairly
reliable.
Today,
however,
practically
every
forensic
specialist (e.g.,
dentists
and
pathologists),
and
some
crime scene
investigators
and
law
enforcement
officers have
been
exposed
to
forensic
anthropology
in
their formal or
continuing
education and
are
capable
of
estimating
the
above
mentioned
biological
characteristics.
Therefore,
the
improvement
in
the
profession
of forensic
anthropology
has
not been due
only
to the
ability
to
estimate
the
general
biology
of a
specific
individual.
It
is,
rather,
the
second
aspect
of forensic
anthropology-
assessment of individual biology--that has made the field a
successful forensic
science. The
assessment
of the life
history
and
the
determination of the
individuality
of a
skeleton in-
volve
an
in-depth
understanding
of
skeletal
biology,
related
anomalies,
pathology,
health,
and
disease
status;
these
establish
an
ante-mortem
skeletal
biography.
The
added
ability
to detect
handedness,
estimate
the
possible
occupa-
tion,
and
perform
a
facial
reconstruction
from the
skul
enables the
forensic
anthropologist
to relate
the
post-
mortem
condition to
the
living
morphology
of the
victim.
Precise
detection of
pathology
and trauma
from the
bones,
whether
it be
ante-mortem or
post-mortem, may
aid the
legal
authorities in
understanding
both
cause of
death and
how
death occurred.
In
short,
an
understanding
of the
variation in a single skeleton as well as skeletons of a larger
sample
is essential
to forensic
anthropologists.
Furthermore,
once the
skeletal
biography
is
assessed,
positive
identifica-
tion
of the
victim
may
become easier.
This is
especially
true
when
dental
evidence is not
available,
and
the
skeletal
data
(e.g.,
disease,
anomaly,
trauma,
and
the
like)
may
be the
only
data
available for
determining
whether
the characteris-
tics of the
remains
match
those of
persons
reported
to
be
missing.
The
role
of
archeology
in
the
above
two
issues
falls
into
the
assessment
of
individuality.
Archeological
techniques
try
to
establish
environmental
conditions at the
time
o
death.
The
nature of
the
body
(buried,
on
the
surface,
and
direction
buried),
prevailing
climate,
terrain,
physical
re
mains,
and
macroorganismal
and
microorganismal
ac
tivities are
all
archeological
techniques. They
determine
when
and
how
the
victim
died
and
what
post-mortem
changes
occurred
to the
body.
Another
aspect
of the
discipline
is that
physical
anthropo-
logical
and
archeological
techniques
are
being
tested for the
first
time in
history.
Although
such a
test
may
improve
our
ability
to
understand
prehistoric
people's
biology
and
behavior,
the
immediate
implication
of
this test
is
that in
correct
identification
could
affect
both
the
adequacy
and
reliability
of
anthropological
techniques
and
also
assess
the
educational
training
of
the
practicing
anthropologists.
A
the other
extreme,
a
wrong
interpretation
of
biological
characteristics could
present considerable problems for the
legal
system.
For
example,
if
the
sex
of a
victim
is de-
termined
incorrectly,
the
law
enforcement
officer
will
face
the
insoluble
problem
of
trying
to
determine the
identity
of
someone
who
never
existed.
Once
these
concepts
are
understood,
teaching
a
forensic
anthropology
course could
be a
real
challenge.
If
a
course i
being
offered at the
undergraduate
level,
one must
make the
assumption
that
the
student will
come
from
several
aca-
demic
departments
including
law,
criminal
justice,
criminalistics,
anthropology,
and
premedical
programs.
Ex
11
8/11/2019 1 Concepts in Teaching Forensic Anthropology
4/4
cept
for
the
anthropology
student,
few
other
students
will
have been
exposed
to
anthropology,
or their
exposure
will
have been
limited,
at
best,
to a
survey
course.
Areas such
as
osteology, osteopathology
and
trauma,
genetics,
growth,
skeletal
anomalies,
osteometry,
and,
of
course,
archeolog-
ical
techniques
will be areas
in
which
many
of
these
students
will be
deficient.
Obviously,
no
one-semester course could
possibly
cover all of these
teaching
areas
in
depth,
any
more
than
any
one such
course
could
produce
a
forensic anthro-
pologist.
The
compromise
course that is outlined
below,
however,
covers
the essential areas
within
forensic anthro-
pology.
It
is
intended as
a
broad
introduction
to the issues
and
concepts
in
the field for a
wide-ranging
student
au-
dience,
and can
be
taught
in
one semester.
The
syllabus
for
such an
introductory
course
is the
following:
1.
History
and nature
of
forensic sciences.
Reading Assignments:
Eckert
1980;
Myers
and
Brit-
tain
1968.
2.
History
of forensic
anthropology.
Reading Assignments:
Stewart 1979.
3.
Archeological
techniques.
Reading Assignments:
Brothwell
1972;
Hester, Heizer,
and
Graham
1975;
Morse, Crusoe,
and
Smith
1976.
4. Human osteology.
Reading
Assignments:
Bass 1971
5.
Osteometry.
Reading
Assignments:
Bass 1971
6.
Sex determination.
Reading Assignments:
Bass
1971;
Giles
1970;
Krogman
1962;
Stewart 1979.
7. Race determination.
Reading
Assignments:
Howells
1970;
Krogman
1962;
Stewart 1979.
8.
Estimation
of
age.
Reading
Assignments:
Bass
1971;
Kerley
1970;
Krogman
1962;
McKern
1970;
Stewart
1979.
9.
Body
size and stature.
Reading Assignments:
Bass 1971; Steele 1970; Stewart
1979;
Trotter 1970.
10.
Human
handedness.
Reading Assignments:
Stewart 1979.
11. Burned
bodies.
Reading
Assignments:
Stewart
1979.
12.
Facial
reconstruction,
photograph,
radiograph
and
skull
superimposition.
Reading
Assignments:
Krogman
1962;
Stewart
1979.
13.
Skeletal
pathology
and
trauma.
Reading
Assignments.
Brothwell
1972;
Steinbock
1976.
14.
Expert
witness.
Reading
Assignments:
Philipps
1977;
Stewart
1979.
Additional
primary
source
material could
be
added,
of
course,
to increase the
depth
and breadth of
coverage
within
the course.
In
addition,
challenging
experiments
can
be
ad-
ded.
For
instance,
the instructor could
bury
a human
skeleton and artifacts such as
buttons, shoes,
and
bullets or
other
weapons.
The
uncovered
remains could
be
analyzed
by
the students.
Many
forensic
anthropology
laboratories
have
donated
forensic
cases,
one or more of which could
be
presented
to
students
for an
identification.
In
summary,
forensic
anthropology
has
been a
recently
recognized discipline
of
anthropology.
The
practitioners
of
the field are
mostly
university-
or
museum-based
anthropol-
ogists.
The
subject
is
challenging
since there is
no
room
for
error in
determining
individual
characteristics.
It
is
a
science
of
precision
and
responsibility.
It
is
expected
that
employment opportunities
for
forensic
anthropologists
will
increase
in
time
once
techniques
are
perfected
for determin-
ing
the
characteristics
of
individual
biology,
once
anthropol-
ogists
are
able
to
provide
more accurate
information to the
legal
authorities.
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