7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
1/49
Leadership Styles, Skills, and Standards
In Response to:
The request by the Lancaster Lebanon IU 13 to provide a synthesis of the extant
literature on effective leadership characteristics as a resource to inform their
development of a new evaluation system for their administrative and supervisory
staff.
Helen C. Sobehart, D. A.
Faculty & Director of the Duquesne University Leadership Institute
and Interdisciplinary Doctoral Program for Educational Leaders
Beth A. Whipple, B. A.
Graduate Assistant for the Duquesne University Leadership Institute
June 2001
-1-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
2/49
Leadership Styles, Skills, and Standards
In order to evaluate effective leaders, one must design an evaluation system built upon the
foundation of the existing research on effective leadership characteristics. As part of its long range
planning, the Lancaster Lebanon Intermediate Unit has adopted a goal of revising the Middle
Management performance appraisal instrument to provide an adequate evaluation system for
recognizing employee's unique talents, strengths, and accomplishments. To assist in developing a
new evaluation system for its administrative and supervisory staff, the Leadership Institute has
conducted an extensive review of the literature on the leadership and management characteristics
associated with effective administrative and supervisory behaviors. The literature review identified
several different factors that are associated with effective leaders. This report provides an overview
of the findings of the literature review, discusses these important factors, and offers suggestions for
the development of the evaluation system.
Overview of Leadership Research
Many researchers have studied leadership from different perspectives and have found
various characteristics associated with effective leadership. The leadership research has taken three
main approaches: 1) Trait Approach (Style), 2) Behavior Approach (Skill), and 3) Situational
Approach (Role Competency). Each approach has played a major role in the history of leadership
research and an overview of their findings is essential in defining the characteristics of an effective
leader.
Trait Approach (Style)
In the 1940's and 1950's, the trait approach was often utilized to determine what were
the unique traits or characteristics of leaders. Most studies focused on variables such as
physical characteristics, personality characteristics, and intelligence. Stogdill (1948)
-2-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
3/49
reviewed over a hundred of these leadership studies completed between 1904 and 1947 and
found that most of the traits associated with leadership fell into five categories:
Capacity: intelligence, alertness, verbal facility, originality, judgement Achievement: scholarship, knowledge, athletic accomplishments Responsibility: dependability, initiative, persistence, aggressiveness, self-
confidence, desire to excel
Participation: activity, sociability, cooperation,adaptability, humor Status: socioeconomic position, popularity
Although Stogdill identified these characteristics, he stated that possession of these
characteristics does not guarantee the person will be an effective leader (Stogdill, 1948).
Recent trait studies have acknowledged that if a leader possesses some of these
characteristics, the likelihood that he / she will be an effective leader will be increased
(Yukl, 1998). The recent research has suggested that there are two types of traits associated
with effective leadership: 1) Personality and 2) Motivation.
Personality traits
Personality traits are relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular
way (Yukl, 1998). Several different personality traits have been found to be
associated with effective leaders.
Self-confidenceSelf-confidence is one personality trait that is often found in
effective leaders (Bass, 1990; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Goertz, 2000;
Stogdill, 1948; Stogdill, 1974). A leader's self-confidence motivates
them to undertake grave responsibilities, deal with stressful situations,
and generate confidence in others (Locke, 1991). By building self-
confidence in others, leaders are able to encourage others that they
-3-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
4/49
can perform their jobs successfully and can contribute to achieving
the vision of the organization (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Without self-
confidence, a leader cannot be sure of what decisions to make and
cannot develop confidence in others which are crucial to
organizations (Locke, 1991).
Emotional maturityAnother personality trait associated with effective leaders is
emotional maturity, which entails characteristics such as accurate
awareness of their strengths and weaknesses and not ashamed to
admit their shortcomings (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). Emotionally mature
leaders can also maintain cooperative relationships with others (Hoy
& Miskel, 2001).
IntegrityEffective leaders also possess integrity in which they are
dependable, trustworthy, and reliable in carrying out their
responsibilities. (Bass, 1990; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kotter, 1988;
Kouzes & Posner, 1995; Stogdill, 1948). These qualities are the key
to developing trusting relationships between leaders and followers
and obtaining cooperation and support from others (Kouzes & Posner,
1995; Yukl, 1998). Leaders gain trust by being predictable, consistent,
and persistent (Bennis & Nanus, 1985).
-4-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
5/49
Motivational traits
Effective leaders are often characterized by motivational traits which initiate
work related behavior (Hoy & Miskel, 2001).
Desire for achievementLeaders are motivated by their desire for achievement of some
goal or task (Bass, 1990; Goertz, 2000; Mumford, O'Connor, Clifton,
Connelly, and Zaccaro, 1991; Stogdill, 1974; Yukl, 1989). Effective
leaders enjoy challenging activities and are motivated to follow
through with assignments and projects to improve the organization
(Locke, 1991).
Willingness to assume responsibilityLeaders have a willingness to assume responsibility for their
position and carry out their role (Locke, 1991).
A concern for peopleA concern for people also motivates effective leaders (Hoy &
Miskel, 2001). Leaders are motivated to meet the needs of others and
use that motivation to complete required work (Hoy & Miskel, 2001).
As evidenced by the research, effective leadership is associated with various traits
that can be grouped into personality and motivation. It is important to keep in mind that
although a combination of traits may be found in effective leaders, the research suggests that
no single trait guarantees that a leader will be effective (Yukl, 1989).
Although certain characteristics are associated with effective leadership, leaders
exhibit these characteristics in different degrees. In order to evaluate effective leadership,
-5-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
6/49
one must consider leadership style because leaders may possess various leadership styles
and be effective in different ways. For example, the Gallup Organization Leadership
Perceiver Assessment suggests that the following twelve leadership styles exist:
Commitment: has an immense capacity for being completelydedicated to a career or mission; sees their life as
dedicated to the encouragement and development
of staff members and students
Concept: has a set of ideas with which they explain howthey manage their organizations; knows and can
describe their own management style; sets
performance objectives; has ways to measure their
own progress
Ego Drive: wants to define themselves as a significantperson;willing to claim their role as a leader and example
to others and take the risk of putting themselves
forth as an example to peers and staff
Achiever: has an inner drive which continuously propelsthem to make things happen and get things done;has more energy than other people; when they
are working with other people, they generally get
more work done than others
Developer: receives satisfaction out of facilitating thegrowth ofstaff members with whom they work; can multiply
their impact through the efforts of their staff; knows
that the more their staff members grow, the more
likely the students will grow
Individualized: attuned to individual differences of theirstaffmembers; comfortable in knowing that each staff
member is unique and needs something different
Relator: has care and concern for their staff members;
-6-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
7/49
makes it a point to be close to staff members by
getting to know them
Stimulator: creates positivity, excitement, and good feelingsin teaching environment; has an instinct for
knowing how to make other people feel good
Team: enjoys getting people to work together toachieve their goals; has discovered that they
have the capacity for getting people to be more
productive by working together
Arranger: knows how to set things up and make themwork; can systematize people within an
environment so the people can be successful;
flexible and keeps changing their "plays" in
order to achieve their goals
Command: can be in charge and make things happen; hascourage to ask for action; is persuasive and if
necessary, will get tough with people in order to
do what must be done
Discipline: structures their life and brings structure to livesof people with whom they work with; has an
order in their life; can be depended upon to do
what they say they will do
Behavior Approach (Skill)
The behavior approach focuses on the leader's behaviors or skills such as the manner
in which they solve problems and how they communicate with others (Yukl, 1989). The
early research on behaviors associated with leadership mainly focused on two dimensions:
initiating structure and consideration (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). Initiating structure involves
delineating the relationship between the leader and other members and establishing well
defined patterns of organization, channels of communication, and methods of procedure
-7-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
8/49
(Halpin, 1966). Consideration consists of friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth in the
relationship between the leader and others (Halpin, 1966). Studies have suggested that
effective leaders have high ratings of both initiating structure and consideration and are able
to fulfill their job responsibilities and develop effective relationships with others (Hoy &
Miskel, 2001). Although these two dimensions may play a role in leadership, there are other
types of behaviors that have an impact on leader effectiveness.
Task-oriented behaviors
Task-oriented behaviors involve activities such as clarifying roles, planning
and organizing operations, and monitoring organizational functions (Yukl, 1998). To
engage in these actions, leaders must accomplish tasks, use resources efficiently, and
make improvements (Yukl, 1998).
Technical skillsLeaders have technical skills to deal with the specialized
knowledge, procedures, and techniques associated with their job
responsibilities (Yukl, 1998).
Administrative skillsLeaders have administrative skills to manage activities such
as planning, mentoring, delegating, supervising, and handling
meetings (Hoy & Miskel, 2001).
Proactive behavior
Effective leaders often engage in behaviors that lead to
productive change instead of waiting for things to happen and react to
-8-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
9/49
problems (Bass, 1990; Kouzes & Posner, 1995; Pitner & Ogawa,
1989).
Relations-oriented behaviors
Effective leaders often have relations-oriented behaviors in which they
develop relationships, increase cooperation and teamwork, and build commitment to
the organization (Yukl, 1998).
Communication skillsCommunication skills are an essential component of
interpersonal skills (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Mumford et al., 1991;
Mumford et al., 2000; Pitner & Ogawa, 1989; Stogdill, 1974; Yukl,
1989). Both verbal and nonverbal communication skills are important
for leaders because they must be able to communicate their messages
to a variety of individuals (Bennis & Nanus, 1985).
Listening skillsAnother important characteristic of effective leaders is good
listening skills. (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kotter, 1982; Pitner &
Ogawa, 1989; Yukl, 1989). Good listening skills entail hearing what
the individual has said, understanding what he/she has communicated,
and making the individual aware that you have understood what
he/she has said (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Listening allows leaders to
obtain information and feedback from others to use as resources
(Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Active listening is often used by leaders in
which they ask questions, restate comments, and check to see if
-9-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
10/49
interpretations are accurate (Locke, 1991). By listening to others,
effective leaders are able to demonstrate respect for others and their
ideas which helps to build trust (Kouzes & Posner, 1995).
Problem solving & conflict management skillsLeaders have conceptual skills to develop and use ideas to
plan, organize, and solve problems (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). Conflict
and problems are inevitable in any organizations and can present
various challenges. With problem solving and conflict management
skills, effective leaders are able to successfully deal with these
challenges and determine appropriate courses of action to solve
problems (Kotter, 1982; Mumford et al., 2000; Smith, 1997).
Motivate othersEffective leaders are able to motivate others to make
commitments to goals and comply with rules and procedures by using
strategies such as praising and coaching (Bennis & Nanus, 1985;
Goertz, 2000; Kotter, 1988; Mumford et al., 2000; Stogdill, 1974).
Change-oriented behaviors
Change-oriented behaviors involves articulating an attractive vision and
creating a coalition to support and implement changes (Yukl, 1998).
Establish a vision
Effective leaders can establish a vision which, "articulates a
view of a realistic, credible, attractive future for the organization, a
condition that is better in some important ways than what now exists."
-10-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
11/49
(Bennis & Nanus, 1985, p.89). A vision is extremely important in schools
because it provides a direction for the school organization to move
towards (Sage & Burrello, 1994).
Articulate vision to othersLeaders are able to articulate that vision to others in a
compelling way (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kotter, 1990; Kouzes &
Posner, 1995; Manasse, 1986; Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs,
Fleishman, 2000; Sage & Burrello, 1994) and encourage others to be
motivated by that vision and work toward making it reality (Bennis &
Nanus, 1985; Goertz, 2000; Kouzes & Posner, 1995; Mumford et al.,
2000). Leaders in schools are able to communicate the meaning and
purpose of vision to others, obtain their commitment and sense of
partnership, and articulate these qualities into organizational goals,
structures, and programs (Sergiovanni, 1990).
Adapt to changing situationsLeaders can adapt to different situations and remain
productive even with changing circumstances (Bass, 1990; Goertz,
2000; Kouzes & Posner, 1995; Smith 1997; Stogdill, 1948; Stogdill,
1974; Zaccaro, Foti, & Kenny, 1991; Zaccaro, Gilbert, Thor, &
Mumford, 1991). A leader must be flexible to meet the needs of
various situation because changes are always occurring (Bass, 1990).
A leader who is not flexible may become set in their ways and not
-11-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
12/49
adapt to needed changes which could be detrimental in any
organization (Locke, 1991).
Pennsylvania Leadership Development Center's leadership skills
As a result of many intensive national studies conducted by the American
Association of School Administrators (AASA) and the National Association of
Secondary School Principals (NASSP), eleven effective leadership skills were
identified. Those skills form the foundation of the Pennsylvania Leadership
Development Center (PLDC). The PLDC provides experienced superintendents and
aspiring superintendents the opportunity to meet, collaborate, learn from each other,
and develop individualized growth opportunities. The program focuses on the
following leadership skills:
Encouraging innovation Planning and implementing strategic change Serving the needs of diverse constituents Acquiring and interpreting key information Resisting premature judgements Resolving complex problems Communicating expectations Developing and empowering others Balancing complex demands Understanding personal strengths Acquiring new learnings
As one can see, there are many behaviors exhibited by leaders that contribute to their
effectiveness. Although prior research focused only on initiating structure and consideration,
many other behaviors such as task-oriented behaviors, relations-oriented behaviors, and
change-oriented behaviors have been found to be associated with effective leaders. The
-12-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
13/49
eleven leadership skills of PLDC are also important to keep in mind when thinking about
effective leadership skills and behaviors.
Situational Approach (Role Competency)
The situational approach is concerned with the importance of situational factors such
as that nature of the work, the nature of the work environment, and the role requirements of
the position (Yukl, 1989). This approach is also known as the contingency approach because
the effects of leader behavior are contingent on the situation (Yukl, 1989). Various
situational characteristics have been found to be associated with leadership (Hoy & Miskel,
2001):
Structural properties of organization:size, hierarchicalstructure, formalization, technology
Role characteristics:type and difficulty of task, procedural rules, contentand performance expectations, power
Subordinate characteristics:education, age, knowledge and experience,tolerance for ambiguity, responsibility, power
Internal environment:climate, culture, openness, participation levels,group atmosphere, values, norms
External environment:complexity, stability, uncertainty, resourcedependency, institutionalization
One situational factor, the role requirements of a position, is very important when
evaluating leadership effectiveness because various positions may have different
responsibilities and require different leadership characteristics. When developing an
evaluation system, role competencies should be used as a basis for evaluating performance
(Harris & Monk, 1992). The role competencies of positions assist in creating clearer
evaluations of performance by describing task-relevant activity and the relations among
people, problems addressed, and situations encountered in particular positions (Harris &
-13-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
14/49
Monk, 1992). For instance, the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC)
has created role competencies for school leaders based on school leadership and school
improvement research and literature (Council of Chief State School Officials, 1996). The
ISLLC role competencies for school leaders were developed to strengthen school
administration through a variety of ways such as improving the programs that prepare school
leaders and designing a framework to better assess candidates for licensing purposes
(Council of Chief State School Officials, 1996). The ISLLC role competencies consist of the
following:
Facilitate the development, articulation, implementation, andstewardship of a vision that is shared and supported by the school
community
Advocate, nurture, and sustain a school culture and instructionalprogram conducive to student learning and staff professional growth
Ensure management of the organization, operations, and resources fora safe, effective, and efficient learning environment
Collaborate with families and community members, respond to diversecommunity interests and needs, and mobilize community resources
Act with integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner Understand, respond to, and influence the larger political, social,
economic, legal, and cultural context
Based on extensive research and collaboration with individuals involved with school
superintendency, the AASA has also developed role competencies for superintendents that
they must meet in order to provide effective leadership for today's schools (American
Association of School Administrators, 1993). The role competencies focus on eight
particular areas:
-14-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
15/49
Leadership, values, ethics Policy and governance Planning, quality, and organizational problem solving Human resources management Leadership and district culture Communications and community relations Curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation Instructional management
Appendix A includes the full listing of the role competencies of superintendents as
well as the role competencies of other positions in Intermediate Units and may be helpful in
designing your evaluation system.
Recommendations for Developing an Evaluation Assessment System
The effectiveness of leaders may comprise of a variety of factors such as specific leadership
characteristics, personal style, and specific role competencies (Sobehart, 2000). In order to be
effective, leaders must adapt their leadership behavior to elements such as the situation, the needs of
group, and the job demands (Bass, 1990; Goertz, 2000; Smith, 1997; Stogdill, 1948; Stogdill, 1974;
Zaccaro et al., 1991). Effective leaders are able to tailor their leadership style or behavior to the
situation and utilize these behaviors to meet the needs of the situation and carry out the role
competencies for their particular positions. Sobehart (2000) suggests that leadership is a three
dimensional cube with leadership style, skills, and specific role competencies intersecting with each
other. Figure 1 illustrates the AASA role competencies of superintendents, the leadership skills that
the PLDC program focuses on, and the Gallup Leadership Styles that compose Sobehart's three
dimensional cube (Sobehart, 2000). When designing your evaluation system, leadership skills
should be the main emphasis, with some focus on the specific role competencies that individuals are
required to carry out.
-15-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
16/49
Figure 1
Based on the extensive literature review conducted, the Leadership Institute suggests that
when developing your evaluation system for supervisory and administrative staff, leadership skills
should be the main emphasis, with some focus on the specific role competencies. The following
characteristics of effective leaders should be acknowledged:
Personality and Motivational Traits:
* self-confidence * emotional maturity
-16-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
17/49
* willingness to assume responsibility * integrity
* desire for achievement * concern for people
Task-oriented Behaviors:
* technical skills * administrative skills
* proactive behavior
Relations-oriented Behaviors:
* communication skills * listening skills
* problem solving & conflict management skills
* motivate others
Change-oriented Behaviors:
* establish a vision * articulate the vision
* adapt to changing situations
Pennsylvania Leadership Development Center's Leadership Skills:
* encouraging innovation * resisting premature judgements
* acquiring and interpreting key information * resolving complex problems
* planning and implementing strategic change * communicating expectations
* serving the needs of diverse constituents * balancing complex demands
* acquiring and interpreting key information * acquiring new learnings
* developing & empowering others
* understanding personal strengths
Situational Characteristics:
* structural properties of organization * role characteristics
* subordinate characteristics * internal environment
* external environment
ISLLC Role Competencies of School Leaders:
* facilitate the development, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of a
vision that is shared and supported by the school community
-17-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
18/49
* advocate, nurture, and sustain a school culture and instructional program
conducive to student learning and staff professional growth
* ensure management of the organization, operations, and resources for a safe,
effective, and efficient learning environment
* collaborate with families and community members, respond to diverse community
interests and needs, and mobilize community resources
* act with integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner
* understand, respond to, and influence the larger political, social, economic, legal,
and cultural context
Another recommendation is to utilize the Personnel Evaluation Standards as a filter to guide
and assess your system. Developed by the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational
Evaluation, the Personnel Evaluation Standards address the design, implementation, and
effectiveness of an evaluation system (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational
Evaluation, 1988). The Personnel Evaluation Standards are comprised of twenty-one standards
divided into four categories: propriety, utility, feasibility, and accuracy (The Joint Committee on
Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1988). The propriety standards are useful in ensuring that
certain ethical and legal principles are addressed and not violated (The Joint Committee on
Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1988). The utility standards help guide evaluation systems so
they will be informative, timely, and influential (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational
Evaluation, 1988). The feasibility standards encourage evaluation systems to be efficient, easy to
use, viable in the face of social, political, and governmental forces and that will be adequately
funded (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1988). The accuracy
standards focus on assessing the evaluation system to determine if it produces sound information
(The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1988).
-18-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
19/49
Propriety
Service orientation: Evaluation system should promote sound educationprinciples, fulfill institutional missions, and effective performance of job
responsibilities so educational needs of students, community, and society are
met. Formal evaluation guidelines:Guidelines should be recorded in statements of
policy, negotiated agreements, and/or personnel evaluation manuals, so
evaluations are consistent, equitable, and in accordance with pertinent laws and
ethical codes. Conflict of interest: Conflicts of interest should be identified and dealt with
openly and honestly, so that they do not compromise the evaluation process and
results. Access to personnel evaluation reports: Access to these reports should be
limited to those individuals with a legitimate need to review and use the reports,
so that appropriate use of information is assured. Interaction with evaluatees: Evaluation system should address evaluatees in a
professional, considerate and courteous manner, so that their self-esteem,
motivation, professional reputations, performance, and attitude toward personnel
evaluation are enhanced, or at least, not needlessly damaged.Utility:
Constructive orientation: Evaluations systems should be constructive, so thatthey help institutions to develop human resources and encourage and assist those
evaluated to provide excellent service.
Defined uses: Users and intended uses of evaluation system should be identified,so it can address appropriate questions.
Evaluator credibility: Evaluation system should be managed and executed bypersons with the necessary qualifications, skills, and authority, and evaluators
should conduct themselves professionally so that evaluation reports are respected
and used.
-19-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
20/49
Functional reporting: Reports should be clear, timely, accurate, and germane, sothat they are of practical value to the evaluatee and other appropriate audiences.
Follow-up and impact: Evaluations should be followed up, so that users andevaluatees are aided to understand the results and take appropriate actions.
Feasibility:
Practical procedures: Evaluation procedures should be planned and conductedso that they produce needed information while minimizing disruption and cost.
Political viability: Evaluation system should be developed and monitoredcollaboratively, so that all concerned parties are constructively involved in
making the system work.
Fiscal viability: Adequate time and resources should be provided for evaluationactivities, so that evaluation plans can be effectively and efficiently implemented.
Accuracy:
Defined role: The role, responsibilities, performance objectives, and neededqualifications of the evaluatee should be clearly defined, so that the evaluator can
determine valid assessment data.
Work environment: The context in which the evaluatee works should beidentified, described, and recorded, so that environmental influences and
constraints on performance can be considered in the evaluation.
Documentation of procedures: Evaluation procedures actually followed shouldbe documented, so that the evaluatees and other users can assess the actual, in
relation to intended, procedures.
Valid measurement: The measurement procedures should be chosen ordeveloped and implemented on the basis of the described role and the intended
use, so that the inferences concerning the evaluatee are valid and accurate.
Reliable measurement: Measurement procedures should be chosen or developedto assure reliability, so that the information obtained will provide consistent
indications of the performance of the evaluatee.
-20-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
21/49
Systematic data control: The information used in the evaluation should be keptsecure, and should be carefully processed and maintained, so as to ensure that the
data maintained and analyzed are the same as the data collected.
Bias control: The evaluation process should provide safeguards against bias, sothat the evaluatee's qualifications or performance are assessed fairly.
Monitoring evaluation systems: Evaluation system should be revisedperiodically and systematically, so that appropriate revisions can be made.
In summary, an evaluation system should focus on leadership styles, skills, and role
competencies identified in the research literature. By acknowledging these components and their
interaction among each other, an evaluation system can be developed to effectively assess
supervisory and administrative staff. The Personnel Evaluation Standards can be a useful tool to
guide and assess your evaluation system.
-21-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
22/49
APPENDIX A
The Role Competencies of Various Positions at Intermediate Unit
School Leaders (Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium)
Facilitate the development, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of a vision thatis shared and supported by the school community
Knowledge Learning goals in a pluralistic society The principles of developing and implementing strategic
plans
Systems theory Information sources, data collection, and data analysis
strategies
Effective communication Effective consensus building and negotiation skills
Dispositions The educability of all
A school vision of high standards of learning Continuous school improvement The inclusion of all members of the school community Ensuring that students have the knowledge, skills, and
values needed to become successful adults
A willingness to continuously examine one's ownassumptions, beliefs, and practices
Doing the work required for high levels of personal andorganization performance
Performances The vision and mission of the school are effectively
communicated to staff, parents, students, and community
members
-22-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
23/49
The vision and mission are communicated through the useof symbols, ceremonies, stories, and similar activities
The core beliefs of the school vision are modeled for allstakeholders
The vision is developed with and among stakeholders The contributions of school community members to the
realization of the vision are recognized and celebrated
Progress toward the vision and mission is communicatedto all stakeholders
The school community is involved in school improvementefforts
The vision shapes the educational programs, plans, andactivities
The vision shapes the educational programs, plans, andactions
An implementation plan is developed in which objectivesand strategies to achieve the vision and goals are clearly
articulated
Assessment data related to student learningare used todevelop the school vision and goals
Relevant demographic data pertaining to students and theirfamilies are used in developing the school mission and
goals
Barriers to achieving the vision are identified, clarified,and addressed
Needed resources are sought and obtained to support theimplementation of the school mission and goals
Existing resources are used in support of the school visionand goals
The vision, mission, and implementation plans areregularly monitored, evaluated, and revised the vision and
-23-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
24/49
mission of the school are effectively communicated to
staff, parents, students, and community members
The vision and mission are communicated through the useof symbols, ceremonies,stories, and similar activities
The core beliefs of the school vision are modeled for allstakeholders
The vision is developed with and among stakeholders The contributions of school community members to the
realization of the vision are recognized and celebrated
Progress toward the vision and mission is communicatedto all stakeholders
The school community is involved in school improvementefforts
The vision shapes the educational programs, plans, andactivities
The vision shapes the educational programs, plans, andactions
An implementation plan is developed in which objectivesand strategies to achieve the vision and goals are clearly
articulated
Assessment data related to student learning are used todevelop the school vision and goals
Relevant demographic data pertaining to students and theirfamilies are used in developing the school mission and
goals
Barriers to achieving the vision are identified, clarified,and addressed
Needed resources are sought and obtained to support theimplementation of the school mission and goals
Existing resources are used in support of the school visionand goals
-24-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
25/49
The vision, mission, and implementation plans areregularly monitored, evaluated, and revised
Advocate, nurture, and sustain a school culture and instructional program conducive tostudent learning and staff professional growth
Knowledge Student growth and development Applied learning theories Applied motivational theories Curriculum design, implementation, evaluation, and
refinement
Principles of effective instruction Measurement, evaluation, and assessment strategies Diversity and its meaning for educational programs Adult learning and professional development models The change process for systems, organizations, and
individuals
The role of technology in promoting student learning andprofessional growth
School cultures Dispositions
Student learning as the fundamental purpose of schooling The proposition that all students can learn The variety of ways in which students can learn Life long learning for self and others Professional development as an integral part of school
improvement
The benefits that diversity brings to the school community A safe and supportive learning environment Preparing students to be contributing members of society
-25-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
26/49
Performances The school is organized and aligned for success Curricular, co-curricular, and extra-curricular programs are
designed, implemented, evaluated, and refined
Curriculum decisions are based on research, expertise ofteachers, and the recommendations of learned societies
The school culture and climate are assessed on a regularbasis
A variety of sources of information is used to makedecisions
Student learning is assessed using a variety oftechniques Multiple sources of information regarding performance are
used by staff and students
A variety of supervisory and evaluation models isemployed
Pupil personnel programs are developed to meet the needsof students and their families
All individuals are treated with fairness, dignity, andrespect
Professional development promotes a focus on studentlearning consistent with the school vision and goals
Students and staff feel valued and important The responsibilities and contributions of each individual
are acknowledged
Barriers to student learning are identified, clarified, andaddressed
Diversity is considered in developing learning experiences Life long learning is encouraged and modeled There is a culture of high expectations for self, student,
and staff performance
-26-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
27/49
Technologies are used in teaching and learning Student and staff accomplishments are recognized and
celebrated
Multiple opportunities to learn are available to all students Ensure management of the organization, operations, and resources for a safe, effective,
and efficient learning environment
Knowledge Theories and models of organizations and the principles of
organizational development
Operational procedures at the school and district level Principles and issues relating to school safety and security Human resources management and development Principles and issues relating to fiscal operations of school
management
Principles and issues relating to school facilities and use ofspace
Legal issues impacting school operations Current technologies that support management functions
Dispositions Making management decisions to enhance learning and
teaching
Taking risks to improve schools Trusting people and their judgments Accepting responsibility High-quality standards, expectations, and performances Involving stakeholders in management processes A safe environment
Performances Knowledge of learning, teaching, and student development
is used to inform management decisions
-27-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
28/49
Operational procedures are designed and managed tomaximize opportunities for successful learning
Emerging trends are recognized, studied, and applied asappropriate
Operational plans and procedures to achieve the vision andgoals of the school are in place
Collective bargaining and other contractual agreementsrelated to the school are effectively managed
The school plant, equipment, and support systems operatesafely, efficiently, and effectively
Time is managed to maximize attainment of organizationalgoals
Potential problems and opportunities are identified Problems are confronted and resolved in a timely manner Financial, human, and material resources are aligned to the
goals of schools
The school acts entrepreneurally to support continuousimprovement
Organizational systems are regularly monitored andmodified as needed
Stakeholders are involved in decisions affecting schools Responsibility is shared to maximize owner-ship and
accountability
Effective problem-framing and problem-solving skills areused
Effective conflict resolution skills are used Effective group-process and consensus-building skills are
used
Effective communication skills are used
-28-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
29/49
There is effective use of technology to manage schooloperations
Fiscal resources of the school are managed responsibly,efficiently, and effectively
A safe, clean, and aesthetically pleasing schoolenvironment is created and maintained
Human resource functions support the attainment of schoolgoals
Confidentiality and privacy of school records aremaintained
Collaborate with families and community members, respond to diverse communityinterests and needs, and mobilize community resources
Knowledge Emerging issues and trends that potentially impact the
school community
The conditions and dynamics of the diverse schoolcommunity
Community resources Community relations and marketing strategies and
processes
Successful models of school, family, business, community,government and higher education partnerships
Dispositions Schools operating as an integral part of the larger
community
Collaboration and communication with families Involvement of families and other stakeholders in school
decision-making processes
The proposition that diversity enriches the school Families as partners in the education of their children
-29-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
30/49
The proposition that families have the best interests oftheir children in mind
Resources of the family and community needing to bebrought to bear on the education of students
An informed public Performances
Community groups to strengthen programs and supportschool goals
Community youth family services are integrated withschool programs
Community stakeholders are treated equitably Diversity is recognized and valued Effective media relations are developed and maintained A comprehensive program of community relations is
established
Public resources and funds are used appropriately andwisely
Community collaboration is modeled for staff Opportunities for staff to develop collaborative skills are
provided
High visibility, active involvement, and communicationwith the larger community is a priority
Relationships with community leaders are identified andnurtured
Information about family and community concerns,expectations, and needs is used regularly
There is outreach to different business, religious, political,and service agencies and organizations
Credence is given to individuals and groups whose valuesand opinions may conflict
-30-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
31/49
The school and community serve one another as resources Available community resources are secured to help the
school solve problems and achieve goals
Partnerships are established with area businesses,institutions of higher education, and
Act with integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner Knowledge
The purpose of education and the role of leadership inmodern society
Various ethical frameworks and perspectives on ethics The values of the diverse school community Professional codes of ethics The philosophy and history of education
Dispositions The ideal of the common good The principles in the Bill of Rights The right of every student to a free, quality education Bringing ethical principles to the decision-making process Subordinating ones own interest to the good of the school
community
Accepting the consequences for upholding ones principlesand actions
Using the influence of ones office constructively andproductively in the service of all students and their
families
Development of a caring school community Performances
Examine personal and professional values Demonstrate a personal and professional code of ethics
-31-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
32/49
Demonstrate values, beliefs, and attitudes that inspireothers to higher levels of performance
Serve as a role model Accept responsibility for school operations Consider the impact of ones administrative practices on
others
Use the influence of the office to enhance the educationalprogram rather than for personal gain
Treat people fairly, equitably, and with dignity and respect Protect the rights and confidentiality of studentsand staff Demonstrate appreciation for and sensitivityto the
diversity in the school community
Recognize and respect the legitimate authority of others Examine and consider the prevailing values of the diverse
school community
Expect that others in the school community willdemonstrate integrity and exercise ethical behavior
Open the school to public scrutiny Fulfill legal and contractual obligations Apply laws and procedures fairly, wisely, and
considerately
Understand, respond to, and influence the larger political, social, economic, legal, andcultural context
Knowledge Principles of representative governance that undergird the
system of American schools
The role of public education in developing andrenewing ademocratic society and an economically productive nation
The law as related to education and schooling
-32-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
33/49
The political, social, cultural and economic systems andprocesses that impact schools
Models and strategies of change and conflict resolution asapplied to the larger political, social, cultural and
economic contexts of schooling
Global issues and forces affecting teaching and learning The dynamics of policy development and advocacy under
our democratic political system
The importance of diversity and equity in a democraticsociety
Dispositions Education as a key to opportunity and social mobility Recognizing a variety of ideas, values, and cultures Importance of a continuing dialogue with other decision
makers affecting education
Actively participating in the political and policy- makingcontext in the service of education
Using legal systems to protect student rights and improvestudent opportunities
Performances The environment in which schools operate is influenced on
behalf of students and their families
Communication occurs among the school communityconcerning trends, issues, and potential changes in the
environment in which schools operate
There is ongoing dialogue with representatives of diversecommunity groups
The school community works within the framework ofpolicies, laws, and regulations enacted by local, state, and
federal authorities
-33-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
34/49
Public policy is shaped to provide quality education forstudents
Lines of communication are developed with decisionmakers outside the school community
Superintendents (American Association of School Administrators)
Leadership, values, ethics Understand and model appropriate value systems, ethics and moral
leadership
Know the role of education in a democratic society Exhibit multicultural and ethnic understanding and related behavior Adapt educational programming to the needs of diverse constituencies Balance complex community demands in the best interest of the student Scan and monitor the environment for opportunities for staff and students Respond in an ethical and skillful way to the electronic and printed news
media
Coordinate social agencies and human services to help each student growand develop as a caring, informed citizen
Policy and governance Develop procedures for working with the board of education that define
mutual expectations, working relationships and strategies for formulating
district policy for external and internal programs
Adjust local policy to state and federal requirements and constitutionalprovisions, standards and regulatory applications
Recognize and apply standards involving civil and criminal liabilities Planning, quality, and organizational problem solving
Exhibit an understanding of the school district as a system by definingprocesses for gathering, analyzing, and using data for decision making
Manage the data flow; frame and solve problems Frame, develop priorities, and formulate solutions
-34-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
35/49
Assist others to form reasoned opinions Reach logical conclusions and make quality decisions to meet internal
and external customer expectations
Plan and schedule personal and organization work Establish procedures to regulate activities and projects Delegate and empower at appropriate organizational levels Secure and allocate human and material resources Develop and manage the district budget Maintain accurate fiscal records.
Human resources management Develop a staff evaluation and development system to improve the
performance of all staff members
Select appropriate models for supervision based on adult motivationresearch
Identify alternative employee benefits packages Describe and apply the legal requirements for personnel selection,
development, retention, and dismissal
Leadership and district culture Developing a collective district vision Shape school culture and climate Provide purpose and direction for individuals and groups Demonstrate an understanding of international issues affecting education Formulate strategic plans, goals, and change efforts with staff and
community
Set priorities in the context of community, student and staff needs Serve as an articulate spokesperson for the welfare of all students in a
multicultural context
Communications and community relations Articulate district purpose and priorities to the community and mass
media
-35-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
36/49
Request and respond to community feedback Demonstrate consensus building and conflict mediation Identify, track, and deal with issues Formulate and carry out plans for internal and external communications Exhibit an understanding of school districts as political systems by
applying communication skills to strengthen community support
Align constituencies in support of district priorities Build coalitions to gain financial and programmatic support Formulate democratic strategies for referenda Relate political initiatives to the welfare of children.
Curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation Design curriculum and a strategic plan that enhance teaching and learning
in multiple contexts
Provide planning and future methods to anticipate occupational trendsand their educational implications
Identify taxonomies of instructional objectives and validation proceduresfor curricular units, using theories of cognitive development
Align and sequence curriculum Use valid and reliable performance indicators and testing procedures to
measure performance outcomes
Describe the proper use of computers and other learning and informationtechnologies
Instructional management Exhibit knowledge of instructional management by implementing a
system that includes research findings on learning and instructional
strategies, instructional time, advanced electronic technologies, and
resources to maximize student outcomes
Describe and apply research and best practice on integrating curriculumand resources for multicultural sensitivity and assessment strategies to
help all students achieve at high levels
-36-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
37/49
Administrators of Special Education (The Council of Administrators of Special Education)
Make serving and supporting exceptional children and their parents the primaryresponsibility
Strive to be proficient in current professional practice Support study and research guided by the conventions of scholarly inquire Respect the privacy of students and parents and holds as confidential information in
accordance with State/Provincial and Federal laws
Regard colleagues, parents and students with respect, courtesy, fairness, and good faith Uphold and advance the values, ethics knowledge and mission of the profession Foster and support maximum self-determination and independence on the part of
exceptional children
Utilize impartial professional judgment in evaluating the needs of exceptional childrenand their parents
Accept the responsibility to provide meaningful training experiences to colleagues,general educators, and the public
Promote the general welfare of exceptional children
Public Relations Professionals (National School Public Relations Association)
Communicate with internal and external publics Provide public relations counsel Serve as the media's liasion with the school district Promote community's input in budget making process & develops budget / bond issue
campaigns and publications
Develop communication plans of how district will reach its internal and external publicsand how the district will deal with the media in a crisis
Conduct formal and informal research to determine public opinion and attitude as a basisfor planning and action
Promote the district's strengths / achievements and its solutions to problems Publicize student / staff achievement and develop staff and retirement recognition
programs
-37-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
38/49
Maintain extensive background files and the district's historical and budget passagerecords and answers requests for information
Provide public relations training to staff and PTA's in areas such as talking to the media,communicating in a crisis
Serve as the district's liaison with community groups and develops ways to bring thecommunity into the schools
School Social Work Personnel (National Social Workers Association)
Work collaboratively to mobilize the resources of local education agencies to meet theneeds of children and families
Develop and provide training and educational programs that address the goals andmission of the educational institution
Organize their time, energies, and work loads to fulfill their responsibilities andcomplete assignments with due consideration of the priorities among their various
responsibilities
Maintain accurate data that are relevant to the planning, management, and evaluation ofthe school social work program
Identify individual children and target populations in need of services through a processof needs assessment that includes planned consultation with personnel of the localeducation agency, community representatives, and children and their families
Know how to use objective measures and shall integrate then into their evaluation andsubsequent development of reports
Develop and implement a plan of intervention that will enhance children's ability tobenefit from their educational experience
Identify areas of need that are not being addresses by the local education agency andcommunity and work to create those services
Provide consultation to personnel of the local education agency, members of the schoolboards, and representatives of the community to promote understanding and the effective
utilization of school social work services
-38-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
39/49
Ensure that children and their families are provided services within the context ofmulticultural understanding and sensitivities that enhance the families' support of the
children's learning experiences
Empower children and their families to gain access to and effectively use formal andinformal community resources
Maintain adequate safeguards for the privacy and confidentiality of information Use mediation and conflict resolution strategies to resolve children's educational
problems
Advocate for children and their families in a variety of situations
School Business Administrators (Association of School Business Officials)
Budgeting and financial planning Budget compilation, in coordination with educational planning Long-term fiscal planning Receipt estimates Budget control Fiscal relationships with other governmental units
Purchasing and supply management Official purchasing agent Purchase supplies & equipment Stock requisition Standards and specifications Purchase bids & contracts Inventory control
Plant planning and construction Design, construction, and equipment of plant Assist in establishment of educational and safety standards for sites,
buildings, and equipment
Projections of facility needs Contracts management
-39-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
40/49
School-community relations Personnel management
Records Supervision of noninstructional staff Relationship to instructional staff
In-service training Operation and maintenance of plant
Policies, standards, and frequency of work Scheduling and allocation of funds and manpower Inspection and evaluation of service Operating of related school-community facilities Protection of plant and property Repairs and upkeep of grounds
Transportation Policies, rules, regulations, and procedures Contract versus district owned equipment Routing and scheduling Inspection and maintenance Staff supervision and training
Food services Policies, rules, regulations, and procedures Staffing and supervision Menus, prices, portions Purchasing
Accounting and reporting General, capital reserve, trust, and construction funds Internal accounts Student activity funds Voucher and payroll preparation Attendance accounting
-40-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
41/49
Government tax and pension accounting Cost accounting Local, state, and federal financial and statistical reports
Office management
Educational Communications and Technology Administrators (Collaborative for Technology
Standards for School Administrators)
Inspire the development of a shared vision for comprehensive integration of technologyand foster an environment and culture conducive to the realization of that vision
Facilitate the development of the vision for technology shared by allstakeholders and communicate it widely
Develop, implement, and monitor a dynamic, long-range, and systemictechnology plan that supports the vision
Maintain cohesion and momentum within the school community to reachthe shared vision
Foster and nurture a culture of responsible risk-taking that promotescontinuous innovation in technology
Use data to drive leadership decisions Advocate for research-based best practices in all uses of technology
Ensure that curricular design, instructional strategies, and learning environmentsintegrate appropriate technologies to maximize learning and teaching
Identify, use, and evaluate appropriate technologies to enhance andsupport curriculum and instruction that lead to high levels of student
achievement
Facilitate and support collaborative technology-enriched learningenvironments that are conducive to innovation
Provide for the use of technology to meet the individual needs of learnersin a student-centered learning environment
-41-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
42/49
Facilitate the use of technologies to guide and support instructionalmethods that promote higher-level thinking, decision-making, and
problem-solving skills
Assure that quality professional development opportunities exist forlearning and teaching with technology
Apply technology to enhance their professional practice and to increase their ownproductivity and that of others.
Use technology to facilitate change for organizational improvement Model the routine, intentional, and effective use of technology Use technology resources to engage in sustained, job-related professional
development
Employ technology for communication and collaboration among peers,staff, parents, and the larger community
Provide direction to integrate technology tools into productive learning andadministrative systems
Develop, implement, and monitor policies and guidelines to ensurecompatibility of technologies
Allocate financial and human resources to ensure full implementation ofthe technology plan
Integrate strategic plans, technology plans, other improvement plans, andpolicies to align efforts and leverage resources
Design policies and procedures to drive continuous system improvementsand to support technology replacement cycles
Use technology to facilitate a comprehensive system of effective assessment andevaluation
Use technology to collect and analyze data, interpret results, andcommunicate findings to improve instructional practice and student
learning
Assess staff knowledge, skills, and performance in using technology anduse results to facilitate quality professional development and inform
personnel decisions
-42-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
43/49
Use technology to assess and evaluate managerial and operationalsystems
Assess and evaluate, using multiple methods, appropriate uses oftechnology resources for learning, communication, and productivity
Understand the social, legal, and ethical issues related to technology and apply thatunderstanding in practice
Ensure equity of access to technology resources that enable and empowerall learners
Identify, communicate, model, and enforce social, legal, and ethicalpractices related to technology use
Promote and enforce security and online safety related to the use oftechnology
Promote and enforce environmentally safe and healthy practices in theuse of technology
School Personnel Administrators (American Association for School Personnel Administrators)
Have clear understanding of goals, objectives, and processes of the school system andthe role they play in accomplishing those ends
Search for the most effective operational alternatives of action that can be implemented Conduct personnel operations in a manner that provides for effective and friendly
employee relationships and contribute to individual motivation and morale
Ensure systematic dissemination of information to the staff and public to enhance theteam effort and to facilitate efficient work performance
Design well-developed system of personnel accounting and research to make soundtechnology to enhance their professional practice and to increase their own productivity
and that of others
Provide direction to integrate technology tools into productive learning andadministrative systems Use technology to facilitate a comprehensive system of effective assessment and
projections for current and future employment needs
Provide present as well as potential employees with information n available positionsand provide them the opportunity to compete for vacancies
-43-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
44/49
Ensure that the application form requests information necessary to facilitate screening,contributes to sound decision making on recommendations for appointment, and is in
conformity with local, state, and federal laws and regulations
Select staff on carefully planned program of investigation, screening, appointment, andfollow-up support
Attempt to meet the needs of the educational program, implement affirmative actionplans, provide balanced staffing, and meet the desires of individual employees
Acquaint new employees with their responsibilities toward the student, school, andcommunity, and acquaint them with the resources in the school system and community
Assure that staff are recognized for excellence and promoted on the basis ofcompetency, performance, qualifications, fitness for the job, and probability of future
growth and development
-44-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
45/49
References
American Association of School Administrators (1993). Professional Standards For The
Superintendency. Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
http://www.aasa.org/issues_and_insights/prof_dev/standards.htm
American Association for School Personnel Administration (1992). Standards for School
Personnel Administrators. In Harris, B. M., & Monk, B. J. Personnel administration in education:
Leadership for instructional improvement (3rd edition). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon,
Inc. .
Bass, B. M. (1990) Bass and Stogdill's handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and
managerial application (3rd edition). New York: Free Press.
Bennis, W. G. & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York:
Harper and Row.
Candoli, I. C., Hack, W. G., Ray, J. R., & Stollar, D. H. (1973). School Business
Administrators' Role Competencies. School business administration: A planning approach. Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. .
Collaborative for Technology Standards for School Administrators (2001). Technology
Standards for School Administrators. Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
http://cnets.iste.org/tssa/framework.html
Council of Administrators of Special Education (2001). Standards for Special Education
Administrators. Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
http://members.aol.com/casecec/mbes.htm#Standards
-45-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
46/49
Council of Chief State School Officials (1996). The Interstate School Leaders Licensure
Consortium- Standards for School Leaders. Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ccsso.org/pdfs/isllcstd.pdf
Fiedler, F. E. (1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness. New York: McGraw- Hill.
Goertz, J. (2000). Creativity: An essential component for effective leadership in today's
schools. Roeper Review, 22, 158-163.
Halpin, A. W. (1966). Theory and research in administration. New York: Macmillan.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (1991). Educational administration theory, research, and
practice (4
th
edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001). Educational administration theory, research, and
practice (6th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (1988). The personnel evaluation
standards: How to assess systems for evaluating educators. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,
Inc. .
Korman, A K. (1966). Consideration, initiating structure, and organizational criteria- A
review. Personnel Psychology, 19, 349-361.
Kotter, J. P. (1988). The leadership factor. New York: Free Press.
Kouzes, J. M. & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge: How to keep getting
extraordinary things done in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Locke, E. A. (1991). The essence of leadership. New York: Lexington Books.
Manasse, A. L. (1986). Vision and leadership: Paying attention to intention. Peabody
Journal of Education, 63, 150-173.
-46-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
47/49
Mumford, M.D., O'Connor, J., Clifton, T. C., Connelly, M. S., & Zaccaro, S. J. (1991).
Background data constructs as predictors of leadership behavior. Human Performance, 6, 151-195.
National School Public Relations Association (2001). Standards for Public Relations
Professionals. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.nspra.org/entry.htm
National Social Workers Association (1992). Standards for School Social Work Services.
Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
http://www.naswdc.org/practice/standards/school.htm
Pelz, D. C. (1961). Leadership within a hierarchical organization, Journal of Social Issues, 7,
49-55.
Pitner, N. J., & Ogawa, R. T. (1989). Organizational leadership: The case of the school
superintendent. Educational Administration Quarterly, 17, 45-65.
Sage, D. D., & Burrello, L. C. (1994). Leadership in educational reform: An administrator's
guide to changes in special education. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co. .
Sergiovanni, T. J. (1990). Value added leadership: How to get extraordinary performance in
schools. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Sobehart, H. (2000). A leadership paradox: Dancing inside the box in order to break out. In
Sobehart, H. and Williams, V. (Eds.) Leadership in schools: Self-governing schools: Practitioner
autonomy and accountability. The Norham Centre for Leadership Studies, University of Oxford.
Smith, A. W. (1997). Leadership is a living system: Learning leaders and organizations.
Human Systems Management, 16, 277-284.
Stogdill, R. M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership. Journal of Psychology,
25, 35-71.
-47-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
48/49
Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of the literature. New York: Free
Press.
Yukl, G. A. (1989). Leadership in organizations (2nd edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Yukl, G. A. (1998). Leadership in organizations (4nd edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Zaccaro, S. J., Foti, R. J., & Kenny, D. A. (1991). Self-monitoring and trait-based variance
in leadership: An investigation of leader flexibility across multiple group situations. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 76, 308-315.
Zaccaro, S. J., Gilbert, J., Thor, K. K., & Mumford, M.D. (1991). Leadership and social
intelligence: Linking social perceptiveness and behavioral flexibility to leader effectiveness.
Leadership Quarterly, 2, 317-331.
-48-
7/31/2019 01-5 Leadership Characteristics
49/49
Top Related