Investigating barriers to vegetarianism in developed economies, to determine
the scope of opportunity for policy intervention in shaping pro-environmental
consumption of food
Jessica Currie
Master’s of Science in Environmental SustainabilityInstitute of the Environment
University of Ottawa
Supervisor: Nathan YoungReader: Joshua Ramisch
Abstract
The process of industrial agriculture substantially impacts four planetary boundaries:
climate change, loss of biosphere integrity, land-use change and biogeochemical cycles. In an
effort to mitigate environmental impacts associated with livestock agriculture, a shift to more
plant-based diets has been suggested. Despite robust evidence outlining these ecological impacts,
there is a general public neglect and policy void of the environmental benefits of vegetarianism
or environmentally-conscious consumption. Self-proclaimed rates of vegetarianism remain quite
low, at 3 % of the Canadian population. Paying special attention to the role of environmental
impacts, in addition to pro-environmental arguments and logic in research, an integrative
literature review is used to extract possible reasons for the neglect of vegetarianism. Guided by
an inductive coding approach, identification of barriers and bottlenecks to behavioural change
are analyzed. Moreover, policy recommendations are suggested for shaping pro-environmental
behaviour through adoption of vegetarianism. In doing so, this study demonstrates how the
human dimension is crucial in the struggle for earth system balance.
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Acknowledgments
I would like to gratefully acknowledge Dr. Nathan Young for his exemplary supervision
and guidance throughout the synthesis of this Major Research Paper. Likewise, I would like to
express my sincere gratitude to Joshua Ramisch for reading and grading my dissertation. I would
also like to thank the Institute of the Environment for accepting me into the Master’s of
Environmental Sustainability program and for giving me the opportunity to complete a Major
Research Topic.
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Table of Contents
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..……….......ix
Chapter 1: Scope of the Problem…..……………………………………………………….……...…..….1I. Environmental impacts of Industrial Agriculture…………………………………………...…..…….......1
i. Climate Change…………………………………………………………………………………..2
ii. Land-System Change………………………………………………………….…..…..……..…..4
iii. Water Depletion………………………………………………………..…………...…………..5iv. Mitigation Measures………………………………………………………………..………...…
6v. Context……………………………………………………………….
…………………………..7
II. Mitigation of Environmental Impacts Through a Shift to Plant-Based Diets………………………..…..8
i. Environmental Benefits……………………………………………………….……………….....9ii. Limitations…………………………………………………………….……….……………....11ii. Trends, Motivations & Barriers to
Vegetarianism…………………………………………......13
III. Canadian Context……………………………………………………………………..…...…………..15
i. Agricultural Sector………………………………………………………………………...……15
ii. Greenhouse Gas Emissions……………………………..………………………………….......17
iii. Trends in Consumption…………………………..…………………………………...…….....18
Chapter 2: Barriers to Vegetarianism………….…………………………………………………...…..20I. Research Questions & Purpose…………………………………………………………………...
……..20
II. Design & Methodology……………………….……………………………………………………......20i. Why an Integrative Literature Review…...………………………………………………..
….....21ii. Methodological Approach…………………………..…………………………..
……………...22
III. Results……………….…………………….…………………………………………………….........25i. Screening of Results……..……………………………...…………………………………….…
25ii. General Characteristics of Studies……..………………...……………………………...….
….28
iv
iii. Data Extraction….……..…………………………………………………………...
………....29
IV. Discussion……...…….…………………….………………………………………………………….36i. Information Asymmetry………..……………………………………………………………......37ii. Political Economy……………………………………..………………………………….........40iii. Social Influence……………………….…………………………………………...
…………..43iv. Cognitive Dissonance…………………………………………………………………..
……...45v. Autonomy………………………………………..……………………….……………………..47
Chapter 3: Policy Recommendations…...…………………………………………………..…….…......51I. Informative Tools………………………………….………………………………………..……….…..57
i. Raising Awareness………………………………………………………………………………..58ii. ‘Nudge’ Motivation…………...…………………………………………………..…….………..62
II. Market-based……………………………….……………………………………….…………...……..64i. Subsidies………………………………………………………………………..………….…..
….64ii. Meat Taxes………………………………………………………………..………….……..........67
III. Regulations…………………………….…………………………………………..…….……............69
IV. Conclusion……………………………………..…………………………………..……….…………71
List of Figures
Figure 1. Per capita consumption (kg protein consumed) of livestock from 1980-2014. Calculated using data provided by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. (AAFC, 2014)……………………………………..19
Figure 2. Flow diagram of academic literature obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing. ……………………26
Figure 3. Number of academic journal articles assessed for barriers to plant based diets for each of the 15 key search terms in Web of Science and Google Scholar. …………………………………………………27
Figure 4. Flow diagram of public webpages obtained on the basis of the public search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing……………………...27
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Figure 5. Number of included academic research articles, by year of publication…………………………
28
Figure 6. Total number of primary articles retrieved from academic journal research for each of the 15 key search terms………………………………………………………………………………………………..30
Figure 7. Proportion of codes detected from primary journal articles, contributing to each of the five major themes, regarding barriers to plant-based diets…………………………………………………………….33
Figure 8. Proportion of codes detected from advocacy websites, contributing to each of the five major themes, regarding barriers to plant-based diets…………………………………………………………….33
Figure 9. Number of primary journal articles referencing each of the 7 categories of sociodemographics, that correlate to food consumption behaviour……………………………………………………………36
Figure 10. Schematic of policy instruments comprising information-based, market-based, and regulatory tools, spread along a continuum of authoritative force from autonomy to control (details on these instruments are given in Table 3). …………………………………………………………………………52
Figure 11. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “vegetarian* motivation”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing. …………………………………………………………………….92
Figure 12. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “vegetarian* barrier”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing……………………………………………………………………..93
Figure 13. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “vegetarian* environment”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing……………………………………………………………………..94
Figure 14. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “influence on consumption”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing……………………………………………………………………..95
Figure 15. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “meat consumption”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed
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ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing………………………………………………………………….….96
Figure 16. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “promotion of vegetarian*”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing……………………………………………………………………..97
Figure 17. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “environmentally significant consumption”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing……………………………………………..98
Figure 18. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “limit vegetarian*”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing…………………………………………………………………………………….99
Figure 19. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “obstacle vegetarian*”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing…………………………………………………………………....100
Figure 20. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “advertise food”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing…………………………………………………………………………………...101
Figure 21. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “reducing meat consumption + government”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing…………………………………………….102
Figure 22. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “consumer characteristics + government”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing…………………………………………….103
Figure 23. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “sustainable + vegan”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing……………………………………………………………………104
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Figure 24. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “vegan barrier”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing…………………………………………………………………………………...105
Figure 25. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “sustainable food consumption policy”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing………………………………………………………106
Figure 26. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of autonomy……………………………………………………………………...107
Figure 27. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of cognitive dissonance…………………………………………………….….…107
Figure 28. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of information asymmetry……………………………………………………..…108
Figure 29. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of social influence………………………………………………………….…….109
Figure 30. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of political economy…………………………………………………….………..111
Figure 31. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) underlying the 6 public webpages assessed for barriers to plant based diets……………………………………………………...112
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List of Tables
Table 1. Brief description of key themes identified as barriers to adopting a plant-based diet, including data concerning their frequency with respect to categories, codes, and articles or webpages………….....32
Table 2. Summary of policy instruments and recommendations to combat each of the five barriers to adopting a plant-based diet, and effect pro-environmental change………………………………………..55
Table 3. Detailed outline of the codes-categories-concepts methodology uncovered from the 111 academic journal articles assessed for barriers to plant-based diets. The context (implicit; explicit) in which the code was stated, the referenced article, and the source are also included…………………….113
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Introduction
Evidence suggests that the increasing demand for animal protein worldwide has negative
impacts on environmental sustainability, in addition to human health and food security (Steinfeld
et al., 2006; Garnett, 2011; Porter et al., 2014; Sabaté & Soret, 2014). Several issues include land
degradation, water use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, among others (Steinfeld et al.,
2006). Animal-based or omnivorous diets are more GHG-intensive than their vegetarian
counterparts (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Soret et al., 2014; Tilman & Clark, 2014) predominantly due
to (i) inefficiencies associated with growing crops for animal feed; and (ii) methane emissions
attributed to the digestive processes of ruminant animals (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Consequently,
the livestock industry alone has major environmental implications that must be addressed.
Advances in research and technological innovation in industrial agriculture are underway
for both mitigation and adaptation to climate change (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Porter et al., 2014).
However, despite these technological advances in commercial agricultural production, adoption
of new technologies may not achieve sufficient mitigation in a timely manner. Thus, in
combination with research and technological innovation, changes in individual consumption
behaviours are more likely to promote substantial reductions in GHGs, especially in developed
countries (Garnett, 2011; Garnett, 2013) that exhibit the highest rates of meat consumption on a
global scale (FAO, 2013).
In Canada, sparse data exists on rates of vegetarianism and trends in consumption. Only
one study has attempted to determine the percentage of vegetarians in Canada, however self-
proclaimed rates of vegetarianism may be exaggerated and the data are substantially outdated,
with the study dating back to 2004 (Ipsos-Reid, 2004). In addition, this study was merely a
x
snapshot in time, and consequently gave no insight into trends associated with vegetarian diets.
Per capita animal protein consumption in Canada is currently (2014) at its lowest point since
1981 (AAFC, 2014), suggesting a shift to plant-based, environmentally-conscious diets may be
somewhat attainable.
Studies have found that factors such as human health and animal welfare are more
commonly cited as motivations for adopting plant-based consumption habits, in comparison to
environmental concern (Beardsworth & Keil, 1991; Krizmanic, 1992; Rozin et al., 1997; White
et al., 1999; Potts & White, 2008; Fox & Ward, 2008; Hoffman et al., 2013). Most studies
assume the best way to address this problem is to convince more people to change their dietary
habits (ie. motivation). However, the following analysis examines what is actively discouraging
pro-environmental behavioural change. It is important to specify that motivation is the reason a
person behaves in a particular manner; whereas barriers refer to active discouragement that
prevent a person from acting in a specific way. Moreover, motivational success is considered to
be subsequent to the removal of barriers. Motivational attitudes provide only a piece to the
puzzle, and contrary to the theory of reasoned action, attitudes themselves are poor predictors of
behavioural intention (Vermier & Verbeke, 2006). The importance of the following analysis is
timely, considering no comprehensive analysis of barriers to vegetarianism in developed
countries currently exists (Berg, 2012; Graça et al., 2015).
This research addresses three overarching research questions concerning the
environmental impacts associated with the livestock industry: (i) What is the nature and scale of
the environmental impacts associated with animal agriculture, with a particular focus on
Canada?; (ii) What are the barriers to vegetarianism in western societies?; and (iii) What are
potential policy measures that could be implemented to remove barriers to vegetarianism, and
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invoke a shift to plant-based diets? In order to enable an effective transition to dietary
sustainability, critical barriers must be identified, to subsequently determine potential points for
policy intervention (Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013).
The overall purpose of this research is to examine barriers to vegetarianism in Canada
and Western economies using inductive coding to extract key themes and commonalities found
in various sources of literature. This research did not narrow its scope to one expected barrier ( ie.
failure to diffuse vegetarianism as a technology, media coverage, behavioural factors that shape
decisions, or the political economy of the meat industry), as it was anticipated that all or some of
these factors could be potential impediments to embracing vegetarianism. To the author’s
knowledge, as a comprehensive analysis of barriers to adopting a plant-based diet remains
uninvestigated as of 2016, it is necessary to acquire a complete representation of the issue.
Likewise, an all-encompassing perspective is warranted, as the anticipated dietary transition
would be on an unprecedented scale, likely encountering dietary bottlenecks from individual to
institutional levels (Friel et al., 2009; Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013). A dietary bottleneck is
considered to be a dietary barrier, a point of blockage, that impedes an individual and population
transition to adopting plant-based diets. Once identified, suggestions for combatting these
impediments in Canada are proposed using policy instruments for the purpose of promoting
behavioural shifts to plant-based diets.
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Chapter 1: Scope of Problem
I. Environmental Impacts of Industrial Agriculture
The planetary boundary framework proposed by Rockström et al. (2009), outlines the
intersection of nine biophysical processes and systems that stabilize the earth system upon which
humanity can safely operate. Transgression of planetary boundaries by means of anthropogenic
activity can cause irreversible environmental damages that could inadvertently force the earth
system into an inhospitable state (Rockström et al., 2009). Using this schema, Steffen et al.
(2015) have concluded that human-induced changes to earth system thresholds have surpassed
four out of nine planetary boundaries. Industrial agriculture contributes substantially to all four
of the surpassed boundaries: Climate change, Loss of biosphere integrity, Land-system change
and Biogeochemical flows (WHO, 2005; Steinfeld et al., 2006; Steffen et al., 2015).
Concurrently, transgression of planetary boundaries such as climate change negatively impacts
global food systems (Parry & Ruttan, 1991; Mendelsohn et al., 1994; Easterling et al., 2007),
thus creating a positive feedback that exacerbates the initial push on the ecosystem.
The first goal of the international food system is to feed people effectively on a global
scale, while combatting the wide-ranging environmental problems associated with food
production (Godfray et al., 2010; Garnett, 2013). These are significant challenges. The process
of raising animals for human consumption is fundamentally inefficient, with a progressive loss of
energy throughout the trophic chain (Pimentel & Pimentel, 2003), conflicting with the
optimization of food supply. This highlights the significance of human consumption on global
food security and environmental degradation, which are inextricably linked (Garnett, 2011;
Sabaté & Soret, 2014).
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The global food system is essential to our survival, nevertheless it contributes
significantly to environmental degradation through elevated GHG emissions, deforestation,
biodiversity impacts, water depletion and pollution (WHO, 2005; Steinfeld et al., 2006; Steffen
et al., 2015). For instance, on a worldwide basis, agriculture accounts for nearly a third of all
GHG emissions (Vermeulen et al., 2012). Contribution to environmental damages within the
food system is widespread, from production to processing, packaging, distribution, retail, waste
and consumption (Garnett, 2008; Godfray et al., 2010; Garnett, 2013; Porter et al., 2014). A
whole systems approach is necessary to achieve sufficient mitigation of environmental damage.
However, the greater part of degradation is inherent to the initial production of food commodities
(Garnett, 2011), which is intrinsically driven by consumption patterns of the global population.
Of the two main agricultural divisions (crop and livestock), the livestock sector is under
particular scrutiny. Evidence from an increasing number of studies suggests that the expanding
demand for animal-protein consumption has negative impacts on environmental sustainability
(Steinfeld et al., 2006; Stehast et al., 2009; Porter et al., 2014; Sabaté & Soret, 2014; Steffen et
al., 2015). Steinfeld et al. (2006) cites the livestock sector as one of the most substantial
contributors to severe environmental issues on local and global scales, as a result of GHG
emissions, land degradation, and water use. A common issue tying all three together refers to the
inefficiency of growing crops for animal feed, which also has implications for food security.
i. Climate Change
Anthropogenic climate change is a prevalent issue, caused primarily by the emission of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere (IPCC, 1994). Many countries are trying to limit
their environmental footprint by reducing prominent GHG emissions (CO2, CH4, N2O) in many
2
sectors. The global food sector contributes significantly to climate change through elevated GHG
emissions, particularly methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (WHO, 2005). Energy use (CO2)
is a relatively low contributor to agricultural emissions; rather, emissions are dominated by
manure (N2O), fertilizer (N2O), land-use change (CO2), and enteric fermentation (CH4) (Steinfeld
et al., 2006; Stehast et al., 2009).
On a worldwide basis, livestock agriculture accounts for nearly a fifth (18 %) of all GHG
emissions. To put this into perspective, livestock’s contribution to anthropogenic GHG emissions
is greater than the global, energy-intensive transportation sector (Steinfeld et al., 2006).
Moreover, livestock contributes 37 % and 65 % of global CH4 and N2O emissions respectively
(Steinfeld et al., 2006). Ruminants (ie. cattle, sheep) account for a greater share of livestock
emissions in comparison to monogastrics (ie. pigs, poultry) (Crutzen et al., 1986; Stehast et al.,
2009). The contrast in emissions among animals is mainly affected by enteric ecology, energy
expenditure, and body weight, in addition to the quantity and type of feed material necessary for
sustenance (Crutzen et al., 1986; Burke and Lashof, 1989; Kulshreshtha et al., 1999).
In order to combat global warming, it is essential to achieve the national targets identified
(Intended Nationally Determined Contributions) at the United Framework Convention on
Climate Change’s twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties (COP21). Globally, it was
agreed that average temperatures must remain below 2°C warming relative to pre-industrial
levels, with efforts to limit warming to 1.5°C (UNFCCC, 2016). Despite having already entered
a zone of uncertainty with respect to the planetary boundary of climate change (Steffen et al.,
2015), CO2 emissions must remain below 450ppm to avoid surpassing global warming of 2°C
(IPCC, 2014). Consequently, the current emissions trajectory must be substantially reduced
(IPCC, 2014). Given that livestock accounts for a fifth of all GHG emissions (Steinfeld et al.,
3
2006), acceleration of technological innovation in the livestock sector is crucial, in combination
with considerable changes in public consumption patterns, to mitigate this significant source of
emissions (Stehast et al., 2009).
ii. Land-System Change
Land-system change is fundamentally linked to CO2 emissions, with roughly 6 – 17 % of
global emissions attributable to agricultural land-system change alone (Bellarby et al., 2008).
Degradation of forests for agricultural conversion not only releases GHG emissions into the
atmosphere, but also reduces the capacity of the earth to uptake CO2, thus impacting the climate
cycle by eliminating an essential carbon sink (Steinfeld et al., 2006).
Livestock agricultural land comprises both grazing land and cropland necessary to
produce feed for livestock respectively (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Accordingly, approximately 25 –
26 % (> 33 million km2) of global ice-free land surface is used solely for livestock grazing
(Asner et al., 2004; Steinfeld et al., 2006; Stehast et al., 2009), with an additional 33 % of total
arable land used for feed crop cultivation to feed livestock (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Consequently,
livestock single-handedly account for the most extensive form of anthropogenic land-use in the
world (Asner et al., 2004; Steinfeld et al., 2006). In terms of agricultural production, 70 % of
total agricultural land is used for animal grazing (Asner et al., 2004; Steinfeld et al., 2006;
Stehast et al., 2009), which could be substantially reduced with a global shift away from animal
consumption.
The degradation of pastures and rangeland occupied by livestock exacerbates the
environmental impacts associated with land-system change. Dependent on geographic location
and associated climatic factors, degradation of land quality varies substantially. Yet, roughly 20
4
% of pastures and rangeland have deteriorated on a global scale (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Thus, the
cumulative impacts of forest eradication and land degradation have resulted in the loss of a
beneficial carbon sink, reducing the global capacity for natural uptake of CO2 (Steinfeld et al.,
2006).
In the United Kingdom, a more centrally focused study found that inclusion of
consumption-induced land-use change increased the environmental footprint of the entire food
system by 50 %. Moreover, roughly 75 % of land-use change emissions in the UK were
attributable to livestock alone (Audsley et al., 2009).
The world has entered into a land-system change planetary boundary of uncertainty, with
substantial reductions in original forest cover (Steffen et al., 2015). Consequently, industrial
livestock agriculture must be reduced to limit further land-system change and degradation, and
provide an opportunity for regrowth of a former naturally occurring CO2 sink. Likewise, a
reduction in livestock agriculture is necessary to achieve the aforementioned targets set forth at
COP21 this past year.
iii. Water Depletion
Water is an integral part of the planet; it forms the basis of social and economic activity,
ecosystems, and life itself. Without water, we cannot survive. Though global freshwater use is
still within its planetary limits (Steffen et al., 2015), there is worry that exponential population
growth coupled with anthropogenic reliance on water, will push the freshwater resource past its
boundary in many regions.
Globally, agriculture consumes 70% of anthropogenic freshwater withdrawals (WWAP,
2012). However, water requirements vary substantially for differing foods, forage crops for
5
livestock, and animal consumption directly. For comparison purposes, production of 1kg of beef
uses 100 times more water than production of 1kg of grain when taking into account forage and
grain production for ruminant consumption (Pimentel & Pimentel, 1996; Pimentel & Pimentel,
2003). Though comparisons differ according to animal protein, size, and associated crop feed
(Pimentel & Pimentel, 2003), it has been suggested ruminants specifically, require exponentially
more water in comparison to various grains, beans, and vegetables (Olson-Sawyer, 2013).
It is estimated that if the world were to continue on its current trajectory of meat
consumption (animal protein constitutes >20% total calories), freshwater resources will be
depleted by 2050 (Jägerskog & Clausen, 2012). Yet, if consumption of animal protein is limited
to 5% of total calories, “there will, however, be just enough water” (Jägerskog & Clausen, 2012)
to remain within the planetary boundary. Furthermore, regional deficits in water can be
overcome with an ethical and organized system of food trade (Jägerskog & Clausen, 2012).
iv. Mitigation Measures
Substantial research is underway to help mitigate the impact of livestock farming on
global warming and other planetary boundaries (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Porter et al., 2014).
Mitigation measures can be broadly classified into five different categories: enhancing carbon
removals, optimizing nutrient use, improving productivity, managing and benefitting from
agricultural outputs, and reducing carbon intensity of fuel inputs (Smith et al., 2007; Garnett,
2011). Likewise, examples of solutions to reduce environmental impacts associated with
agriculture include reforestation, changes in the energy system (Fisher et al., 2007; Metz et al.,
2007; van Vuuren et al., 2007), management of livestock diets (including use of supplements)
(Beauchemin et al., 2007; Porter et al., 2014), fertilizer selection and manipulation (Dobbie &
6
Smith, 2003), and anaerobic digestion biotechnologies (McAllister et al., 1996; Amon et al.,
2006), to name but a few.
However, many issues arise with relying on technological improvements. First,
development and adoption of these technologies could realistically take years, and even then,
will not achieve sufficient mitigation to remain within planetary boundaries. Second, these
efforts are focused on-site (e.g. energy usage), and don’t incorporate a whole system approach
for effective mitigation (Stewart, 2009; Crosson et al., 2011; Nguyen et al., 2013), including
both onsite and off (Weiske et al., 2006), such as the food chain (Garnett, 2011). Third, present
trends in animal-protein demand are counteracting the improvements of technology, as meat
consumption is increasing on a global scale (Carlsson-Kanyama, 1998). Thus, in combination
with research and technological innovation, avoidance of severe agriculture impacts on the
integrity of the earth system are likely only to materialize with changes in individual food
consumption (Garnett, 2011; Garnett, 2013), by means of transitioning to locally sourced, less-
industrialized organic foods, reducing caloric intake and waste, and shifting to plant-based diets
(Duchin, 2005; Foster et al., 2006; FAO, 2010; Reisch et al., 2013). The latter is the focus of this
research, given its greater environmental, but also personal health, social, and resulting economic
benefits (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Stehast et al., 2009; McMichael et al., 2007).
v. Context
Livestock production, and consequently animal protein consumption has been well-
established in the literature, especially since the UN’s FAO publication of Livestock’s Long
Shadow (Steinfeld et al., 2006). However, climate change mitigation policies have focused
predominantly on the energy sector, while the agriculture sector has received considerably less
7
attention despite the relatively undisputed science (Stehfast et al., 2009; van Dooren et al.,
2014). Though Canada has less proportional emissions from the agricultural sector in
comparison to other countries, the lesser fraction is attributed to Canada’s (i) extensive fossil fuel
industry (contributing 26% of total emissions), and (ii) substantial animal product imports,
especially dairy (CDIC, 2015) and red meat (AAFC, 2016), which are not accounted for within
the national emissions breakdown. Thus, changes in consumption could have cross-border
effects in environmental mitigation, while also providing an example for other countries to
follow suit. To further drive the point of dietary benefits home, a global transition to plant-based
diets could reduce the costs of climate change mitigation by 50% in 2050 (Stehfast et al., 2009;
de Boer et al., 2016), and would save more emissions on an individual level than converting to
driving an ultra-efficient hybrid (ie. Prius) (Eshel & Martin, 2005). A more detailed analysis
regarding the bottom up approach of a shift to plant-based diets to mitigate environmental
impacts of agriculture, follows.
II. Mitigation of Environmental Impacts through a Shift to Plant-Based Diets
Evidence suggests that animal-based diets are more environmentally-intensive than their
vegetarian1 counterparts, predominantly attributed to (i) inefficiencies associated with growing
crops for animal feed, and (ii) methane emissions associated with digestive processes of
ruminant animals (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Many studies suggest that dietary change in Western
societies could help to reduce environmental impacts, primarily GHG emissions. Developed
countries exhibit the highest rates of meat intake and overconsumption worldwide (FAO, 2013),
signifying that dietary modification from diets rich in animal products (Garnett, 2011; Garnett,
2013), to more sustainable plant-based diets (Sabaté & Soret, 2014) could mitigate the effects of 1For the purpose of this research, vegetarian encompasses a predominantly plant-based diet. As veganism is considered to be the truest form of vegetarianism, it is also incorporated into this term.
8
climate change from GHGs (Aiking et al., 2006; McMichael et al., 2007), in addition to food
security. Diverting grains from animal intake to direct human consumption would also result in
an increase in total food protein, albeit relatively small (CAST, 1999). Nevertheless, the benefits
of transitioning to a plant-based diet outweigh the environmental and socio-economic costs of
animal-protein consumption. Given the considerable acknowledgement and relatively undisputed
evidence of the contribution of livestock production to global issues, it is surprising policy has
yet to intervene. Mitigation of environmental impacts through a shift to plant-based diets is not
unrealistic; increasing concern for the environment and human health in developed economies
are two compelling, empirically based reasons for dietary transition (Duchin, 2005).
i. Environmental Benefits
Researchers are increasingly finding that vegetarian or restricted-meat diets are
associated with significant reductions in GHGs (Salonen & Helne, 2012; Hallström et al., 2014;
Masset et al., 2014; Berady, 2015). For example, a study by Soret et al. (2014) found that a
vegetarian diet has 29.2% less associated GHG emissions per day than an omnivorous lifestyle.
Scarborough et al. (2014) examined the difference in GHG emissions among vegans,
vegetarians, fish-eaters, and meat-eaters, ages 20-79. Using a standard 2,000kcal diet adjusted
for gender and age, individual GHG emissions (kgCO2e/day) were highest for meat eaters.
Emissions declined with lower levels of meat consumption, and accordingly, were lowest for
vegans. The study concluded that individual GHG emissions were roughly twice as high for
meat-eaters, in comparison to vegans and vegetarians.
If all citizens were to shift their diets, it has been predicted that emissions would be
reduced by 29% simply by adopting global dietary guidelines on healthy eating and responsible
9
energy intake. Moreover, emissions would be reduced by 63% through global acceptance of
vegetarian diets, and by 70% via veganism (Springmann et al., 2016). Though these three
scenarios are not realistic on a worldwide level, they demonstrate the range of environmental
benefits of progressively excluding animal-based foods from human consumption. This analysis
suggests that all animal-based diets are damaging to the environment, and a truly plant-based diet
(vegan) will be needed to most effectively mitigate agriculture’s ecological impacts. However, a
global dietary transition to veganism is improbable. Hence, this Major Research Paper
emphasizes a decrease in livestock consumption through plant-based diets more generally, which
are expected to achieve sizable emissions reductions on both individual and global scales.
Other research suggests that small changes could also have a substantial impact. Masset
et al. (2014) suggest that a decrease in consumption-related GHGs by 20% is realistic without
jeopardizing nutritional quality and affordability. Achieving this goal would simply require
reducing the density and energy intake of meat products, while increasing the volume of plant-
based crops.
Alternatively, Stehfest et al., (2009) used modelling techniques to estimate livestock
impacts on climate change for various circumstances. The study modelled different scenarios of
GHG emissions with respect to population growth, per capita income, and the growing demand
for meat products worldwide. It was concluded that conversion to low-meat or vegetarian diets
would (i) make more land available for carbon uptake by vegetation; and (ii) substantially reduce
CH4 and N2O emissions. In addition to these benefits, it was estimated that low-intensity diets
would simultaneously achieve a 450ppm CO2eq stabilization target (by 2050) at 50% less cost
than mitigation policies such as carbon pricing. Plant-based diets have also been found to have
10
less associated GHG emissions than their omnivorous counterparts in terms of other varying
measures including calories, grams of protein and serving size (Tilman & Clark, 2014).
ii. Limitations
On the basis of a life-cycle assessment, Baroni et al., (2016) discovered a resource impact
reduction of 38% and 62% for a vegetarian and vegan diet, respectively. Likewise, Rejinders &
Soret (2003) suggest that the environmental impact of omnivorous meals are 1.5 - 2 times greater
than vegetarian alternatives, where meat is replaced by plant protein. Lastly, Tom et al., (2015)
also conducted a lifecycle analysis to understand the implications of dietary change for three
differing dietary scenarios within the context of the 2010 USDA Dietary Guidelines. The latter
analysis found that resource use and emissions per calorie were higher under the recommended
guidelines which incorporated a greater caloric intake of fruits, vegetables, dairy and seafood.
The life-cycle analysis by Tom et al. (2015) received viral attention for its contradictory results.
Consequently, the study has been recently scrutinized by other academics stressing the many
challenges in assessing environmental consequences of differing diet regimens, particularly with
respect to quantifiable life-cycle analyses (Cucurachi et al., 2016). Cucurachi et al. (2016) argue
that marginal data and operational tools to quantify marginal impacts are infrequently available,
and additional research is needed to make accurate, quantifiable life-cycle comparisons of
dietary changes. Specific to the study conducted by Tom et al. (2015), Cucurachi et al. (2016)
emphasize issues with respect to the use of meta-analyses, and associated standardization, given
the varying system boundaries of life cycle analyses.
It is noteworthy to add that there are also environmental issues associated with some
plant-based foods. For instance, frozen foods, long-distance air transport of exotic foods
11
(Rejinders & Soret, 2003), or pre-washed highly packaged salad greens (Nereng et al., 2009)
may be more burdensome than consumption of a locally sourced chicken breast. Csutora (2012)
argues that occasionally, when a behavioural change in society is achieved, the resulting
observed ecological effect is not what is anticipated. For instance, he suggests that though
effective communication and policy instruments could invoke behavioural changes in consumers
to adopt plant-based diets, their ecological footprint may not change. Examples include
substitution of meat products for water and GHG-intensive imported and exotic vegan foods by
newly converted vegetarians, which would counteract the shift to vegetarianism. This occurrence
is known as the behaviour-impact gap (BIG) problem. Similarly, Audsley et al. (2009) also states
that environmental impacts will depend greatly upon how consumers compensate for animal-
protein, as some meat-alternatives (e.g. soy) can actually be more environmentally demanding
with respect to the planetary boundary framework. Thus, the shift in consumption to
environmentally conscious, plant-based diets must focus on improving vegetable, cereal, nut, and
seed intake to uphold sustainability, rather than switching to meat alternatives, and should thus
be a consideration when developing policies. Regardless, transitioning from animal-based to
plant-based diets would substantially aid in mitigating environmental impacts of the food
industry.
Elimination of meat and/or dairy products is anticipated to achieve more substantial
reductions in GHG emissions in comparison to reducing food waste, eating seasonally, locally,
decreasing consumption of foods with low nutritional value (Garnett, 2011; Meier et al., 2014),
and reducing overconsumption of calories (IFPRI, 2016). Though examination of all of these
factors are out of the scope of this Major Research Paper, it is important to emphasize that a
12
combination of these practices would likely achieve a more environmentally sustainable
consumption pattern; all of which are dependent upon individual behaviour.
iii. Trends, Motivations & Barriers to Vegetarianism
Despite a recent surge of attention to vegetarianism, the literature base surrounding these
challenges is quite small, and has only recently been explored, specifically with regards to
motivations for vegetarianism, relationships between dietary patterns and environmental
concerns, and barriers to, and potential for behavioural change. Though environmental concern is
a critical catalyst of climate-friendly action, it is infrequently considered as a consumer
motivation for adopting vegetarianism (Fransson & Gärling, 1999; Wakefield et al., 2006).
Surveys conducted in Western countries (USA, UK, Canada, New Zealand) suggest that merely
1-8 % of people become vegetarians based solely upon ecological interest (Beardsworth & Keil,
1991; Krizmanic, 1992; Rozin et al., 1997; White et al., 1999; Potts & White, 2008; Fox &
Ward, 2008; Hoffman et al., 2013). Alternatively, prevalent factors motivating vegetarians
include health, ethics and animal rights.
Similarly, it has been found that people not only differ in their level of environmentally-
conscious food behaviours, but also behaviour type regarding product choice or curtailment in
general (Verain et al., 2015). Vegetarianism currently ranks low on the list of sustainable
practices that individuals participate in, or generally consider for that matter. A study by Griffin
& Sobal (2013) in upstate New York, noted that roughly 9.6% of randomly selected survey
respondents participated in vegetarianism (ie. meat curtailment) as an environmentally-friendly
activity. This percentage, though seemingly high, also significantly correlated with food allergies
and eating disorders, and should thus be interpreted with caution. Nonetheless, this figure was
13
low in comparison to other ‘sustainable’ activities including visiting farmer’s markets,
composting, gardening and purchasing organic groceries. Among vegetarian respondents, plant-
based diets were most common among the unmarried, employed, and student populations.
Likewise, based on a population-based longitudinal study of the Swiss Food Panel (Switzerland),
Siegrist et al. (2015) reported that curtailing meat products was at the low end of perceived
environmental benefits of food consumption, with local foods, packaging, import rates, seasonal
produce, and organic groceries ranking higher. Lastly, Solonen & Helne (2012) analyzed Finnish
university students’ views on sustainability activities and reported similar results to the
abovementioned studies. Out of 36 items assessed in terms of environmental, economic, and
social sustainability, respondents ranked vegetarianism as the least important contributor.
Considering the environmental, personal health, economic, and social benefits of adopting a
plant-based diet, this finding is seemingly irrational.
Thus, these preliminary findings suggest that a lack of knowledge concerning the
environmental benefits associated with livestock curtailment has resulted in a lost opportunity.
Evidence suggests that poor supply, habit, and moral disengagement may affect curtailment of
meat consumption based on the few survey-based studies conducted thus far (Zur & Klöckner,
2012; Graça et al., 2014; Mäkiniemi & Vainio, 2014). However, barriers to vegetarianism in
Western economies have not been explicitly and comprehensively researched. Similar to a cost-
benefit analysis, the argument suggests that only when the benefits outweigh the barriers to
change, will a behavioural transition occur (Lea & Worsley, 2003). Thus, to enable an effective
transition to dietary sustainability, critical bottlenecks must be identified, in order to
subsequently identify potential points for policy intervention (Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013).
14
This study examines barriers, broadly construed, rather than specifics, (ie. failure to
diffuse vegetarianism as a technology, media coverage, behavioural factors that shape decisions,
or the political economy of the meat industry) because it is anticipated that some or all of these
factors will reveal themselves as dietary bottlenecks, after extensive analysis of the literature.
Though the topic is broad in scope, it is important to recognize the central research hypothesis
that potentially multiple factors are inhibiting the proposed dietary change. As a comprehensive
analysis of barriers to adopting a plant-based diet remains uninvestigated, it is essential to get a
complete representation of the issue. Future research could then focus on a narrower and more
specific approach to each of the identified bottlenecks uncovered in this integrative literature
review.
III. Canadian Context
i. Agricultural Sector
In Canada, the agriculture sector is composed of roughly 205 000 farms (Beaulieu, 2014),
with Western Canada contributing to the bulk of crop production, and Eastern Canada focusing
primarily on livestock (Kulshreshtha et al., 1999). Despite a complex and integrated supply
chain, agricultural production is the foundation of the agriculture and agri-food system in
Canada, given the direct relationships with the remainder of the industry (AAFC, 2015a).
The agriculture and agri-food system (AAFS) comprises a multifaceted supply chain with
agricultural producers, suppliers, food processors, retailers, and foodservice providers (AAFC,
2015a). Thus, the integrated supply chain contributes directly and indirectly to GDP and
employment rates in Canada (AAFC, 2015a). As an aggregate, the complex industry generated
15
$106.9 billion in 2013, or 6.7% of Canada’s GDP, ranking the AAFS as seventh-largest
contributor to GDP across sectors. Of this contribution, more than 80% of GDP generated by
primary agriculture and food processing was attributed to four provinces: Ontario, Quebec,
Alberta, Saskatchewan (AAFC, 2015a). The agriculture and agri-food industry is an important
economic player, employing over 2.2 million people equaling 12.3% of all Canadian jobs
(AAFC, 2015a). Primary agriculture specifically, accounted for 1.3% of Canada’s GDP and
1.6% of all Canadian jobs in 2013 (AAFC, 2015a).
As of 2013, Canada was the fifth largest exporter of agriculture and agri-food products
globally, following the EU, US, Brazil, and China (AAFC, 2015a). With export sales at $46
billion, Canada maintained a 3.5% share of total world agricultural and agri-food exports. Of the
$46 billion in exports, animal products accounted for 17.9% (AAFC, 2015a). Moreover, on a
volume basis, 65% of hog and pork products, and 46% of cattle and beef products were exported
(AAFC, 2015a). Nevertheless, Canada remains a large importer of agriculture and agri-food
products, with imports amounting to $34.3 billion in 2013 (AAFC, 2015a). Over a quarter
(28.8%) all Canadian agriculture and agri-food imports are attributed to plant-based products,
specifically fruits and vegetables (AAFC, 2015a).
In 2013, provincial and federal government expenditures of $6.2 billion contributed to
31.2% of agricultural GDP (AAFC, 2015a). Total government expenditures vary considerably
across provinces, however program payments, research, and inspection account for the majority
of monetary support across the nation (AAFC, 2015a). Though program support has declined
over the last decade, financial subsidies from both levels of government remain substantial.
16
ii. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
In Canada, agriculture accounts for roughly 10 % of national GHG emissions (CO2eq) by
economic sector, contributing 27 % and 70 % of total CH4 and N2O emissions respectively, not
including the use of fossil fuels, land-use change or indirect emissions from activities such as
fertilizer production and imports (Kulshreshtha et al., 1999; AAFC, 2000; O’Mara, 2011;
Environment Canada, 2015;). Likewise, contributing most prominently to total emissions in
decreasing order, include enteric fermentation and agriculture soils, manure management and
fertilizer use (Beauchemin, et al., 2010; Environment Canada, 2015). The GHG intensity of crop
and animal production in Canada dwarfs all other sectors with ratio of 3.1 tonnes of CO2eq /
$1000 production. To put this into perspective oil and gas extraction has a ratio of 1.4 tonnes of
CO2eq / $1000 production (Statistics Canada, 2011). This is mostly attributed to the fact that
agriculture is CH4 and N2O intensive, which have much higher 100 year global warming
potentials (25 and 298 respectively) in comparison to the baseline of CO2 (Soloman et al., 2007).
Though emissions from agricultural production (livestock, crop, and on-site energy
emissions) have increased, reductions in GHGs from land use and land-use change decreased by
a greater amount, yielding an 8.1% reduction in absolute emissions from the agricultural sector
since 1990 (AAFC, 2015a). Improved land management practices have reduced anthropogenic
GHG contributions, while enhancing soil sequestration of carbon. Increasingly, producers are
implementing Environmental Farm Plans (EFP), and adopting Beneficial Management Practices
(BMPs) to strengthen environmentally friendly practices onsite (AAFC, 2015a).
17
iii. Trends in Consumption
Examining trends in consumption is important to develop a sense regarding how
vegetarianism is (or is not) resonating with consumers. Ultimately, it has been found that many
citizens do not exhibit climate-friendly food consumption. As of the last documented study
conducted in Canada, rates of vegetarianism remain quite low, at 3% of the population (Ipsos-
Reid, 2004). As mentioned earlier, however, the study is outdated and reveals no longitudinal
trends that could correlate to the documented increase in attention to environmental issues and
recent influx of publications, documentaries and media outlining the vast array of problems
pertaining to animal agriculture (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Andersen & Kuhn, 2014). Regardless,
this percentage is too low to combat the environmental issues associated with the agricultural
industry. Given the environmental benefits of a plant-based diet, the greater the proportion of the
population who practices sustainable consumption, the better.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada further provide insight to consumption habits in
Canada through data (1981-present) concerning per capita consumption of animal products
(Figure 1). The amount of animal protein consumed (kg consumption) is currently at an all-time
low despite fluctuations per protein source (AAFC, 2014), suggesting a further decrease in
animal-protein consumption may be obtainable. Since 1980, reductions in beef (-32%) and pork
(-36%) have counteracted the increase in consumption of poultry (+34%). Reductions are
predominantly due to an aging population, concerned with the health impacts of red meat, and
increased prices for both beef and pork (Conference Board of Canada, 2015). Despite this trend
in consumption, however, demand for animal products is considered to be on the rise, suggesting
a strong willingness to pay under certain conditions (FCC, 2015), ultimately contradicting the
apparent shift to lower meat consumption.
18
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
0
20
40
60
80
100
120Chicken Beef Pork Total Livestock
Year
Prot
ein C
onsu
med
(kg)
Figure 1. Per capita consumption (kg protein consumed) of livestock from 1980-2014. Calculated using data provided by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. (AAFC, 2014).
Canadian household expenditures on food and non-alcoholic beverages averaged $7,738,
26% of which was attributable to animal products. Total agricultural sales increased in all
commodities from 2003-2013 (AAFC, 2015a). Nevertheless, the share of market receipts from
red meat, dairy, and poultry and eggs declined by 8.2%, 3.9%, and 0.9% respectively over the
same time frame, mostly due to a substantial increase in the commodity share of grains and
oilseeds (AAFC, 2015a).
In conclusion, consumption trends from data provided by AAFC, help to summarize the
state of the industrial livestock agricultural problem in Canada. Given the declining trend of
animal protein consumption in Canada, coercive policy reductions may be accepted by the
general public. Currently, however, the livestock industry remains robust.
19
Chapter 2: Barriers to Vegetarianism
I. Research Questions & Purpose
Chapters two and three focus on the latter research questions of dietary transition: (i)
What are the barriers to vegetarianism in Canada?; and (ii) What are potential policy measures
that could be implemented to remove the barriers to vegetarianism, and invoke a shift to plant-
based diets?
The primary purpose of this research is to fill a gap (Berg, 2012; Graça et al., 2015) in
the literature with respect to barriers to vegetarianism, with a policy emphasis on Canada. This
research aims to examine the bottlenecks to vegetarianism in Canada and Western societies using
an a posteriori inductive coding scheme to extract key themes and commonalities found
throughout various sources of research. The inductive coding approach is useful to determine the
frequency and prevalence of dietary bottlenecks unveiled throughout the literature. The
quantitative component of analyzing the frequency of barriers, contributes a concrete analysis for
comparison, while improving replicability and limiting subjectivity of the study, in comparison
to a solely qualitative approach. The study concludes with recommendations of potential policy
measures that could be implemented to overcome the identified barriers and promote behavioural
change to more environmentally-conscious diets.
II. Design & Methodology
This research combined the results of multiple studies to appropriately identify barriers to
vegetarianism in Canada and Western economies, in an environmental context. Methodology for
this study consisted of a rigorous integrative literature review, as outlined by Torraco (2005).
20
This approach offered a rigorous analysis of the literature, synthesizing findings across studies
with the goal of producing novel results.
i. Why an Integrative Literature Review?
An integrative literature review is a form of research that reviews and organizes a wide
array of information in a coherent manner, to distill data and generate novel outcomes. A
comprehensive literature review is of relevance for identifying barriers to vegetarianism for a
number of reasons (Torraco, 2005). First, barriers to vegetarianism in Western societies are
poorly examined, given the question is essentially uninvestigated and research has yet to
systematically consider all available literature relating to consumer dietary behaviour.
Consequently, as a new topic, the research area could profit from a holistic conceptualization and
integration of literature to date (Torraco, 2005). Second, the need for policy intervention, and the
potential for policy development is considerable if sufficient and integrated evidence is provided.
Third, the complexity and broadness of the research question requires a more comprehensive
approach. Last, addressing this question is essential for the future direction of prospective
research.
Integrative literature reviews are useful for compiling data to more appropriately grasp
general conclusions. Single studies, although highly valuable and designed with more inferential
power, may not portray the full breadth of the issue. Rather, by examining a number of studies,
covering a large geographical area, time span and population, synthesized outcomes can be more
advantageous (Patausso, 2013). In addition, because of its transparent nature, inclusion and
exclusion of citations are made explicit. Rigorous, integrative literature reviews are highly
valuable, in providing a critical analysis of existing research, and formulating novel knowledge
21
(Torraco, 2005). However, qualitative methods sometimes lack social acceptance in research,
predominantly due to a lack of systematic methodology that can bridge qualitative and
quantitative realms (Boyatzis, 1998). This integrative literature review uses inductive coding to
demonstrate logical consistency, a high degree of clarity, and rigorous thematic evaluation in its
approach, while bridging qualitative and quantitative realms via frequency analysis. Likewise,
thematic inductive coding was applied to minimize subjectivity and facilitate replicability of
results, through organization of the data to develop themes (Boyatzis, 1998) of barriers to plant-
based diets.
However, like most studies, reviews are vulnerable to methodological biases (Petticrew
& Roberts, 2006). Inexorably, reviews are reflective of the biases and issues of the incorporated
information (Crowther & Cook, 2007). The integrative literature review may miss out on
important insights, simply by means of the inclusion criteria, or the exclusion of novel
unpublished data. Despite considerable effort to maintain objectivity, it is likely reviewer bias
will be incorporated.
ii. Methodological Approach
Search Protocol
Academic Search Protocol
Database searches were conducted in February, 2016 to retrieve relevant research
articles. The comprehensive approach included the following 15 key search terms: vegetarian*
motivation, vegetarian* barrier, vegetarian* environment*, promotion of vegetarian*, influences
on consumption, meat consumption, environmentally significant consumption, limit vegetarian*,
22
obstacle vegetarian*, advertise* food, reducing meat consumption + government, consumer
characteristics + vegetarian*, sustainable + vegan*, vegan* barrier, and sustainable food
consumption policy. Identical search terms were not used for vegetarian* and vegan in an effort
to reduce redundancy, as both search terms generated identical articles. Literature was accessed
through Web of Science for the former 14 key search terms, and Google Scholar for “sustainable
food consumption policy”, given the policy basis of the latter search criteria. Retrieved research
articles included primary, secondary and conceptual works. Retrieved articles were from a
diverse array of (i) sources, including journal articles, and conference proceedings; and (ii)
fields, namely science, sociology, psychology and policy. Reference lists of relevant articles
were also examined, determining additional highly relevant and useful articles for inclusion.
In an effort to minimize the potential for extensive contribution of irrelevant literature
through Web of Science only the first 50 items (per search term) were examined for relevance to
the topic. Likewise, only the first 20 items (per search term) were examined for relevance
through Google Scholar, as a saturation point was reached, in which further reading did not lead
to new information. Consequently, it was anticipated that the search would yield 770 articles for
examination. Though 770 articles are considered to be lesser in comparison to other studies, a
limitation was needed given the two-month timeline for the current research. In addition, many
of the search terms generated few articles and thus, the quota was not considered to limit the
outcomes of the analysis.
As the search fell short of the aforementioned quotas, the key search terms generated
only 460 articles for examination. It was assumed that these boundaries fully encompassed the
scope of the question at hand, and without altering study outcomes. Furthermore, it is believed
that a saturation point was reached, in which further reading would not have led to new
23
information. Further acknowledged research constraints include consideration of items only
conducted in western countries that were available online, and in English.
Throughout this review, both explicit and implicit barriers to plant-based diets were
examined. Explicit (manifest-level) barriers are defined as dietary hurdles that were clearly
stated from the literature (Boyatzis, 1998). Alternatively, implicit (latent-level) barriers are
considered to be obstacles that were underlying the literature, but not clearly stated (Boyatzis,
1998).
Public Search Protocol
Database searches in Google Chrome strived to give a sense of publicly available
information, beyond the scholarly literature. Searches were conducted in an incognito format, to
eliminate the use of cookies, browsing, and downloading history that could hinder replicability
of the study methods. Unfortunately, use of the aforementioned key search terms did not yield
useful information. As a result, only two key search terms were considered for the non-academic
search protocol: vegetarian motivation and vegetarian barrier. For each of these key search
terms, the first 30 webpages were examined for relevance to the topic, resulting in a total of 60
webpages with the potential to be incorporated into the literature review. However, the search
yielded only 6 articles of use, including advocacy and news webpages.
The public search protocol also incorporated two phrases to acquire a general
understanding of what curious citizens may discover if they were to look to the internet for
answers regarding vegetarianism. The two catch phrases comprised: “vegetarian [vegan] diet
better for the environment”, and “why should I eat a plant-based diet”. For each search phrase,
the first 50 webpages were examined for trends.
24
III. Results
i. Screening of Results
The initial literature search yielded 520 articles from the database searches including 460
journal articles from Web of Science (n = 440) and Google Scholar (n = 20) (Figure 2), in
addition to advocacy websites from Google Chrome (n = 60) (Figure 4). After screening the title,
key words and abstract of retrieved articles according to date (1980 - 2016), language (English),
source (reputable organization, journal articles, etc.), location of study (exclusion of developing
countries) and relevance of topic (consumer dietary behaviour and influences), 129 academic
journal articles required full text review, in addition to 10 advocacy websites. Following the full
text review, 27 academic journal articles and 4 advocacy websites were excluded as a result of
irrelevance and duplication, yet 9 supplementary academic journal articles were added from
reference lists of the identified articles. Out of the initial 520 articles, 117 were used in the
literature review analysis, 111 of which derived from academic journal articles, with 6 from
advocacy websites. The inclusion and exclusion of articles from the literature review are
summarized below for academic research articles (Figure 2), and the corresponding number of
articles assessed for each key search term (Figure 3), in addition to advocacy websites (Figure 4).
See Appendix 1 for flow diagrams pertaining to each of the individual search terms.
25
Figure 2. Flow diagram of academic literature obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
26
Vegetarian MotivationVegetarian Barrier
Vegetarian EnvironmentInfluence on Consumption
Meat ConsumptionPromotion of Vegetarian
Environmentally Significant ConsumptionLimit Vegetarian
Obstacle VegetarianAdvertise Food
Reducing Meat Consumption + GovernmentConsumer Characteristics + Vegetarian
Sustainability VeganVegan Barrier
Sustainable Food Consumption Policy
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Number of Academic Articles Assessed
Figure 3. Number of academic journal articles assessed for barriers to plant based diets for each of the 15 key search terms in Web of Science and Google Scholar.
Figure 4. Flow diagram of public webpages obtained on the basis of the public search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
27
ii. General Characteristics of Studies
There was considerable variation among the included academic research in terms of
source, year, and context of potential dietary bottlenecks. Journal articles included predominantly
research articles (n = 84), in addition to syntheses (n = 25), symposiums (n = 2), case studies (n =
1), and commentaries (n = 1). Few studies regarding dietary consumption behaviour, and barriers
to plant-based diets were conducted in the 1990s, and early 2000s (Figure 5). However, the
number of studies investigating consumption patterns has increased substantially in the past 5
years, as plant-based consumption research has become highly topical, given the environmental
benefits of a dietary shift.
In addition, studies contained explicit and/or implicit barriers to plant-based diets, or
more generally, changes in dietary behaviour. As such, the framework of the studies was not
evaluated, but rather the context of the coded material in each study was examined. Overall, 370
codes were considered to be explicitly stated, whilst 172 were implicitly inferred from the
literature.
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
02468
1012141618
Year
Cou
nt
Figure 5. Number of included academic research articles, by year of publication.
28
iii. Data Extraction
Gathered information was evaluated using a posteriori inductive coding scheme to
identify key themes and commonalities within the literature that explicitly and/or implicitly
suggested possible barriers to plant-based diets, as an outcome of the aforementioned search and
screening criteria including both primary and grey literature. This conceptual classification of
constructs was used to uncover core themes evident in the literature and facilitate clear outcomes
in relation to the research questions (Thomas, 2006), creating the foundation for novel
theorization (Doty & Glick, 1994). Individual themes constituted the unit of analysis for this
literature review. Thus, a code was assigned to an excerpt of text of ranging from an entire
article, to a paragraph or phrase, representing the expression of an idea as a theme (Minichiello et
al., 1990; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2010). The coding method followed the three-step codes-
categories-concepts strategy (Lichtman, 2013); sources were first read to generate a large
number of differing content codes (n = 213), from a total of 542 coded items (Figure 6). Second,
these codes were sorted into categories (n = 20) by eliminating overlap and redundancy. Third,
the categories were themselves arranged into concepts or what are henceforth referred to as
overarching themes (n = 5) relevant to the research questions, namely “Autonomy”, “Cognitive
Dissonance”, “Information Asymmetry”, “Political Economy”, and “Social Influences” (Table
1). Consequently, themes were inductively identified by combining codes, and subsequently
categories in a logical and organic fashion. This a posteriori inductive coding technique aimed to
uncover limitations that may not have been prevalent in the initial literature review (see IV.
Discussion for further description and analysis). It should be noted that there was some overlap
of codes fitting into multiple categories, given their context in the literature. However, the
overlapping code-category pairs were eventually incorporated into the same theme.
29
Advertise FoodConsumer Characteristics + Vegetarian
Environmentally Significant ConsumptionInfluence on Consumption
Limit VegetarianMeat Consumption
Obstacle VegetarianPromotion of Vegetarian
Reducing Meat Consumption + GovernmentSustainability Vegan
Sustainable Food Consumption PolicyVegetarian Barrier
Vegetarian EnvironmentVegetarian Motivation
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Count
Figure 6. Total number of primary articles retrieved from academic journal research for each of the 15 key search terms.
Using the methodological framework of inductive coding (Thomas, 2006), the process of
data analysis evolved through constant comparative examination. This methodical approach to
the literature review was meant to minimize subjectivity, aid in accurate classification, and
ensure replicability of the research. In summary, the inductive coding approach organized the
data into digestible parts for simplification and extraction of important concepts (Thomas, 2006).
A visual representation of the codes-categories-concepts framework is documented in Appendix
2. A detailed outline of the three-step codes-categories-themes strategy uncovered from the 111
academic journal articles assessed for barriers to plant-based diets is documented in Appendix 3
(Table 3). The context (implicit; explicit) in which the code is stated, the referenced article, and
the source are also included.
Academic journal articles contained between 1 and 18 codes (average 4.88 +/- standard
deviation of 3.82), which grouped into an average of 2.19 themes (+/-1.23). Five articles
30
(Beverland, 2014; Graça et al., 2015; Hirschler, 2011; Lorenzoni et al., 2007; Vinnari & Vinnari,
2013) contained all five of the identified themes, while 45 had codes contributed to merely a
single theme. “Information Asymmetry” was the most frequently observed theme (n = 68
articles), which covered issues related to lack of education or information, judgmental heuristics
(see IV. Discussion for further description), and flawed perceptions of plant-based diets. The
other themes were “Political Economy” (n=58), and “Social Influence” (n=55), with
“Autonomy” (n=30) and “Cognitive Dissonance” (n=32) the least frequent themes. Of the 19
categories, the most frequently observed were judgmental heuristics (n=99), marketing (n=55),
social desirability (n = 37), moral disengagement (n=36), and intrinsic motivation (n=27).
31
Table 1. Brief description of key themes identified as barriers to adopting a plant-based diet, including data concerning their frequency with respect to categories, codes, and articles.
Theme Description Explanation Categories Codes ArticlesAutonomy[Individual]
A theoretical concept that promotes self-determined choice, and regulation of one’s self (Deci & Ryan, 1987).
Unwillingness to change diet
Intrinsic values representing an affective connection towards meat
2 12 30
Cognitive Dissonance[Individual]
Contradictory and inconsistent thoughts and actions, as relating to behavioural decisions (Festinger, 1957).
Inconsistent thoughts and actions for the environment, animal welfare, and meat consumption; represented through moral disengagement, denial, and dementalization
3 22 32
Information Asymmetry[Social]
The influence of unbalanced information on sub-optimal decision making, with respect to the environmental and socioeconomic considerations of food selection for consumption (Dompere, 2014).
Lack of knowledge concerning the consequences of meat consumption
Lack of information regarding nutritional necessity, and the costs of a plant-based diet; ill-informed perceptions
Judgmental heuristics that result in sub-optimal decision-making
5 55 68
Political Economy[Social]
The relationship between individuals and society as influenced by the interplay among politics and the economics of the agricultural industry (Jevons, 1871; Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016).
Lack of political action in guiding sustainable consumption patterns
Lack of industry action in promoting plant-based alternatives; asymmetric marketing; industry lock-in
5 81 58
Social Influence[Social]
The effect of others on one’s emotions, and resulting behavioural actions, as influenced through peer pressure, and conformity (Asch, 1961; Latané, 1981).
Social norms and expectations to consume to meat
Social criticism and alienation of vegetarians
5 39 55
32
Differences in themes were prevalent among the academic literature (Figure 7), and
public databases (Figure 8). Though political economy was considered to be a significant barrier
to vegetarianism in the academic literature (27.9%), it was not mentioned at all in the public
realm based upon examination of webpages using the aforementioned key search terms.
Likewise, as information asymmetry was considered to be the greatest obstacle from both
sources, it occupies a greater proportion of the dietary bottlenecks discovered in the public realm
(57.7%) in comparison to the academic literature (34.7%), given the absence of discussion on the
political economy. Like the academic literature, public webpages also considered autonomy
(7.0%; 7.7% respectively), social influence (19.2%; 19.2%), and cognitive dissonance (11.3%;
15.4%) as being barriers to vegetarianism.
7%
11%
35%28%
19%Autonomy
Cognitive Dis-sonance
Information Asymmetry
Political Economy
Social Influence
8% 15%
58%
19%
Figure 7. Proportion of codes detected from primary journal articles, contributing to each of the five major themes, regarding barriers to plant-based diets.
Figure 8. Proportion of codes detected from advocacy websites, contributing to each of the five major themes, regarding barriers to plant-based diets.
33
The first phrase investigated in Google Chrome was: “vegetarian [vegan] diet better for
the environment”. Interestingly, use of the words vegetarian and vegan yielded the same
websites for further analysis. This search generated highly contradictory information, despite the
consensus of the academic world that plant-based diets are better for the environment, human
health, and food security. Roughly 56% of the first 50 webpages contradicted the conventional
wisdom that a vegetarian, or vegan diet is generally better for the environment than a
westernized meat-based diet. The contradictory information predominantly stemmed from one
recent study (Tom et al., 2015), that newspapers, bloggers, and meat advocates have grabbed
onto. The principal catchphrase that went viral, was: “lettuce is three times worse in greenhouse
gas emissions than eating bacon”. This comparison is not actually stated in Tom et al. (2015),
rather the media misrepresented the study’s analyses. The misinformation stems from the
questionable analysis (Cucurachi et al., 2016) by Tom et al. (2015), and their questionable use of
dietary resource use and emissions compared on a per calorie basis. Given that fruits, and
vegetables have considerably less calories than beef or pork, these findings are unsurprising.
However, the viral misrepresentation of the study in the media deceived ecological arguments,
and was highly unconstructive in promoting environmental choices.
The second phrase investigated in Google Chrome was “why should I eat a plant-based
diet”. Though the second exploration yielded more positive information than the aforementioned
search phrase, only a handful of webpages were considered to be from trusted sources (ie. World
Health Organization, Harvard), while the majority originated from news articles, blogposts, and
advocacy groups. Interestingly, the search produced no government articles, emphasizing the
political disconnect from influencing consumption behaviour of individuals, despite the health,
environmental, and resulting economic benefits in doing so.
34
The effect of sociodemographics or household characteristics, on dietary behaviour were
mentioned by many academic journal articles (Figure 9). For instance, evidence suggest that
food preferences differ dependent upon age, income, education, family type, and job status
(Reisch et al., 2013; Ponzio et al., 2015). A higher level of income is positively correlated with
better quality diets (Kearney, 2010), namely vegetarianism (Jabs et al., 1999) in the US, and
allows consumers to be more consciously selective in their purchasing behaviour. Furthermore,
there is a common myth, and frequently noted perceived barrier that vegetarian diets are more
expensive in comparison to their animal-based counterparts (Mäkiniemi & Vainio, 2014). This
claim, however, is false as animal protein is considerably more expensive than plant based
protein alternatives (ie. lentils, nuts, and seeds). Education level is also positively correlated with
vegetarianism, according to multiple studies (Netherlands, Hoek et al., 2004; Italy, Ponzio et al.,
2015)
Nevertheless, these household characteristics were not considered to be barriers to
adopting plant-based diets for the purpose of this research. Household characteristics and
sociodemographics are difficult to manipulate for the purpose of adopting plant-based diets.
Already, there are a number of policies in place to increase education and income, while limiting
the consumption of alcohol and cigarettes. Furthermore, the characteristic of ‘age’ cannot be
overcome, it is inevitable. Consequently, this information was alternatively considered to be
opportunistic for targeted campaigns and policy selection to invoke greater behavioural dietary
changes amongst different populations. Thus, information campaigns could focus on targeting
people with lower levels of education, to inform them of the benefits of plant-based diets.
35
Age
Alcohol Consumption
Education Level
Income
Job Status
Marriage Status
Smokers
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Count
Figure 9. Number of primary journal articles referencing each of the 7 categories of sociodemographics, that correlate to food consumption behaviour.
Gender was not included within the umbrella of sociodemographics, given its strong ties
to social influences. Gender itself, is not a barrier to plant-based consumption, but rather the
social aspects associated with one’s gender, are likely to influence consumption patterns. Hence,
gender was considered to be a code that ultimately contributed to the theme of social influence
(see IV. Discussion: Social Influences).
IV. Discussion
The purchasing and consumption patterns of individuals and households are known to be
complex, reflecting a range of motivations and preferences (Arnould & Thompson, 2005;
Beverland, 2014). For instance, evidence supporting the environmental, health, and ethical
reasons for vegetarianism is robust and rarely questioned, yet only a small fraction of the
population in developed nations have chosen follow plant-based diets (Saxena, 2011; Beverland,
2014). There appears to be an innate sense of familiarity associated with animal-based products,
with consumers valuing taste and status of meat consumption (Lusk & Norwood, 2009;
Beverland, 2014).
36
This study has investigated bottlenecks and opportunities of sustainable food choices in
the form of a rigorous integrative literature review, from an individual to institutional level. The
academic literature search formed the basis of this analysis, with supplementary material from
public webpages. The five key barriers to plant-based diets, developed using the a posteriori
coding strategy include: Autonomy, Cognitive dissonance, Information asymmetry, Political
economy, and Social influence. As shaping pro-environmental behaviour is dependent upon a
number of influences, including attitudinal factors (ie. values), personal resources (ie.
knowledge), and contextual dynamics (ie. social influences, policy) (Stern, 2000; Makiniemi &
Vainio, 2013), the barriers uncovered in this study, are similar to the obstacles that have emerged
regarding behavioural engagement with climate change, generally (Lorenzoni et al., 2007).
An in-depth discussion for each of the five barriers, in addition to theories arguing these
outcomes, follows. It should be noted that theories are not guiding the identification of themes,
but rather were considered post-analysis for interpretation of results.
i. Information Asymmetry
Information asymmetry was the most dominant theme uncovered in the literature (n =
68), encompassing the influence of unbalanced information, resulting in sub-optimal decision-
making (Dompere, 2014). Three major Categories contribute to information asymmetry as a
barrier to plant-based consumption habits: judgmental heuristics, flawed perception, and an
associated lack of knowledge (Appendix 2; Figure 28). Though judgmental heuristics, broadly
construed, is the most prominent dietary bottleneck implicitly discovered and synthesized in the
literature review, it has not previously been considered as an overarching barrier to sustainable
dietary transition. Time, pressure, and limitations to cognitive capacity encumber the decision-
37
making ability of individuals (Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014). Consequently, individuals rely on a
variety of judgmental heuristics to enable quick decisions that resemble normative expectations
(Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014; Dietz, 2014). As behavioural rules, heuristics break down complex
decisions into simple considerations, facilitating the decision-making process of everyday life
(Dietz, 2014). Judgmental heuristics influencing the consumption of animal-protein include time,
convenience, habit, familiarity, and taste, hunger and food cravings (Neumark-Sztainer et al.,
1999; Vermier & Verbeke, 2006; Hoek et al., 2011; Beverland, 2014; Pohjolarinen, 2014; de
Boer et al., 2016). Because of this reliance on routine judgmental heuristics to facilitate
individual decision making, information in the form of brands or labels, could similarly function
as heuristics to reduce the complex array of considerations in selecting food for consumption
(Vermier & Verbeke, 2006). Recognizable informational heuristics (point-of-purchase
information) could therefore balance the asymmetric forces supporting current habits (de Boer et
al., 2016) of meat consumption.
Perceptions regarding the financial cost of a plant-based diet, in addition to nutritional
concerns, facilitate poorly-informed decision making with respect to dietary practices. For
instance, high price is considered to be a perceived barrier to adopting a vegetarian diet
(Mäkiniemi & Vainio, 2014). However, the cost of animal protein is considerably more
expensive than plant-based protein alternatives, such as lentils, nuts, and seeds. Alternatively,
inaccurate perceptions concerning the ramifications of a plant-based diet, hinder widespread
adoption. Some people believe that animal protein is of nutritional necessity (Hirschler, 2011;
Beverland, 2014; Pohjolarinen, 2014; Wilson et al., 2014;), yet this is not the case. A vegetarian
diet is less likely to have nutritional deficiencies in comparison its omnivorous counterpart
(Sabaté, 2001; Palaniswamy, 2003). Similarly, there is a public belief that vegetarianism causes
38
eating disorders, as a plant-based diet is often associated with inhibitory control. Though patients
with eating disorders exhibit greater rates of vegetarianism, vegetarianism often emerges after
the onset of the eating disorder (Bardone-Cone et al., 2012), and is used as an excuse to mask
dieting behaviour (Klopp et al., 2003; Forestell et al., 2012).
Despite a decade of research and media buzz since the United Nations’ publication of
Livestock’s Long Shadow (Steinfeld et al., 2006), many consumers still underestimate the
environmental ramifications of animal production (Vanhonacker et al., 2013; Laestadius et al.,
2013b). In more recent studies, a perceived lack of knowledge regarding the benefits of pro-
environmental change (Lorenzoni et al., 2007), specifically vegetarianism, was considered a
barrier to adopting a plant-based diet (Lea et al., 2006b; Mäkiniemi && Vainio, 2014).
Likewise, it is anticipated that skepticism in the effects of food consumption on climate, limits
the dietary selection of plant-based foods (Mäkiniemi & Vainio, 2014). Perceived lack of
knowledge about purchasing and preparing vegetarian meals (Lea & Worsley, 2003;
Vanhonacker et al., 2013; Pohjolarinen, 2014), including soy (Schyver & Smith, 2005; Gobert &
Duncan, 2009), tofu (Wansink et al., 2014) and less-intensive plant-based proteins (ie. legumes)
is also troublesome. Unfamiliarity of meat substitutes and their integration into meals greatly
contributes to judgmental heuristics, and negatively influences plant-based selection (Hoek et al.,
2011).
The Theory of Information Asymmetry is an economic model (Alkerlof, 1970 ; Spence
1973; Stiglitz & Rothschild, 1976); however, its concepts are useful for arguing this thematic
barrier to eliminating meat consumption. As its title suggests, information asymmetry
encompasses the influence of unbalanced information, resulting in sub-optimal decision-making
(Dompere, 2014). In economics, this imbalance of power in market transactions can lead to
39
inefficient outcomes; a market failure as worst case (Alkerlof, 1970 ; Spence 1973; Stiglitz &
Rothschild, 1976). In relation to consumption, the imbalance of information impedes one’s
ability to make optimal decisions with respect to the environmental, and socioeconomic
considerations of food selection, similarly leading to inefficient outcomes. Information
asymmetry is correlational to the barrier of the political economy of agriculture, as perfect
information is often misguided by industry and government.
ii. Political Economy
For the purposes of this research, political economy encompasses the relationship
between individuals and society, as influenced by the interplay among the politics and economics
of the agricultural industry (Jevons, 1871; Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016). The political
economy of meat production is an important consideration within this analysis, implicitly and
explicitly uncovered throughout the academic literature (Appendix 2; Figure 30). The dietary
bottleneck suggests that issues associated with animal agriculture have little to do with individual
choices, but rather are inherent in the technical, structural, and political organization of the
agricultural industry. Consumers are largely locked-in to dietary patterns due to imperfect supply
adjustment, imperfect choice, and the influence of marketing (Hansen & Schrader, 1997; Curran
& de Sharbinin, 2004; Seyfang & Smith, 2007; Wahlen et al., 2012).
In Canada, the political economy of the food system actively supports the livestock
agricultural sector given its robust capacity of influence through lobbying, campaign donations,
and simply its source of food supply for public consumption. Likewise, the industrial livestock
sector maintains considerable sway in terms of political agenda-setting. In addition, the livestock
industry is supported both financially, and by means of academic research in many differing
40
fields of study (McKenna, 2013; AAFC, 2015b). Plant-based protein alternatives, however, lack
the same quality of government assistance. Accordingly, meat-reduction strategies such as plant-
based public procurement policies, and sustainable changes to national dietary guidelines have
yet to acquire agenda-setting status in Canada.
An alternative perspective suggests that farmers have a right to generate profits from the
conventional food system in which they have invested; contributing an ethical and equitable
aspect associated with meat production (Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013). Likewise, there is an
undeniable concern that a shift in dietary practices, and hence demand, would have substantial
repercussions for the economic welfare of stakeholders in the agro-industry (Vinnari & Vinnari,
2013). In addition, there are agro-ecological arguments that could justify why certain production
systems are most suitable for given locations. Governments have a responsibility to balance
sustainability with autonomy and prosperity of the industry that serves to supply food for public
consumption, in a local and increasingly environmentally conscious manner (Duchin, 2005).
However, government support does not have to subsidize the livestock industry, but rather
provide support through alternative mechanisms.
From an industry perspective, food retailers are increasingly concentrated into fewer and
larger retail chains carrying significant market power over the agricultural industry (Reisch et al.,
2013). Retailers hold a considerable stake in the agro-industry, influencing consumers through
behavioural nudge mechanisms such as food availability, manipulation of placement, sales, and
promotion (Vukmirovic, 2015; Jahns et al., 2016). This influence on demand subsequently
impacts production from agricultural producers. Considered ‘supply chain bottlenecks’, retailers
are central to the economic underpinnings of the industry (Reisch et al., 2013). Thus, a challenge
41
of vegetarianism lies in the process of being incorporated into the economic foundation of the
conventional food system (Bearsdworth & Keil, 1993).
Likewise, media and advertisements (TV; social; magazines) act as market-place barriers
to dietary selection that centers on plant-based foods (Nestle, 1999). In consideration of
prevalently advertised brands, such as McDonalds, Burger King (Sutherland et al., 2015), and
KFC (Kearney, 2010), there is an obvious lack of vegetarian restaurants of similar scale.
Furthermore, these prevailing brands are built on the centrality of animal protein which has been
marketed in relation to nutritional necessity, masculinity, and patriotism (Beverland, 2014).
Interestingly, though sustainability has provided a novel marketing niche of considerable benefit,
diet has generally been disregarded thus far (Beverland, 2014).
This barrier is argued using a Political Economy (Jevons, 1871) of Agriculture Theory.
Political economy is the intersection of politics and economics that form the basis of the
agricultural industry. The complexity of this interaction is circular. It is anticipated that
governments are interested in promoting high-intensity livestock agriculture, because not only
are farmers a key constituency in the Canadian economy, but also provide a generous source of
economic benefits. However, the asymmetric focus on animal protein in comparison to plant-
based alternatives has implications for consumption behaviour. Thus, the interrelated factors of
the Canadian government and the livestock agricultural sector, impact the demand and supply of
animal-based products for individual consumption, fundamentally influencing dietary habits. The
emphasis of political support of the livestock industry and coinciding lack of political action
towards promoting sustainable consumption may be why dietary change has yet to be embraced
by consumers (Reisch et al., 2013).
42
iii. Social Influence
The barrier of social influence is defined as the effect of others on one’s emotions, and
resulting behavioural actions, as influenced through conformity (Asch, 1961; Latané, 1981).
Three categories feed into the theme of social influence (Appendix 2; Figure 29), as a barrier to
plant-based diets: the influence of family and friends, social desirability, and social difficulties.
The majority (72 %) of food consumption in a household is controlled by the ‘nutritional
gatekeeper’; the person who conducts the majority of purchasing and preparation of food
(Wansink, 2006). Consequently, parental influence (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999) and exposure
play significant roles on the dietary patterns of individuals within a household, particularly
children (Hill, 2002; Yuan et al., 2016). This biological predisposition in children to follow
certain dietary patterns (ie. meat consumption or vegetarianism) as a result of availability (Hill,
2002), places the cognitive burden, and barrier to change on independent individuals who
purchase and prepare foods themselves. However, as early adolescence also generates a shift in
social support from parents to peers (Hill, 2002), social conformity similarly becomes an
obstacle to plant-based consumption (Jabs et al., 2010). Analogously, an unwillingness for a
family member (ie. spouse; children) to adopt a plant-based diet, presents a bottleneck to
individual consumption (Lea & Worsley, 2003).
As vegetarian foods are commonly defined as being weak or feminine, meat consumption
is typically higher among men, in a psychological effort to display their masculinity
(Beardsworth & Keil, 1991; Rothgerber, 2013; Ruby, 2012). Likewise, males generally have
more negative attitudes towards vegetarians (Ruby et al., 2016). A study conducted by
Rothgerber (2013) found that males endorse pro-meat attitudes through justification strategies.
43
The research highlighted masculine norms of dominance, emotional restriction, and toughness to
demonstrate a positive correlation between consumption and masculinity.
Though individuals may feel an impulse to adopt a vegetarian lifestyle, they are unlikely
to pursue the dietary change without the support of family and friends (Hirschler, 2011).
Typically viewed as unorthodox, vegetarians are often subject to considerable scrutiny
(Beardsworth & Keil, 1993). Concern regarding criticism and alienation from family and friends
as a result of dietary choices has been expressed by both vegetarians (Janda & Trocchia, 2001;
Hirschler, 2011), and omnivores (Lea & Worsley, 2002). Behavioural-related stereotypes,
including those with respect to varying levels of meat consumption, are empirically supported
(Sadalla & Burroughs, 1981). These stereotypes have led to victimization of vegetarians, with
judicial treatment spread along a continuum from mild teasing to antagonistic behaviour (Chin et
al., 2002). The fear of negative social repercussions on professional and personal relationships
has resulted in a barrier not only to adopting a plant-based diet (Janda & Trocchia, 2001; Chin et
al., 2002; Hirschler, 2011), but also to continuation (Barr & Chapman, 2002; Cheery, 2015). It
should be noted, however, that the barrier of family opposition, may actually be considered an
opportunity for some individuals. For instance, individuals seeking to make an explicit statement
of self-definition in opposition to their family’s (or community’s) dominant values, may choose
to adopt a plant-based diet (Willetts, 1997). Regardless, the former is considered to be a common
barrier to dietary transition for a greater majority of the population.
Regardless of acceptance however, social gatherings centered on food (ie. holidays), are
typically mentally straining for vegetarians, creating tension and discomfort (Beardsworth &
Keil, 1991), likely due to constant justification. Poor selection in restaurants was also commonly
noted as a difficulty to selecting a plant-based meal. Some restaurants have few, if any plant-
44
based options; vegetarian entrees are often described as bland, tasteless, or of inadequate
nutrition, for restaurants that do have alternative options (Janda & Trocchia, 2001) on the menu.
Based on the above conceptual schema, this barrier to adopting plant-based diets is
explored using Social Impact Theory. Social impact is a phenomenon in which people influence
one another in social settings (Latané, 1981), whether it be intentionally or unintentionally. Three
factors affect the response of social influence: strength, immediacy, and number (Latané, 1981).
In reference to a vegetarian lifestyle, social influence is considered to be a barrier to change, as
strength, immediacy, and number favor meat consumption. For instance, strength refers to the
importance of the influencing group (Latané, 1981). As mentioned previously, friends and family
are not only an important influencing group, but are also barriers to pro-environmental change.
Immediacy refers to the proximity of the group in time and space, at the time of an influencing
attempt (Latané, 1981). Given that people in Canada typically consume three meals a day,
alongside family at home, or with friends in the workplace, immediacy is considered to be a
heightened obstacle. Lastly, and perhaps most importantly, rates of vegetarianism remain quite
low, and thus the large population conforming to an omnivorous diet speaks to the number
affecting social influence. Intuitively, the effect of social influence is most powerful, when the
majority conform to the same actions (Latané, 1981). Thus, the barrier of social influence, as
argued through Social Impact Theory, is considered to be a robust limitation to transitioning to a
plant-based diet.
iv. Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance describes having contradictory and inconsistent thoughts and
actions, as relating to behavioural decisions (Festinger, 1957). Three Categories contribute to the
45
theme of cognitive dissonance (Appendix 2; Figure 27), as a barrier to adopting plant-based
diets: anthropocentric views, intentional ignorance, and moral disengagement. Despite
recognition of the environmental impacts of animal agriculture, in addition to animal ethics, and
health, individuals lack motivation to commit to a plant-based diet; behaviour is often not
representative of individual concerns (Bilewicz et al., 2011; Graça et al., 2014).
Consumers often resort to moral disengagement strategies when asked to consider the
impacts of their consumption practices (Bastian et al., 2012; Rothgerber, 2013; Graça et al.,
2014), resulting in a barrier to behavioural change. Graça et al. (2014) note four prominent moral
disengagement strategies including reconstrual of harmful conduct (“yes, but…”), obscuring
personal responsibility, disregard for the negative consequences associated with current meat
production and consumption, and active avoidance and dissociation. By engaging in these
psychological justifications, consumers morally dissociate from the harmful effects of the
industrial agricultural sector. Through suppressions of moral concern, people reduce the
unpleasantness associated with meat consumption in an effort to reduce dissonance of their
ambivalent and contrasting attitudes (Rothgerber, 2013; Graça et al., 2014). The literature on
cognitive dissonance is more prevalent with respect to moral concern for animals, in an attempt
to deny their capacity to suffer (Bilewicz et al., 2011; Bratanova et al., 2011; Bastian et al.,
2012; Rothgerber, 2013; Loughnan et al., 2010). Moreover, Rothgerber (2014) suggests that
simply reading about animal agriculture or vegetarianism, can trigger a series of dissonance
reduction strategies to compensate for a guilty conscience.
Accordingly, this barrier can be emphasized using the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
(Festinger, 1957) in relation to livestock consumption. According to Festinger’s (1957)
Cognitive Dissonance Theory, individuals have an innate desire to hold attitudes and beliefs in
46
harmony, and avoid dissonance. The principle of cognitive consistency is an important factor
fundamental to the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger, 1957). The theory suggests that
cognitive dissonance acts as an influential motive to overcome inconsistent cognitions, which
can result in irrational and maladaptive behaviour (Festinger, 1957). Likewise, empirical studies
frame this imbalance in terms of the “meat paradox”, a relatively common phenomenon that falls
under the umbrella of cognitive dissonance (Graça et al., 2014). The meat paradox captures the
cognition that people exhibit concern for the environment and animal welfare, yet enjoy
consumption of animal protein, despite its consequences (Loughnan et al., 2010).
Cognitive dissonance has not been publically recognized as a perceived barrier to
adopting a plant-based diet, given the intrinsic, psychological nature of the concept. However,
the behavioural literature emphasizes that the meat paradox must be overcome, as the resolution
of dissonance processes is central to facilitating change (Bastian et al., 2012).
v. Autonomy
Autonomy is a theoretical concept that promotes self-determined choice, and regulation
of one’s self (Deci & Ryan, 1987). Two Categories feed into the theme of autonomy (Appendix
2; Figure 26) as a barrier to plant-based diets: apathy and intrinsic motivation. Apathy
encompasses a lack of interest or concern, resulting in an unwillingness to change behaviour.
Studies suggest that some people are simply unwilling to change their dietary pattern, regardless
of the perceived or known benefits of plant-based consumption (Lea & Worsley, 2002; Lea et
al., 2006a; Lea et al., 2006b; Vanhonacker et al., 2013). An unwillingness to change is
considered to be the main perceived barrier that survey respondents commonly cite in Australian
research (Lea & Worsley, 2002; Lea et al., 2006a; Lea et al., 2006b). Evidence suggests that
47
respondents who are unwilling to change their behavior, also fail to recognize the benefits of a
plant-based diet including well-being, weight, health, convenience, and finances (Lea et al.,
2006a). Regardless of this perspective, Lea et al. (2006a, 2006b) note that 42% of respondents
were either considering (behavioural intention), or actively maintaining a plant-based diet. Thus,
there is a discrepancy between perceived barriers, and behavioural intention of vegetarianism.
Such a discrepancy emphasizes the importance of the broad nature of the current research; as the
handful of studies that have investigated perceived barriers to vegetarianism are not
representative of behavioural intention, nor institutional factors that may be subconsciously
affecting dietary choice. Nevertheless, a lack of concern, and subsequent hedonistic
unwillingness to change, remains a dietary bottleneck for some individuals.
In developed economies, consumption patterns are more generally representative of one’s
identity, rather than satisfying basic needs (Beverland, 2014; Fox & Ward, 2008). Intrinsic
motivation encompasses individual values, attitudes, and identity. Though intrinsic motivation is
considered a motivational tool, values, attitudes, and identity can likewise act as barriers to
change. For instance, ethically motivated vegetarians are more likely to stick to plant-based diets
in comparison to individuals motivated by personal health reasons (Hoffman et al., 2013; de
Backers & Hudders, 2014). The divergence in intrinsically motivated behaviour can ultimately
affect the choices, and success of individuals (Beardsworth & Keil, 2002; Vermier & Verbeke,
2006; Graça et al., 2015), with limitations to pro-environmental behaviour. In juxtaposition,
attitudes in isolation are a poor predictor of behavioural intention (Vermier & Verbeke, 2006).
Many individuals may truly value animals and the environment, however, their actions are not
reflective of their values. Termed an attitude-behavioural gap, the incongruity between values
48
and intention is influenced by other extrinsic factors, such as the ancillary barriers uncovered in
this analysis.
An affective connection towards meat has been frequently documented (Rozin et al.,
1997; Graça et al., 2015), and thus plays a central role in the decision-making process (Vermier
& Verbeke, 2006). For example, meat consumption is considered a form of national identity or
patriotism, especially in countries with a long history of farming traditions (Ruby, 2012). This
innate cultural affinity, and nationalist support for farming traditions consequently outweighs
concern about negative environmental impacts undermines ecological concern (Lusk &
Norwood, 2009; Beverland, 2014). However, with heightened diffusion in the concept of a
‘responsible consumer’ or ‘conscious consumerism’, entrenched values are slowly transitioning
to those of environmental and ethical consideration in developed economies (Beverland, 2014).
Consequently, the barrier of autonomy, may be of less significance in the grand scheme of things
than the a posteriori coding strategy suggests.
This dietary bottleneck can be argued through a fundamental meta-theory of motivation
in psychology: Self-Determination Theory (SDT). According to SDT, individuals have three
innate psychological desires: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000;
Gagne and Deci, 2005) that must be satisfied to ensure individual welfare. Encompassing both
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, SDT distinguishes between behavioural action for inherent
self-satisfaction and instrumental value, respectively (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The values
influencing animal-protein consumption are considered to be intrinsically motivated, suggesting
people gain internal pleasure from eating meat.
As satisfaction of the three aforementioned psychological needs are required for the well-
being of individuals (Deci & Ryan, 2000), the barrier of autonomy cannot simply be overlooked
49
or disregarded. Consequently, in order to overcome this intrinsic barrier, extrinsic motivation in
the form of political intervention, must focus on autonomous forms of regulation, rather than
controlled behaviour (Gagne and Deci, 2005; Silva et al., 2014). Research has continually
demonstrated that autonomous motivation is correlated to positive outcomes, and greater
performance. Thus, autonomous control would likely satisfy the psychological requirement of
autonomy, while simultaneously promoting pro-environmental behaviour.
In conclusion, the barriers uncovered in this analysis are considered to be established
from an individual to institutional level. The diversity and complexity of the identified barriers
suggests there are many possibilities and a considerable scope for intervention (Vermier &
Verbeke, 2006; Allodi et al., 2015) via policy measures. Thus, in order to achieve a substantial
transition to plant-based diets, barriers must be overcome via effective framing and subsequent
implementation of policy instruments.
50
Chapter 3: Policy Recommendations
Policy has yet to assume a proactive role, despite the aforementioned increasing scientific
evidence emphasizing environmental and socioeconomic co-benefits associated with plant-based
diets worldwide (Dagevos & Voordouw, 2013; Springmann et al., 2016). Recent evidence
suggests that the public may actually be receptive to policies aimed at reducing meat intake
(Dagevos & Voorduow, 2011). However, individuals are unlikely to change their consumption
habits independently in advance of an economic or ecological crisis, without a behavioural
nudge, or policy framework encouraging them to do so (Beverland, 2014), hence the need for
policy intervention. Unfortunately, however, people are prevented from acting rationally, given
the barriers that currently distort incentives to follow plant-based diets. For instance, evidence
supporting the environmental, health, and ethical reasons for vegetarianism is robust, and rarely
questioned, yet only a fraction of the population in developed nations follow plant-based diets
(Saxena, 2011; Beverland, 2014). Moreover, there is more at ‘steak’ than simply than concerns
about cost, with judgmental heuristics equally affecting decisions (Arnould & Thompson, 2005;
Beverland, 2014). Thus, policy instruments are needed to help remove barriers distorting
decisions, and make choices more rational in the context of ecological, health, and ethical
arguments. As outlined in the integrative literature review, institutional, informational,
infrastructural, and behavioural barriers to sustainable food consumption are prevalent. Likewise,
policies are needed to internalize the environmental and social externalities associated with
industrial livestock agriculture in order to obtain these benefits.
In summary, policy interventions must take irrational consumer behaviour into
consideration, in order to properly frame the issue at hand. More importantly, governments and
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) need to use informative tools in order to properly
51
educate the public to avoid adverse and unintended impacts from intervention. The government
has at its disposal, policy instruments comprising regulations, economic incentives, and
informative tools, spread along a continuum of authoritative force; persuasion (autonomy) to
legislation (control), respectively (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Bravo et al., 2013; Joyce et al., 2014)
(Figure 10). Likewise, the perceived acceptability of policy instruments in the public realm is
anticipated to be relatively high for autonomous instruments, and low for control. In contrast
however, policy instruments of high authoritative force, may be more effective in producing
desirable outcomes.
Figure 10. Schematic of policy instruments comprising information-based, market-based, and regulatory tools, spread along a continuum of authoritative force from autonomy to control (details on these instruments are given in Table 3).
Identification of barriers to sustainable consumption is essential to determine policy
options that could be implemented to overcome said obstacles. There is currently little available
52
literature specifying ideal policies to achieve the stated objective of achieving a shift to more
plant-based diets. Moreover, it is unknown as to what form of policy would be politically viable,
given the sensitive topic of regulating individual consumption (Joyce et al., 2014). With any
policy, it is crucial to understand the political framework of the government to determine how
actors can influence policy shaping, form agenda-making, and identify barriers to government
action on sustainable consumption (Joyce et al., 2014). It is also important to emphasize that
governments currently overestimate the risk of public backlash. Soft, and voluntary measures are
likely to be well-received by the public, and though more stringent approaches risk public
resistance, interventions are necessary to curb unsustainable practices. If the policy rationale is
well-framed and well-understood by the general public, resistance would likely be minimized
and short-lived (Wellesley et al., 2015). Evidently, the most prominent backlash would stem
from industry (ie. Alberta beef, Quebec dairy, Atlantic fisheries, etc), specifically from rural
areas where livelihoods are dependent upon fisheries and agricultural production. In order to
ensure secure livelihoods for farmers and fishers who would be most affected by advocating for
a dietary transition away from animal products, government would need to subsidize the
industry, encouraging a shift to plant-based food production. Alternatively, arguments could be
made to retain these local, diversified agro-ecological systems. Thus, highly specific products
such as Alberta beef or Atlantic fisheries could be subsidized to continue production, and
marketed as socially-acceptable given their particular niches, while other industries across
Canadian could be encouraged to switch to local plant-based production (discussed further
below).
The government of Canada recognizes that plant-based diets are safe and healthy
alternatives to the mainstream omnivorous way of life (Beverland, 2014). However, the federal
53
government has yet to politically intervene and promote plant-based consumption. Key
governance options that the government could implement to combat each of the five barriers
uncovered through the integrative literature review include a combination of information-based,
market-based, and regulatory policy instruments (Table 2). Ultimately, empowering consumers
towards sustainable consumption will require policies that reduce external constraints
(Thøgersen, 2005; Wahlen et al., 2012).
54
Table 2. Summary of policy instruments and recommendations to combat each of the five barriers to adopting a plant-based diet, and effect pro-environmental change.
Barrier Information-Based Market-Based RegulatoryAutonomy Awareness campaigns (e.g. NGO-led
campaigns; meatless Mondays)
Nudge framework (e.g. greater proportion of plant-based sales; hybrid products; increased availability of plant-based products, promotions, manipulation of products on shelves)
Less likely to respond to market-based instruments
Unlikely to respond well to regulatory instruments
Cognitive Dissonance
Nudge framework (e.g. greater proportion of plant-based sales; hybrid products; increased availability of plant-based products, promotions, manipulation of products on shelves)
Greater exposure to negative consequences (e.g. introduce carbon labelling)
Tax foods with higher emissions (e.g. meat tax)
Introduce tax on animal product imports
Public procurement regulations and policies (e.g. meatless procurement for schools, hospitals, prisons)
Carbon-labelling as a form of command and control
Information Asymmetry
Awareness campaigns (e.g. NGO-led campaigns; meatless Mondays)
Alterations to the Canadian Food Guide
Public initiatives (e.g. urban gardening)
Retail Initiatives (e.g. Food demonstrations of plant-based protein, greater proportion of plant-based sales; carbon-labelling)
Nudge framework (e.g. greater proportion of plant-based sales; hybrid products; increased availability of plant-based products, promotions, manipulation of products on shelves)
Marketing meat alternatives; support brands and increase availability
Coupon discounts for plant-based products
Tax foods with higher emissions (e.g. meat tax)
Introduce tax on animal product imports
Public procurement regulations and policies (e.g. meatless procurement for schools, hospitals, prisons)
Regulations of advertisement of unhealthy, and unsustainable products
Carbon-labelling as a form of command and control
55
Barrier Information-Based Market-Based Regulatory
Political Economy
Retail Initiatives (e.g. Food demonstrations of plant-based protein, greater proportion of plant-based sales; carbon-labelling)
Alterations to the Canadian Food GuideAwareness campaigns (e.g public schools)
Nudge framework (e.g. greater proportion of plant-based sales; hybrid products; increased availability of plant-based products, promotions, manipulation of products on shelves)
Retail Initiatives (e.g. Food demonstrations of plant-based protein, greater proportion of plant-based sales; carbon-labelling)
Tax foods with higher emissions (e.g. meat tax)
Revenue generated by ‘meat tax’ to be invested in support of R&D of clean technologies for the agriculture
Implement tradable emissions quotas (e.g. cap-and-trade)
Reduction of subsidies for animal-sourced foods and subsequent investment in plant-based foods
Introduce tax on animal product imports
Coupon discounts for plant-based products
Implement production quotas on meat and animal products (e.g. cap on cattle)
Develop an emissions cap from the agricultural sector
Phase out subsidies, or even the playing field
Public procurement regulations and policies (e.g. meatless procurement for schools, hospitals, prisons)
Limit size and scale of agriculture, to reduce industrialization and promote local
Carbon-labelling as a form of command and control
Social Influence
Awareness campaigns (e.g. NGO-led campaigns; meatless Mondays)
Vegetarian discount cards for restaurants
Restaurant regulations to increase vegetarian & vegan options
As policy measures are cross-cutting between the five recognized barriers to dietary transition, they are listed below in terms of
informative tools, economic incentives, and regulations.
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I. Information-Based
Review of the literature pertaining to policy recommendations for reducing diet-related
GHG emissions found large inconsistencies throughout the small compilation (ie. 21 primary
journal articles) of research (Joyce et al., 2014). The recommended approaches are inconsistent
across studies, possibly due to differences in spatial and temporal distribution, in addition to
socio-political and food system contexts. More importantly, however, the 21 studies generally
make considerable assumptions regarding community and political support for possible actions,
where there is little empirical evidence supporting the recommendations. Thus, before
intervening, it is essential to properly frame the issues associated with industrial animal
agriculture and associated meat-consumption behaviours, to garner community and political
support through promotion and advertisement (Glanz & Yaroch, 2004) before implementing
policy instruments (Beverland, 2014; Joyce et al., 2014). The case for government intervention
needs to be built in a compelling and evidence-based manner.
It is anticipated that global transition to a low-meat diet would likely be more accepted by
the general public if recommended for reasons other than, or in combination with climate change
(Wellesley et al., 2015), given greater public concern for human health (Kickert et al., 1997;
Macdiarmid et al., 2012; Hendrie et al., 2014; Joyce et al., 2014), price, food safety (Wellesley
et al., 2015), and/or animal ethics. In doing so, promotional advertisement could focus on
broadening the message to include the health benefits of meat reduction, or decreased
susceptibility of infectious agents (McMichael et al., 2007), and the resulting reduction in
healthcare costs. In order to overcome confusion generated by ever-changing nutritional
messages, however, government must advocate for health benefits of meat reduction, to act as a
leader. Public confusion may be limited if the message is coming from a principal and
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trustworthy source. Cooperation between environmental and health officials may produce
effective measures to generate a shift away from meat-based diets, effectively ‘killing two birds
with one stone’ in terms of environmental conservation and prevention of consumption-related
health issues (obesity, cardiovascular disease, etc.) (McMichael et al., 2007; Wellesley et al.,
2015).
Beyond the issue of which concerns to prioritize in such promotions, motivational
framing is clearly important. Students at the University of Western Ontario (King’s University
College) were more likely to eat vegetarian-based diets or reduce meat consumption in response
to framing emphasizing the ethical implications of industrial livestock agriculture, in comparison
to an alternative framing of health (Duchene, 2014). However, framing of students’ autonomy in
taking charge of this shift towards plant-based diets (ie. self-determined; promotion of choice)
was more important than contexts that emphasized political control (Deci & Ryan, 1987).
Likewise, positive outcomes associated with autonomous forms of motivation are continually
demonstrated in SDT-based research (Gagne & Deci, 2005; Silvia et al., 2014). The latter
finding is crucial for policy, as regulation of behaviour varies along a continuum, with policies
functioning to (i) support autonomy, towards (ii) pressure to achieve specific outcomes by means
of controlling individual behaviour (Deci & Ryan, 1987).
i. Raising Awareness
The first step in promoting a shift to plant based diets, is bridging the awareness gap with
respect to dietary selection, and the resulting environmental (or health, social) consequences
(Wellesley et al., 2015). Though awareness is not the solution to effect large-scale individual
dietary changes, it is essential to set the stage for policy intervention. Awareness is intricately
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linked to framing and together, must be well executed to bolster public support. Building upon
the abovementioned considerations for framing both the topics and the motivations, raising
awareness must also encompass a simple message, disseminated by trusted sources (Wellesley et
al., 2015). Information-based, or education tools are currently the most dominant policy
instruments regarding behavioural consumption patterns (Reisch et al., 2013), yet public
understanding of the environmental impacts associated with climate change remains relatively
low (Wellesley et al., 2015). Despite the intricacies and complexity associated with sustainable
consumption, the main message is clear; meat consumption must be reduced (Wellesley et al.,
2015).
This research recognizes the historical agro-ecological and nutritional logic in the
selection of nutrient dense foods (ie. protein, sugars, and fats). However, given the rate of obesity
in developed economies as a result of energy dense food (including meat), this logic may need to
be reassessed well into the 21st century (Saxena, 2011; Beverland, 2014). Moreover, despite
increasing awareness of the environmental, health, and social consequences associated with meat
consumption, eating animal products has remained socially acceptable (Dagevos & Voordouw,
2013). As eating meat has become sign of affluence and modernity in developed countries
(Fiddes, 1994), a shift to plant-based diets will require persuasion strategies via targeted and
well-planned awareness campaigns. Conceivably, policies targeted at reducing meat
consumption (ie. meatless Mondays or tofu Tuesdays) would be more attractive than vegetarian
endorsement or out-right animal product bans, given the carnivorous food culture in developed
economies. This approach would also tailor to the autonomy of individuals, likely encouraging
its receptiveness (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Dagevos & Voordouw, 2013; Duchene, 2014) as a starting
point to increase public acceptance for more stringent and effective policies later on (Dagevos &
59
Voordouw, 2013; Joyce et al., 2014). In addition to, and perhaps more importantly, agencies
need to stop promoting consumption of animal products (McApline et al., 2009).
Given the lack of industry and government action, another potential avenue to encourage
plant-based consumption is through non-governmental organizations (NGOs). NGOs are well-
positioned to invoke behavioural change, with experience in direct action, lobbying, and public
education (Cox, 2013; Laestadius et al., 2013b). The role of NGOs is central in meat-reduction
information campaigns (Dagevos & Voordouw, 2013; Laestadius et al., 2013), such as the
support of meat-free days (de Bakker & Dagevos, 2012). Yet, few NGOs have adopted formal
campaigns to promote national policies regarding the consumption of animal products
(Laestadius et al., 2013; Laestadius et al., 2014). As awareness increases through NGO-led
campaigns and messages build support for public policy, a pathway opens for public policies to
influence motivational change towards sustainable dietary practices (Dagevos & Voordouw,
2013).
Individuals that exhibit higher sensitivity to environmental issues will likely be most
influenced by environmental awareness campaigns (Bravo et al., 2013). However, these
individuals are likely already displaying pro-environmental consumption to some degree and
thus, the potential effect of dietary change is likely smaller than individuals with low
environmental preference (Bravo et al., 2013). Bravo et al., (2013) found that policies targeted
specifically at individuals with low environmental concern led to substantial behavioural changes
in dietary consumption.
Other informative approaches could include changes to national dietary guidelines
(Messina et al., 2003) to expand the concept of protein and calcium beyond that of animal
products. Experts agree that dietary guidelines should be based on both nutritional and ecological
60
science (Simopoulos et al., 2011; van Dooren et al., 2014). Likewise, after years of analyzing the
health and ecological impacts of the average Dutch diet, the Netherlands recently changed their
national dietary guidelines, issuing a recommendation that individuals consume no more than
two servings of meat per week (Voedingscentrum, 2016). The UK also released a new nutritional
guideline suggesting replacement of animal protein with plant-based alternatives, namely pulses
(Eatwell Guide, 2016). Alternatively, the Canadian Food Guide recommends at least two
servings of fish each week, suggesting a lack of concern for vegetarian consumers. In addition,
meat and dairy encompass two of the four food categories; representative of how animal
products are engrained in Canadian culture (Canada’s Food Guide, 2012). The Dairy industry in
North America insists milk is needed for adequate nutrition of calcium and protein (Globe and
Mail, 2015), and have gone lengths to promote dairy consumption. However, there are other
sources of food to obtain these vital nutrients. Moreover, 25% individuals on the Food Guide
Advisory Committee were employed by corporations that would affect, and bias the Canadian
food recommendations including the nutrition education manager for the BC Dairy Foundation
(Globe and Mail, 2015)
According to Health Canada, the Canadian Food Guide is currently under review, namely
to combat issues associated with rising obesity rates (CBC, 2016). It is unknown as to whether
environmentally-sustainable consumption will be incorporated into the new recommendations,
however ‘Canadians deserve an evidence-based guide’ (Globe and Mail, 2015). Ideally,
alterations to the current national dietary guidelines, or rather a supplementary guide for
vegetarians should be implemented and taught at an early age, with protein options geared at
products such as quinoa, instead of steak.
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ii. ‘Nudge’ Motivation
Given the stronger influence of autonomy on dietary behavioural changes, a nudge
framework may be the most influential mechanism to promote a shift to plant-based diets in
Canada, and other developed nations (Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014; Wellesley et al., 2015).
Promotional campaigns can only incentivize people who are unaware of the environmental
impacts associated with animal agriculture, and want to make the necessary lifestyle changes to
mitigate environmental degradation. However, extensive literature suggests that information, and
public awareness is limited in its effectiveness to facilitate behavioural change (Stern, 1999;
Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014). Thus, a relatively new approach to motivating pro-environmental
behaviours has recently been investigated: nudges. The underlying principles of a nudge, stems
from the observation that in complex information settings (such as dietary selection) individuals
rarely make decisions based on their long-term best interest, but rather are influenced by shorter-
term judgmental heuristics that can be exploited by means of choice architecture to yield
desirable outcomes (Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014). Nudges delicately push consumers to make
choices that are both individually and socially desirable (Thaler & Sustein, 2003).
The literature offers a general consensus that there is a positive correlation between food
advertisement and dietary selection (Bargh & Morsella, 2008), both in adults (Vukmirovic,
2015) and children (Kim et al., 2016b). Customers are nudged to purchase certain foods in a
grocery store via brand advertisement, food availability, manipulation of placement, sales, and
promotion (ie. in-store demonstrations and coupon discounts). These forms of point-of-purchase
information are useful marketing tools to influence purchasing behaviour of individuals (Glanz
& Yaroch, 2004; Vukmirovic, 2015; Jahns et al., 2016). However, they currently act as barriers
to adopting plant-based diets, as they favour animal protein over plant-based alternatives (Jahns
62
et al., 2016). This imbalance in marketing, has limited the concept of protein to animal
derivatives (Grace et al., 2015). As the demand for labelling products is growing (Abrams et al.,
2010; Lusk, 2011), point-of-purchase information could help incentivize sustainable
consumption patterns (Glanz & Yaroch, 2004).
Asymmetric interventions (nudges) can be effective tools to motivate individual
behaviour (Thaler & Sustein, 2003; Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014). For example, simply changing
the default menu to present appealing meat-free options in a campus dining hall increased the
probability that individuals would choose vegetarian meal options. The provision of information
on the menu remained unchanged, however, the default-based intervention of making the menu
more appealing was an important tool in motivating pro-environmental behaviour (Campbell-
Arvai et al., 2014). Likewise, choice architecture interventions can influence consumption, such
as strategic placement of fruits and vegetables in a cafeteria (Kongsbak et al., 2016). Another
example of a ‘sustainability by stealth’ nudge framework could include hybrid products, with
plant semi-manufactures incorporated into sausages or hamburgers, ultimately reducing the
quantity of meat required. Advertised as lean, or containing less fat, these products seem more
appealing from a health perspective, but are not advertised as vegetarian options, thus, appealing
to a larger population (de Bakker & Dagevos, 2012). A final example of a nudge framework is
the redesign of grocery stores to promote sales of plant-based products by having fruits and
vegetables in the most accessible areas, with design inspired by colorful, creative décor and
signage. Alternatively, meat products would be moved to more distant locations, with less
enticing store design. In summary, given the stealth and voluntary behaviour of the nudge
framework, nudges are considered to be more effective in tailoring to the autonomy of
individuals in comparison to command-and-control approaches (Reisch et al., 2013).
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II. Market-based
Evidence suggests that consumers change their food purchasing behaviour with respect to
price. Thus, price can be seen both as a barrier to vegetarianism and as an opportunity for policy
intervention. However, price elasticities for demand vary considerably dependent on the category
of food. For instance, Andreyeva et al. (2010) found that price elasticities were relatively highest
for soft drinks, juice, meats, vegetables, and fruit. From an intervention perspective, more elastic
demand is encouraging for policies, given the greater opportunity to change behaviour. These
findings have important policy implications, suggesting that higher meat prices may deter the
public from purchasing environmentally unsustainable meat. Alternatively, lower protein
alternatives, fruit and vegetable costs could influence higher purchasing behaviour of plant-based
products.
i. Subsidies
Rationally, one would assume that reductions, or rather, elimination of government
subsidies would be a good policy approach (McMichael et al., 2007; McAlpine et al., 2009;
Popkin, 2009; Joyce et al., 2014; Wellesley et al., 2015). Yet, this approach would likely lead to
substantial backlash from industries within Canada, and be difficult to implement, given its
policy-making network consisting of individuals, coalitions, and organizations. In this view,
elimination of subsidies would theoretically be favoured by tax-payers, produce farmers,
climate-enthusiasts, and perhaps even health officials. Yet, elimination of farm subsidies would
be greatly opposed by livestock suppliers, particularly poultry, egg, and dairy producers in
Canada, who benefit most prominently (McKenna, 2013; AAFC, 2015b). Nevertheless, given the
64
significant and immediate transition needed with respect to individual consumption, phasing out
subsidies would be a useful approach (Reisch et al., 2013).
Government subsidies totalled $6.9 Billion in 2011 to protect the aforementioned main
beneficiaries from foreign competition by exorbitantly high tariffs (McKenna, 2013; AAFC,
2015b). However, other risk management programs are also in place to protect the agriculture
industry against issues that are out of their control, namely disease, bad weather, and high feed
costs (McKenna, 2013). Removal of these subsidies could result in a consumer shift to
purchasing imported from other countries, given their competitive advantage in price (Audsley et
al., 2009). In this perspective, emissions may decrease in Canada, but the global inventory would
remain the same. Consumers would maintain the same level of consumption, but shift their
purchasing behaviour to cheaper exports, rather than products within national borders (Audsley
et al., 2009).
There are, in fact, agro-ecological arguments that could justify why certain production
systems are most suitable for given locations. The following are arguments for the Alberta beef
and Atlantic fisheries industries, as examples of the suitability of some production systems. Two
conclusions can be drawn from these examples. We should either (i) support the industry for its
localized supply, benefitting many rural communities, or (ii) we should encourage plant-based
consumption, and support these industries to adjust according (via a transition to grain, or kelp
aquaculture, for example).
Commercial-capture fisheries in Atlantic Canada generate the largest quantity, and value
of the four major Canadian ecoregions (Atlantic, Arctic, Central-Great Lakes, Pacific),
predominantly harvesting lobster, shrimp, and crab (Campbell et al., 2014). For instance, the
American lobster (Homarus americanus) fishery is the most profitable single-species fishery on
65
the East Coast of North America (Wahle, 2004), and lobster abundance has recently increased to
levels never previously experienced (DFO, 2015). Considered small fishing communities, many
areas in the Atlantic provinces depend on the localized fishing industry (Poetschke, 1984) for
income. The industry provides locally-sourced food to Atlantic Canadians, aligning with the
ecological argument of low ‘food miles’. However, the industry also has substantial national and
international export rates.
Contrary to the historical and culturally significant lobster fishery in Atlantic Canada,
Alberta beef has only recently emerged as a regional identity post-BSE (bovine spongiform
encephalopathy) in 2003 (Blue, 2008). Through national promotion and support, Alberta beef
has transformed the province, and is now recognizable as a symbol of cultural identity (Blue,
2008). Industry support is contrary to the previous trend of health, ethical and environmental
concerns associated with beef, and has encouraged Canadians to maintain a relatively stable
consumption of livestock post-BSE (AAFC, 2014), in comparison to the UK who saw a more
substantial drop in beef consumption (Blue, 2008). Alberta beef is now a Canadian staple,
highlighted as a local food commodity, encompassing regional identit,y and speaking to national
unity following the BSE crisis (Blue, 2008). As provincial and federal governments have
embraced neoliberal policies throughout Canada, the agricultural sector has intensified,
highlighting industrialization and corporate investment (Davidson et al., 2016). Likewise, 90%
of national livestock production is dominated by a few global corporations. The majority of this
production is exported to the US, and Asia (Davidson et al., 2016), counteracting the former
argument of local consumption. However, with climate change increasingly affecting global
livelihood, action must be taken. There are going to be winners from a shift to a low-carbon
society, and there will also be losers. Maybe it is time to lump the livestock sector in with
66
employees from the fossil fuel industry, and recognize that change must be embraced.
Governments have a responsibility to balance sustainability with autonomy and prosperity of the
industry that serves to supply food for public consumption, in a local and increasingly
environmentally conscious manner (Duchin, 2005). However, government support does not have
to subsidize the livestock industry explicitly, but rather provide support through alternative,
transitional mechanisms.
Reduction of subsidies for animal-sourced foods, and subsequent investment in plant-
based foods are commonly suggested (Sabaté & Rajaram, 2000; ADA, 2003; McMichael et al.,
2007; McAlpine et al., 2009; Popkin, 2009; Joyce et al., 2014; Wellesley et al., 2015). This
approach would lower the cost to consumers, and theoretically create financial incentives to
influence consumer purchasing behaviour towards plant-based products (Riesch et al., 2013),
while maintaining Canadian purchases.
ii. Meat Taxes
A Pigovian tax is a well-known economic instrument used to combat negative
externalities (Arthur Pigou, 1920). The underlying principal suggests implementing a tax on
meat products, to account for the full social cost of production. The price of animal products
would consequently increase, theoretically leading to a reduction in the quantity of meat that is
purchased; ultimately reducing demand and supply (Lusk, 2011). Thus, a ‘meat-tax’ follows the
basic principles of a carbon tax (Wellesley et al., 2015), however, instead of alleviating the
negative externalities imposed by CO2, a meat tax would focus primarily on CH4 and NO2
emissions.
67
However, a Pigovian tax also has noteworthy limitations. Unless the tax incorporated is
substantial, and fully encompasses the social cost of industrial animal agriculture production, it is
unlikely a meat-tax would lead to substantial reductions in purchasing behaviour by consumers
(Lusk, 2011). Hence, the quantity of animal products would remain relatively stagnant. Estimates
suggest that a 1% price increase for animal products, would result in less than a 1% decrease in
purchasing behaviour (Gallet, 2010; Lusk, 2011), and thus, a high tax must be implemented to
achieve a significant shift in extrinsically motivated purchasing behaviour.
In addition, it is important to emphasize that price elasticity of demand, and the
associated opportunity for pricing mechanisms to change individual extrinsic behaviour, could
actually lead to unpredicted, and negative consequences that were not intended (Andreyeva et
al., 2010). For example, if all meat products were to be taxed by 10%, the general public may
shift their purchasing behaviour from chicken towards processed meats, or hamburger, given the
comparatively low costs associated with the latter. This shift would actually be worse from an
environmental perspective, given the higher environmental footprint associated with ruminant
agriculture in comparison to poultry products (Andreyeva et al., 2010).
However, the government revenue generated by the tax (double dividend) could be used
to invest in clean technologies within the industry, or support research and development, similar
to that of comparative climate policies. As meat taxes are considered to be undesirable,
especially by marginalized populations, the revenue generated from the tax could be used to
decrease the price of plant-based products in grocery stores. In this manner, distortionary prices
for healthier, more environmentally sustainable foods would become more affordable, especially
for low-income families (Andreyeva et al., 2010; Joyce et al., 2014), which would help alleviate
the undesirability of a meat tax. Some policies have actually been implemented (ie. taxes on junk
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food, soda) (Nicholls et al., 2011) and/or are under consideration in many regions, specifically
with respect to boosting the consumption of fruits and vegetables (Andreyeva et al., 2010).
Based on the aforementioned high elasticity of demand for these products, a 10% reduction in
price could increase purchases by 7% for fruits, and 5.8% for vegetables (Andreyeva et al.,
2010).
III. Regulatory
Livestock agriculture could also be capped (quota-based) to prevent unsustainable
harvesting (Reisch et al., 2013), similar to the conceptual schema of a sustainable fishery. A cap
or quota would also raise the price of animal products, as influenced by the interaction of supply
and demand. The increased price would dissuade customers from purchasing high quantities of
animal products, meanwhile the cap would ensure an emissions reduction from the livestock
sector.
Furthermore, the livestock sector could be contracted and retained to grassland that is
inefficient for crop production (Audsley et al., 2009). This retention could release arable land for
crops which would compensate for an influx in produce demand (Audsley et al., 2009; Gill et al.,
2009), given a shift to plant-based diets. In this instance, more land would not be required to
compensate for dietary changes. Likewise, urban gardening and self-sustaining produce
production could be encouraged to limit the need for arable land and dangerous overexpansion of
crop agriculture; effectively restraining potential consequential effects for dietary transition.
Command and control is considered to be a last resort because of the contentious issues
surrounding regulation of public consumption trends. Likewise, voluntary agreements are more
common (Reisch et al., 2013). Nevertheless, command-and-control approaches have been
69
suggested, namely emissions standards. If an industrial agricultural farm is over the emissions
standard target or cap, then it will not be able to continue its production, unless it put in place
measures to mitigate onsite emissions. In this regard, regulatory policies such as labelling,
certification, inspection, and standardization could be used to facilitate informed decision
making by consumers (Eberle et al., 2011; Reisch et al., 2013). In fact, from a health
perspective, regulatory policies (food labelling) have reduced fat content of products, ultimately
achieving public health benefits (Friel et al., 2009; Ratnayake et al., 2009). Likewise,
environmentally-conscious labelling could focus on GHG emissions (ie. carbon labelling)
(Reisch et al., 2013), to influence purchasing behaviour.
Lastly, public procurement regulations and policies could also promote sustainable
consumption in public organizations (Reisch et al., 2013; Wellesley et al., 2015). Procurement
regulations for catering occasions, and cafeterias in schools, hospitals, prisons, and the public
sector could emphasize plant-based meals, while reducing meat-based options (Wahlen et al.,
2012; Reisch et al., 2013). The goal would be to foster support in the public sector, from a wide
array of organizations, age groups, and income levels. However, in order to be effective, public
procurement regulations must be adequately stringent, closely monitored, and well enforced
(Dalmeny & Jackson, 2010; Reisch et al., 2013). Thus, public procurement strategies may be
effective with governments portraying role models to facilitate consumer transition of demand
and supply for meat-based products (Mikkelsen et al., 2006; Reisch et al., 2013; Wellesley et al.,
2015).
70
IV. Conclusion
Given the robust evidence-base regarding the negative environmental impacts associated
with increasing demand for animal protein worldwide (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Porter et al., 2014;
Sabaté & Soret, 2014), a shift to plant-based diets has been increasingly suggested (Garnett,
2011; Garnett, 2013). However, perceived and real bottlenecks to sustainable consumption are
prevalent, likely hindering widespread adoption of vegetarianism. Active discouragement of pro-
environmental behavioural change is established from an individual to institutional level, with
five key themes unveiled throughout the integrative literature review. In increasing order of
prevalence (frequency), Autonomy, Cognitive dissonance, Social influence, Political economy,
and Information asymmetry act as barriers to adopting a plant-based diet. Identification of these
barriers is important, to further establish targeted policy options to overcome each of the dietary
bottlenecks respectively.
Though each of the aforementioned policy instruments have the potential to intrinsically
and extrinsically motivate purchasing behaviour and consumption, the appropriate level of
change may not be achieved. Hence, a coherent framework using a combination of policy
mechanisms is likely to be the most effective in motivating behaviour: price changes, public
education, nudges, and other regulations (Andreyeva et al., 2010; de Bakker & Dageovs, 2012).
In addition, Bravo et al., (2013) emphasize that though taxation schemes and information
campaigns orient individual consumption in the desired direction of environmental sustainability,
policy mechanisms should be carefully calibrated. In order to produce significant effects, while
maintaining cost-effectiveness, the target and intensity of policy instruments should be
cautiously analyzed (Bravo et al., 2013).
71
In addition, coordinated inter-sectoral cooperation and action between agricultural,
environmental, health organizations, in addition to support from governments and NGOs, are
needed to push effective change (Friel et al., 2009). Cooperation among may sectors will
facilitate solutions to provide effective, affordable, healthy, and low-emissions diets in developed
nations (Friel et al., 2009; Joyce et al., 2014). Thus, given consumption behaviour is morally
complex, and driven by many factors (de Bakker & Dagevos, 2012), a combination of
approaches would help to address more than one factor. By tackling different routes of change, a
wider population can be reached to transform behaviour towards sustainable consumption (de
Bakker & Dageovs, 2012).
Reducing meat consumption seems inescapable in order to mitigate the impacts
associated with industrial animal agriculture. Climate change necessitates radical action
(McMichael et al., 2007), and governments need to reconsider previous assumptions that support
of meat reduction is too risky and unviable (Wellesley et al., 2015). Government capacity to
overcome the synthesized barriers and influence public dietary choices is actually growing, given
the increasing concern of obesity and heart disease in developed countries, in addition to
environmental considerations associated with industrial livestock agriculture (Wellesley et al.,
2015).
72
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Appendix 1
Figure 11. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “vegetarian* motivation”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
92
Figure 12. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “vegetarian* barrier”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
93
Figure 13. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “vegetarian* environment”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
94
Figure 14. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “influence on consumption”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
95
Figure 15. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “meat consumption”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
96
Figure 16. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “promotion of vegetarian*”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
97
Figure 17. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “environmentally significant consumption”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
98
Figure 18. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “limit vegetarian*”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
99
Figure 19. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “obstacle vegetarian*”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
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Figure 20. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “advertise food”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
101
Figure 21. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “reducing meat consumption + government”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
102
Figure 22. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “consumer characteristics + government”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
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Figure 23. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “sustainable + vegan”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
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Figure 24. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “vegan barrier”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
105
Figure 25. Flow diagram of academic literature using the key search term “sustainable food consumption policy”, obtained on the basis of the academic search protocol. The - character, symbolizes articles that were deemed ineligible on the basis of the exclusion criteria, while the + character, symbolizes additional articles that were included from cross-referencing.
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Appendix 2
Codes Categories Themes
Figure 26. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of autonomy.
Codes Categories Themes
Figure 27. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of cognitive dissonance.
107
Codes Categories Themes
Figure 28. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of information asymmetry.
108
Codes Categories Themes
Figure 29. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of social influence.
109
Codes Categories Themes
Codes Categories Themes
110
Figure 30. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) of academic journal articles influencing the theme of political economy.
111
Codes Categories Themes
Figure 31. A posteriori inductive coding scheme (codes-categories-themes) underlying the 6 public webpages assessed for barriers to plant based diets.
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Appendix 3
Table 3. Detailed outline of the codes-categories-concepts methodology uncovered from the 111 academic journal articles assessed for barriers to plant-based diets. The context (implicit; explicit) in which the code was stated, the referenced article, and the source are also included.
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Not Health Conscious Apathy Autonomy Explicit Hoek et al., 2004 Primary
Not Health Conscious Apathy Autonomy Explicit Ponzio et al., 2015 Primary
Not Health Conscious Apathy Autonomy Implicit Nederkoorn et al., 2009 Primary
Not Health Conscious Apathy Autonomy Explicit Ruby & Heine, 2011 Primary
Unwilling to Change Apathy Autonomy Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Unwilling to Change Apathy Autonomy Explicit Ogden et al., 2007 Primary
Unwilling to Change Apathy Autonomy Explicit Lea & Worsley, 2003 Primary
Unwilling to Change Apathy Autonomy Explicit Lea et al., 2006 Primary
Unwilling to Change Apathy Autonomy Explicit Pohjolainen et al., 2014 Primary
Unwilling to Change Apathy Autonomy Explicit Caracciolo et al., 2016 Primary
Unwilling to Change Apathy Autonomy Explicit Vanhonacker et al., 2013 Primary
Attitude Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Attitude Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Ogden et al., 2007 Primary
Hedonism Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Thompson et al., 1999 Primary
Hedonism Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Jeong & Jang, 2016 Primary
Hedonism Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Identity Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Cherry, 2015 Primary
Identity Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Identity Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Identity Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Wilson et al., 2004 Synthesis
Identity Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Identity Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013 Primary
Individual Values Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014 Primary
113
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Individual Values Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Caracciolo et al., 2016 Primary
Individual Values Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Tan et al., 2016 Primary
Individual Values Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Worsley, 2007 Primary
Individual Values Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Curran & Sherbinin, 2004 Synthesis
Individual Values Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Individual Values Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Individual Values Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
Insufficient Inhibitory Control Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Nederkoorn et al., 2009 Primary
Low Self-Efficacy Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Not Dedicated, Lack Control Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Jabs et al., 2000 Primary
Poor Restraint Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998 Primary
Poor Restraint Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Nederkoorn et al., 2009 Primary
Poor Restraint Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Katcher et al., 2010 Primary
Psychological Makeup Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Implicit Curran & Sherbinin, 2004 Synthesis
Resistant to Change Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Dehumanization Anthropocentric Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Bratanova et al., 2011 Primary
Dehumanization Anthropocentric Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Loughnan et al., 2010 Primary
Dehumanization Anthropocentric Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
Hierarchy Anthropocentric Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Hierarchy Anthropocentric Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Bilewicz et al., 2011 Primary
Hierarchy Anthropocentric Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
Hierarchy Anthropocentric Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013 Primary
Hierarchy Anthropocentric Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Denial Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Denial Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Ruby et al., 2013 Primary
Denial Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Batison et al., 2012 Primary
Denial Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Bilewicz et al., 2011 Primary
Denial Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Bratanova et al., 2011 Primary
114
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Denial Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Loughnan et al., 2010 Primary
Denial Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
Denial Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Denial Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Disbelief Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Disregard for Negative Consequences Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Graca et al., 2014 Primary
Ignorance Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Loughnan et al., 2010 Primary
Lack of Concern Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Other Concerns More Important Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Reconstrual of Harmful Conduct Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Graca et al., 2014 Primary
Repressed Morals/Thoughts Intentional Ignorance Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Active Avoidance and Dissociation Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Graca et al., 2014 Primary
Active Avoidance and Dissociation Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Active Avoidance and Dissociation Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Bratanova et al., 2011 Primary
Active Avoidance and Dissociation Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Consequences Removed in Space & Time Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Dementalization Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Ruby et al., 2013 Primary
Dementalization Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Batison et al., 2012 Primary
Dementalization Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
Desensitization Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Detachment from Industry Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013 Primary
Meat Paradox Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Loughnan et al., 2010 Primary
Meat Paradox Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Moral Disengagement Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Moral Justification Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Moral Justification Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Fox & Ward, 2008 Primary
115
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Janda & Trocchia, 2001 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Beardsworth & Keil, 1993 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit de Backer & Hudders, 2014 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Lea & Worsley, 2002 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Bratanova et al., 2011 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Caracciolo et al., 2016 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Ruby & Heine, 2011 Primary
Morals Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Leitzmann, 2014 Synthesis
Obscuring Personal Responsibility Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Graca et al., 2014 Primary
Recognition of Benefits Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Lea & Worsley, 2003 Primary
Recognition of Benefits Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Lea et al., 2006 Primary
Recognition of Benefits Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Pohjolainen et al., 2014 Primary
Recognition of Benefits Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Chekima et al., 2016 Primary
Recognition of Benefits Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Implicit Kongsback, 2016 Primary
Self-Exonerations Moral Disengagement Cognitive Dissonance Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Bone Density Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Bobic et al., 2012 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 PrimaryDeficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Barr & Chapman, 2002 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Wilson et al., 2004 Synthesis
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Jabs et al., 2000 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Lea et al., 2006 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
116
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Pistollato et al., 2015 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Temme et al., 2013 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Larsson et al., 2002 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Palaniswamy, 2003 Synthesis
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Clarys et al., 2014 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Leitzmann, 2014 Synthesis
Deficiencies Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Leitzmann, 2005 Synthesis
Eating Disorder Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Bardon-Cone et al., 2012 Primary
Eating Disorder Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Brinkman et al., 2014 Primary
Eating Disorder Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Forestell et al., 2012 Primary
Eating Disorder Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Eating Disorder Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Larsson et al., 2002 Primary
Health Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Health Impact on Newborns Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Pistollato et al., 2015 Primary
Nutritional Density Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
Nutritional Density Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Kouvari et al., 2016 Synthesis
Nutritional Density Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Clarys et al., 2014 Primary
Nutritional Necessity Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013 Primary
Nutritional Necessity Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Pregnancy-Related Issues Health Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Pistollato et al., 2015 Primary
Pregnancy-Related Issues Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Palaniswamy, 2003 Synthesis
Pregnancy-Related Issues Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Piccoli et al., 2015 Synthesis
Slow Growth in Children Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Palaniswamy, 2003 Synthesis
Weight/Diet Myth Health Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit de Backer & Hudders, 2014 Primary
Attachment Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Centrality Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
117
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Centrality Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Centrality Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vanhonacker et al., 2013 Primary
Centrality Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
Convenience Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Hoek et al., 2011 Primary
Convenience Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Convenience Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Cravings Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Cravings Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Cravings Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Leroy & Praet, 2015 Synthesis
Cravings Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Culture Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Lea & Worsley, 2003 Primary
Culture Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Pohjolainen et al., 2014 Primary
Culture Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Leroy & Praet, 2015 Synthesis
Culture Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Batison et al., 2012 Primary
Culture Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013 Primary
Culture Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Culture Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vanhonacker et al., 2013 Primary
Culture Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Carlsson-Kanyama, 1998 Primary
Culture Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
Difficult Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Enjoyment Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Lea & Worsley, 2003 Primary
Enjoyment Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Leroy & Praet, 2015 Synthesis
Enjoyment Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vanhonacker et al., 2013 Primary
Food Appropriateness Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Tan et al., 2016 Primary
Habit Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Habit Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Habit Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Habit Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
118
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Hunger Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Neacsu et al., 2014 Primary
Hunger Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Hunger Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Nederkoorn et al., 2009 Primary
Hunger Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Katcher et al., 2010 Primary
Imperfect Choice Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Wahlen et al., 2012 Primary
Impractical Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Cherry, 2015 Primary
Individual Helplessness Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Individual Helplessness Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Lazy, passive Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998 Primary
Lazy, passive Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Loss Aversion Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014 Primary
Mood Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Non-Reflective Activity Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Pragmatism Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Janda & Trocchia, 2001 Primary
Preparation Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Gobert & Duncan, 2009 Primary
Preparation Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Barr & Chapman, 2002 Primary
Quality of Meat Alternatives Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vanhonacker et al., 2013 Primary
Routine Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Routine Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Routine Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Wahlen et al., 2012 Primary
Stress Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit de Backer & Hudders, 2014 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Gobert & Duncan, 2009 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Hoek et al., 2011 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Barr & Chapman, 2002 Primary
119
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Pohjolainen et al., 2014 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Schyver & Smith, 2005 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Wnsink et al., 2014 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Leroy & Praet, 2015 Synthesis
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit de Boer et al., 2016 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Caracciolo et al., 2016 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Kouvari et al., 2016 Synthesis
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Tan et al., 2016 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Thompson et al., 1999 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Jeong & Jang, 2016 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vanhonacker et al., 2013 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Carlsson-Kanyama, 1998 Primary
Taste Preferences Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Texture/Appearance Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Gobert & Duncan, 2009 Primary
Texture/Appearance Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Hoek et al., 2011 Primary
Time Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Time Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Time Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
Time Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Time Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Worsley, 2007 Primary
Time Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Curran & Sherbinin, 2004 Synthesis
Time Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Traditional Views Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998 Primary
120
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Traditional Views Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Leroy & Praet, 2015 Synthesis
Traditional Views Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013 Primary
Traditional Views Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Caracciolo et al., 2016 Primary
Traditional Views Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Unfamiliar Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Forestell et al., 2012 Primary
Unfamiliar Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Tan et al., 2016 Primary
Unfamiliar Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Implicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Unfamiliar Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Hoek et al., 2011 Primary
Unfamiliar Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Unfamiliar Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Unfamiliar Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Unfamiliar Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Vanhonacker et al., 2013 Primary
Work Schedule Judgmental Heuristics Information Asymmetry Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Climate Change Deniers Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Controversial Topic Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Food Preparation Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Gobert & Duncan, 2009 Primary
Food Preparation Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Food Preparation Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Pohjolainen et al., 2014 Primary
Food Preparation Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Schyver & Smith, 2005 Primary
Food Preparation Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Wnsink et al., 2014 Primary
Food Preparation Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Palaniswamy, 2003 Synthesis
Food Preparation Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Implicit Worsley, 2007 Primary
Food Preparation Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Vanhonacker et al., 2013 Primary
Hidden Nature of Food Production Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Labelling Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Implicit Caracciolo et al., 2016 Primary
Labelling Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Lerner et al., 2013 Primary
Lack of Options Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Learning/Sharing Cooking Skills Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Implicit Cherry, 2015 Primary
121
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Misconceptions Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Implicit Tan et al., 2016 Primary
No Definition of Optimal Diet Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Poor Education/Promotion Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Palaniswamy, 2003 Synthesis
Poor Engagement Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Relatively New Topic Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Romantic Images Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Implicit Cherry, 2015 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Implicit Beardsworth & Keil, 1993 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Implicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Gobert & Duncan, 2009 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Barr & Chapman, 2002 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Lea & Worsley, 2003 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Lea et al., 2006 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Pohjolainen et al., 2014 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit de Boer et al., 2016 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Friel et al., 2013 Synthesis
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Lerner et al., 2013 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Vanhonacker et al., 2013 Primary
Unaware Lack of Education/Learning/Info Information Asymmetry Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Gobert & Duncan, 2009 Primary
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Wnsink et al., 2014 Primary
122
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Grabs, 2014 Primary
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Rose, 2010 Symposium
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit de Boer et al., 2016 Primary
Cost Myth Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Caracciolo et al., 2016 Primary
Discrepancy in Views Perception Information Asymmetry Implicit Worsley, 2007 Primary
Discrepancy in Views Perception Information Asymmetry Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Reliance on Judgmental Heuristics Suboptimal Decision Making Information Asymmetry Explicit Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014 Primary
Reliance on Judgmental Heuristics Suboptimal Decision Making Information Asymmetry Implicit Dietz, 2014 Commentary
Reliance on Judgmental Heuristics Suboptimal Decision Making Information Asymmetry Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Reliance on Judgmental Heuristics Suboptimal Decision Making Information Asymmetry Explicit Spaargaren, 2003 Primary
Balance in Government Responsibility Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Explicit Duchin, 2005 Synthesis
Economic Underpinnings of Food System Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Explicit Beardsworth & Keil, 1993 Primary
Economic Underpinnings of Food System Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Economic Welfare of Industry Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Explicit Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013 Primary
Funding for Climate Change Mitigation Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Implicit Classen & Schwean, 1998 Symposium
Funding for Community/Sustainability Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Implicit Seyfang & Smith, 2007 Synthesis
Increased Frequency of Eating Out Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Implicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Lower Price for More Intensive Meat Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Explicit Lerner et al., 2013 Primary
Market Liberalization Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Explicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
Pricing & Promotion Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Implicit Jahns et al., 2016 Primary
Pricing & Promotion Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Implicit Jeong & Jang, 2016 Primary
Subsidies to Industry Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Implicit Classen & Schwean, 1998 Symposium
Supermarket Sales Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Implicit Jahns et al., 2016 Primary
Supermarket Sales Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Implicit Sonntag et al., 2015 Synthesis
Supermarket Sales Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Explicit Vukmirovic, 2015 Synthesis
Supply Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Explicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
Threat to Industry Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Implicit Chin et al., 2002 Primary
123
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Trade Policies Economic Underpinnings Political Economy Explicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
Asymmetric Intervention by Industry Industry Influence Political Economy Implicit Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Beardsworth & Keil, 1993 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Gobert & Duncan, 2009 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Barr & Chapman, 2002 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Fleming et al., 1997 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Schyver & Smith, 2005 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Implicit Rose, 2010 Symposium
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Katcher et al., 2010 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Palaniswamy, 2003 Synthesis
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Implicit Whitfield et al., 2015 Case Study
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Implicit Jahns et al., 2016 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Availability Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Campaign Donations Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Categorization as Food Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Bratanova et al., 2011 Primary
Categorization as Food Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Fast Food Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Food Overexposure Industry Influence Political Economy Implicit Nederkoorn et al., 2009 Primary
Framing Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Government/Medical Endorsement Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Imperfect Supply Adjustment Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Wahlen et al., 2012 Primary
Industry Objections Industry Influence Political Economy Implicit Nestle, 1999 Synthesis
Institutional Norms Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013 Primary
124
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Institutional Norms Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Lack of Green Provisioning Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Spaargaren, 2003 Primary
Poor Diversity Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Palaniswamy, 2003 Synthesis
Teachers Industry Influence Political Economy Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Choice ArchitectureLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Implicit Kongsback, 2016 Primary
Committees on National GuidelinesLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Contradictory InformationLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Contradictory InformationLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Distortion of Recommendations & Advertisements
Lack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Misbach et al., 2015 Primary
Distortion of Food Recommendations & Advertisements
Lack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Sonntag et al., 2015 Synthesis
Externalizing Responsibility/BlameLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Food GuideLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Implicit Jones et al., 2004 Primary
Food GuideLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Katcher et al., 2010 Primary
Food GuideLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Messine et al., 2003 Primary
Food GuideLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Food GuideLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Implicit Flynn et al., 2011 Primary
Food GuideLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit van Dooren et al., 2014 Primary
Lack of Credibility with Respect to Sustainability Claims
Lack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Lack of Industry ActionLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Lack of Political Action/ PolicyLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Lack of Political Action/ PolicyLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Lerner et al., 2013 Primary
Lack of Political Action/ PolicyLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Lack of Political Action/ Policy Lack of Government/Industry Political Economy Explicit Wahlen et al., 2012 Primary
125
Code Category Theme Context Reference SourceLeadership
Lack of Political Action/ PolicyLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Spaargaren, 2003 Primary
Lack of Political Action/ PolicyLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
Lack of Political Action/ PolicyLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Implicit Seyfang & Smith, 2007 Synthesis
Lack of Political Action/ PolicyLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Lack of Political WillLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Lock-InLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Implicit Curran & Sherbinin, 2004 Synthesis
Lock-InLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Seyfang & Smith, 2007 Synthesis
Market InstrumentsLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Seyfang, 2005 Synthesis
No Definition of Optimal DietLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Palaniswamy, 2003 Synthesis
Nutritional InformationLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Fleming et al., 1997 Primary
Public InvolvementLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Implicit Verbeke et al., 2015 Primary
Public ProcurementLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Wahlen et al., 2012 Primary
Public ProcurementLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
School LunchesLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
School LunchesLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Implicit Worsley, 2007 Primary
School LunchesLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Implicit Sonntag et al., 2015 Synthesis
Trust in Science, Policy & SocietyLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Implicit Verbeke et al., 2015 Primary
Uncertainty/Skepticism/DistrustLack of Government/Industry Leadership Political Economy Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Action, Lobbying and Education by NGOs Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Explicit Laestadius et al., 2013 Primary
Action, Lobbying and Education by NGOs Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Implicit Seyfang & Smith, 2007 Synthesis
Community Action Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Implicit Seyfang & Smith, 2007 Synthesis
Few Formal NGO Campaigns Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Explicit Laestadius et al., 2013 Primary
126
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Few Formal NGO Campaigns Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Few Formal NGO Campaigns Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Few NGOs Promoting national Policies Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Explicit Laestadius et al., 2013 Primary
Few NGOs Promoting national Policies Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Message Consistency Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Explicit Laestadius et al., 2013 Primary
NGOs Funded by Government, Industry Limited Effort by NGOs Political Economy Explicit Laestadius et al., 2014 Synthesis
Advertising Marketing Political Economy Explicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Advertising Marketing Political Economy Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Advertising Marketing Political Economy Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Advertising Marketing Political Economy Implicit Chekima et al., 2016 Primary
Advertising Marketing Political Economy Implicit Boyland et al., 2016 Synthesis
Advertising Marketing Political Economy Implicit Bugge, 2016 Synthesis
Advertising Marketing Political Economy Explicit Vukmirovic, 2015 Synthesis
Advocacy Websites Marketing Political Economy Implicit Hopkins, 2015 Synthesis
Brand Familiarity Marketing Political Economy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Campaigns Marketing Political Economy Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Celebrities Marketing Political Economy Explicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Communication Technology Marketing Political Economy Implicit Kim et al., 1999 Primary
Disproportionate Advertising Marketing Political Economy Explicit Nestle, 1999 Synthesis
Fast Food Marketing Political Economy Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Fast Food Marketing Political Economy Explicit Sonntag et al., 2015 Synthesis
Frequency of Advertisements Marketing Political Economy Explicit Misbach et al., 2015 Primary
Geography of Food Marketing Political Economy Implicit Rose, 2010 Symposium
Green Washing/ Nutrient-Washing Marketing Political Economy Implicit Choi & Reid, 2015 Primary
Industry Marketing Marketing Political Economy Explicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Influence of Shelf Space Marketing Political Economy Implicit Rose, 2010 Symposium
Lack of Vegetarian Brands Marketing Political Economy Implicit Kim et al., 2016b Primary
Magazines Marketing Political Economy Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
127
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Magazines Marketing Political Economy Implicit Hopkins, 2015 Synthesis
Magazines Marketing Political Economy Implicit Bugge, 2016 Synthesis
Marketing Marketing Political Economy Explicit Schyver & Smith, 2005 Primary
Marketing Marketing Political Economy Implicit Jones et al., 2004 Primary
Marketing Marketing Political Economy Implicit Worsley, 2007 Primary
Marketing Marketing Political Economy Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Marketing Marketing Political Economy Explicit Wahlen et al., 2012 Primary
Marketing Marketing Political Economy Explicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
Marketing Marketing Political Economy Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Media (TV; Social) Marketing Political Economy Implicit Hopkins, 2015 Synthesis
Media (TV; Social) Marketing Political Economy Implicit Verbeke et al., 2015 Primary
Media (TV; Social) Marketing Political Economy Explicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Media (TV; Social) Marketing Political Economy Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Media (TV; Social) Marketing Political Economy Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Media (TV; Social) Marketing Political Economy Implicit Bugge, 2016 Synthesis
Media (TV; Social) Marketing Political Economy Implicit Choi & Reid, 2015 Primary
Media (TV; Social) Marketing Political Economy Implicit Kim et al., 2016b Primary
Media (TV; Social) Marketing Political Economy Explicit Sonntag et al., 2015 Synthesis
Media Messages Marketing Political Economy Implicit Hopkins, 2015 Synthesis
Packaging Marketing Political Economy Implicit Bugge, 2016 Synthesis
Point of Purchase Information Marketing Political Economy Implicit Jones et al., 2004 Primary
Point of Purchase Information Marketing Political Economy Implicit Jahns et al., 2016 Primary
Point of Purchase Information Marketing Political Economy Implicit Jeong & Jang, 2016 Primary
Point of Purchase Information Marketing Political Economy Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Product Packaging Marketing Political Economy Explicit Sonntag et al., 2015 Synthesis
Product Placement Marketing Political Economy Implicit Bugge, 2016 Synthesis
Product Placement/ Brand Affinity Marketing Political Economy Implicit Kim et al., 2016b Primary
Promotion/Advertisements Marketing Political Economy Explicit Misbach et al., 2015 Primary
128
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Retail Marketing Political Economy Explicit Kearney, 2010 Synthesis
Targeted Advertisement Marketing Political Economy Explicit Kim et al., 2016b Primary
Targeted Advertisement Marketing Political Economy Implicit Kim et al., 2016a Synthesis
Tenure of Media Coverage Marketing Political Economy Implicit Hopkins, 2015 Synthesis
Variety & Placement of Items Marketing Political Economy Implicit Jahns et al., 2016 Primary
Geographic Location Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
Friends/Family Modelling Social Influence Implicit Janda & Trocchia, 2001 Primary
Parental Behaviour Modelling Social Influence Explicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Parental Behaviour Modelling Social Influence Explicit Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1999 Primary
Parental Behaviour Modelling Social Influence Explicit Yuan et al., 2016 Primary
Parental Behaviour Modelling Social Influence Explicit Reisch et al., 2013 Synthesis
Annoyance Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
Conformity Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Friends/Family Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Makiniemi & Vinio, 2014 Primary
Friends/Family Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Bobic et al., 2012 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Fleming et al., 1997 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Jabs et al., 2000 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Lea & Worsley, 2002 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Leroy & Praet, 2015 Synthesis
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Nederkoorn et al., 2009 Primary
129
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Larsson et al., 2002 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Thompson et al., 1999 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Chekima et al., 2016 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Kongsback, 2016 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Hoek et al., 2004 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Ponzio et al., 2015 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Ruby & Heine, 2011 Primary
Gender Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Meier et al., 2014 Primary
Modelling Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Bugge, 2016 Synthesis
Social Acceptability Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
Social Norms Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Social Norms Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Vinnari & Vinnari, 2013 Primary
Social Norms Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Tan et al., 2016 Primary
Social Norms Social Desirability Social Influence Implicit Larsson et al., 2002 Primary
Social Support Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit de Boer et al., 2016 Primary
Stereotyped Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Lea & Worsley, 2002 Primary
Stereotyped Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Lea et al., 2006 Primary
Stereotyped Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Status Quo Bias Social Desirability Social Influence Explicit Campbell-Arvai et al., 2014 Primary
Change in Living Situation Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Collective Action Social Difficulties Social Influence Implicit Cherry, 2015 Primary
Comparison Social Difficulties Social Influence Implicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Critical Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Chin et al., 2002 Primary
Friends/Family Social Difficulties Social Influence Implicit Cherry, 2015 Primary
Friends/Family Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Chin et al., 2002 Primary
Friends/Family Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Jabs et al., 2000 Primary
Friends/Family Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Lea & Worsley, 2003 Primary
130
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Friends/Family Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Lea et al., 2006 Primary
Judicial Treatment Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Chin et al., 2002 Primary
Justification Requirement Social Difficulties Social Influence Implicit Wilson et al., 2004 Synthesis
Justification Requirement Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Poor Goal Orientation Social Difficulties Social Influence Implicit Cherry, 2015 Primary
Poor Social Organization Social Difficulties Social Influence Implicit Cherry, 2015 Primary
Potential Alienation Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Janda & Trocchia, 2001 Primary
Restaurant Difficulty Social Difficulties Social Influence Implicit Jones et al., 2004 Primary
Restaurant Difficulty Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Katcher et al., 2010 Primary
Restaurant Difficulty Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Chin et al., 2002 Primary
Restaurant Difficulty Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Beardsworth & Keil, 1993 Primary
Restaurant Difficulty Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Restaurant Difficulty Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Restaurant Difficulty Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Janda & Trocchia, 2001 Primary
Restaurant Difficulty Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Lea et al., 2006 Primary
Restaurant Difficulty Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Pohjolainen et al., 2014 Primary
Social Acceptability Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Jabs et al., 2000 Primary
Social Accommodation Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Social Norms Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Lorenzoni et al., 2007 Primary
Social Support Social Difficulties Social Influence Implicit Erinosho et al., 2015 Primary
Social Support Social Difficulties Social Influence Implicit Haverstock & Forgays, 2012 Primary
Strained Relationships Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Hirschler, 2011 Primary
Teasing/Hostility Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Chin et al., 2002 Primary
Unorthodox Social Difficulties Social Influence Explicit Chin et al., 2002 Primary
Behaviour-Attitude Gap Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Breastfeeding Duration Social Influence Social Influence Implicit Soldateli et al., 2016 Primary
Change in Living Situation Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Barr & Chapman, 2002 Primary
Change in Living Situation Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
131
Code Category Theme Context Reference Source
Early Exposure Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Early Exposure Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Yuan et al., 2016 Primary
Early Exposure Social Influence Social Influence Implicit Thompson et al., 1999 Primary
Exclusion by Plant-Based Eaters Social Influence Social Influence Implicit White et al., 2006 Primary
Fad Diets Social Influence Social Influence Implicit Palaniswamy, 2003 Synthesis
Friends/Family Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Hoek et al., 2011 Primary
Friends/Family Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Fleming et al., 1997 Primary
Friends/Family Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Pohjolainen et al., 2014 Primary
Friends/Family Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Wnsink et al., 2014 Primary
Friends/Family Social Influence Social Influence Implicit Cho et al., 2015 Primary
Geographic Location Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Hoek et al., 2004 Primary
Life-Course Trajectory Social Influence Social Influence Implicit Fox & Ward, 2008 Primary
Over-Control Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Hill, 2002 Synthesis
Prenatal Exposure Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Yuan et al., 2016 Primary
Reliance on Others Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Religious Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Rothgerber, 2013 Primary
Reward-Related Impulsivity Social Influence Social Influence Implicit Nederkoorn et al., 2009 Primary
Social Norms Social Influence Social Influence Explicit Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006 Primary
Social Relations Social Influence Social Influence Implicit Curran & Sherbinin, 2004 Synthesis
Luxury/Power Image Status Social Influence Explicit Hoek et al., 2011 Primary
Luxury/Power Image Status Social Influence Implicit Ruby, 2012 Synthesis
Luxury/Power Image Status Social Influence Explicit Beverland, 2014 Synthesis
Luxury/Power Image Status Social Influence Explicit Ruby et al., 2016 Primary
Luxury/Power Image Status Social Influence Explicit Grace et al., 2016 Primary
Luxury/Power Image Status Social Influence Explicit Graca et al., 2015 Primary
132
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