© 2013 Cengage Learning
OutlineOutline
Culture and Temperament What is Temperament? The Goodness of Fit between Temperament and
Culture Cross-Cultural Studies on Temperament Temperament and Learning Culture Dimensions of Temperament: A Focus on Behavioral
Inhibition Sources behind Temperament Differences
Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)
Culture and Attachment Bowlby's Theory of Attachment Bowlby and Ainsworth's Classification System of
Attachment Cross-Cultural Studies on Attachment Is Secure Attachment a Universal Ideal?
Temperament and Attachment: A Summary
Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)
Cognitive Development Piaget's Theory Piaget's Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective Piaget's Theory: Summary and Discussion Other Theories of Cognitive Development
Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)
Moral Reasoning What is Moral? Kohlberg's Theory of Morality Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning Three Ethics Approach to Moral Reasoning
Other Developmental Processes Conclusion
CULTURE AND CULTURE AND TEMPERAMENTTEMPERAMENT
Culture and TemperamentCulture and Temperament
Process of socialization starts from very first day of life
Characteristics we are born with determine how our caregivers react and interact with us, initiating lifelong process of socialization
Children of different cultures are born with different biological predispositions to learn certain cultural practices
What is Temperament?What is Temperament?
Temperament: biologically based style of interacting with world that exists from birth
Easy temperament: adaptable, mild Difficult temperament: intense, irregular Slow-to-warm-up: needs time to make
transitions
The Goodness of Fit between The Goodness of Fit between Temperament and CultureTemperament and Culture
How well does a child’s temperament match the expectations and values of the parent? Mismatch: more negative child outcomes are
expected Good match: better child outcomes are expected
Dispositions and behaviors must be considered in relation to specific culture
Same dispositions and behaviors may have different meanings in different cultures
Cross-Cultural Studies on Cross-Cultural Studies on TemperamentTemperament
If different temperaments at birth, children of different cultures will respond to environment differently
Children of different cultures will also evoke different responses from caregivers and environment
Consequence: fundamental differences in learning, social experiences, worldview, and culture of children as they grow
Temperament and Learning CultureTemperament and Learning Culture
Differences in infant temperament help parents reinforce cultural practices
Temperament serves as baseline biological predisposition
Cultural differences evident early in life indicate personalities and behaviors valued in adults
Child's temperament and environmental response results in differences in learning, social experiences, behaviors, personalities, and worldviews
Dimensions of Temperament: A Dimensions of Temperament: A Focus on Behavioral InhibitionFocus on Behavioral Inhibition
Activity level Smiling and laughter Fear Distress to limitations Soothability Duration of orienting
Sources Behind Sources Behind Temperament DifferencesTemperament Differences
Developmental contextualism perspective: genetics, reproductive histories, and environmental and cultural pressures over generations
Cultural experiences of mother during pregnancy
Complex interplay between multiple factors such as temperamental styles valued in each culture, specific environmental demands, and physiological aspects of mother
CULTURE AND CULTURE AND ATTACHMENTATTACHMENT
Culture and AttachmentCulture and Attachment
Attachment: special bond that develops between infant and caregiver
Quality of attachment has lifelong effects on relationships with loved ones
Attachment provides child with emotional security
Once attached, babies are distressed by separation from caregiver
Bowlby's Theory of AttachmentBowlby's Theory of Attachment
Infants must have a preprogrammed, biological basis for becoming attached to their caregivers
Smiling and cooing elicits physical attachment behaviors on part of caregiver
Attachment relationship between caregiver and child is survival strategy
Bowlby and Ainsworth's Bowlby and Ainsworth's Classification System of AttachmentClassification System of Attachment Tripartite classification system of attachment
relationships Secure: infant distressed when mother leaves but
easily comforted when she returns Ambivalent: infant is distressed when mother leaves
but sends mixed signals upon return Avoidant: not distressed when mother leaves and
upon return, avoids reuniting with mother
Cross-Cultural Studies on Cross-Cultural Studies on AttachmentAttachment
Strange Situation study: infants separated from mothers for a brief period of time
Meaning of separation may differ across cultures Researchers have questioned appropriateness
of different categories of attachment Maternal sensitivity has not been consistently
linked to secure attachment
Is Secure Attachment a Is Secure Attachment a Universal Ideal?Universal Ideal?
Cultures may differ in notion of "ideal" attachment
Attachment relationships in childhood may have long-term consequences into adolescence and adulthood
Early attachment relationships affect quality of peer relationships, ability to develop intimate adult relationships, and how one parents
Attachment between infants and caregivers is universal phenomenon
TEMPERAMENT AND TEMPERAMENT AND ATTACHMENT: A ATTACHMENT: A
SUMMARYSUMMARY
Temperament and Attachment: Temperament and Attachment: A SummaryA Summary
Optimal style of attachment in one culture may not necessarily be optimal across all cultures
Examining attachment "network" instead of focusing solely on dyads is of crucial importance
Close interaction between infant’s temperament, attachment with caregiver, and broader environment that contributes to development
COGNITIVE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT
Piaget's TheoryPiaget's Theory
Sensorimotor stage: (birth to 2 years) Children understand by perceiving and doing
Preoperational stage: (2 to 6 or 7 years) Conservation, centration, irreversibility, egocentrism,
and animism
Concrete operations stage: (6 or 7 years to 11) Thinking skills to work with actual objects and events
Formal operations stage: (11 years through adulthood) Think logically about abstract concepts
Piaget's Theory in Cross-Cultural Piaget's Theory in Cross-Cultural PerspectivePerspective
Piaget's stages occur in same fixed order in other cultures
Variations in ages at which children in different societies reach third and fourth Piagetian stages
Considerable variation in order in which children acquire specific skills within Piaget's stages
Different societies value and reward different skills and behaviors
Piaget's Theory: Summary and Piaget's Theory: Summary and DiscussionDiscussion
In some cultures, very few people complete fourth-stage Piagetian tasks
Are Piagetian tasks culturally appropriate? Do Piagetian tasks depend on previous
knowledge and cultural values? Within-culture differences hinder inferences
about differences in cognitive development between cultures
Universality of fourth stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development is questionable
Other Theories of Cognitive Other Theories of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment
Great divide theory: separates thoughts of Westerners from people in primitive societies
Stage theories judge people from other cultures based on how closely they resemble westerners
People from many cultures prefer own groups and rate them more positively than outsiders
Piaget theory emphasized several concepts important for cognitive development today
“Everyday cognition”: cognition in the context of daily activities within cultural community
MORAL REASONINGMORAL REASONING
Moral ReasoningMoral Reasoning
Moral principles and ethics provide guidelines for people's behaviors with regard to what is appropriate and what is not
Morality is heavily influenced by underlying, subjective, and implicit culture
Morality serves as basis of laws, and thus culture also affects laws of society
What is Moral?What is Moral?
Types of rules children as young as three can differentiate: Moral: applies to everyone; cannot be changed;
based on values Conventional: applies to certain groups; changeable;
based on agreed-upon norms Personal: applies to individuals; changeable; based
on preferences of specific person
Kohlberg's Theory of MoralityKohlberg's Theory of Morality
Preconventional morality: compliance with rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards
Conventional morality: conformity to rules defined by others' approval or society's rules
Postconventional morality: moral reasoning on basis of individual principles and conscience
Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral ReasoningReasoning
Some aspects of Kohlberg's theory of morality are universal
Many studies on moral reasoning raise questions about universal generalizability of Kohlberg's highest stage (postconventional)
Cross-cultural studies have shown that people from different cultures do reason differently about moral dilemmas
Three Ethics Approach to Moral Three Ethics Approach to Moral ReasoningReasoning
Ethic of autonomy: emphasizes individual rights and justice
Ethic of community: emphasizes interpersonal relationships and community
Ethic of divinity: centrality of religious beliefs and spirituality in moral reasoning
OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSESPROCESSES
Other Developmental ProcessesOther Developmental Processes
Cross-cultural research offers important insights into how differences observed in adults have come to be
Renewed interest in cross-cultural developmental research due to increased interest in culture in all areas of psychology
Cross-cultural studies highlight similarities and differences in development across cultures
CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION
ConclusionConclusion
Two key issues concerning human development: Whether developmental pathways are universal or
culture specific How development occurs
All people are born into specific cultures with unique set of characteristics and predispositions
Each culture exerts influence, and in combination with each unique cultural member, produces specific tendencies, trends, and differences in members
Top Related