Zoran Space Narrative

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5/24/2018 ZoranSpaceNarrative-slidepdf.com http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/zoran-space-narrative 1/28 Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics Towards a Theory of Space in Narrative Author(s): Gabriel Zoran Reviewed work(s): Source: Poetics Today, Vol. 5, No. 2, The Construction of Reality in Fiction (1984), pp. 309-335 Published by: Duke University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1771935 . Accessed: 02/03/2013 17:55 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at  . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp  . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].  .  Duke University Press  and Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Poetics Today. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded on Sat, 2 Mar 2013 17:55:24 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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    Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics

    Towards a Theory of Space in NarrativeAuthor(s): Gabriel ZoranReviewed work(s):Source: Poetics Today, Vol. 5, No. 2, The Construction of Reality in Fiction (1984), pp. 309-335Published by: Duke University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1771935.

    Accessed: 02/03/2013 17:55

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    TOWARDS A THEORYOF SPACE IN NARRATIVE*GABRIEL ZORANHebrew and Comparative Literature, Haifa

    The purpose of this study is to present a general model of thestructuring f space within thenarrative ext. The term pace is usedhere to mean specifically the spatial aspects of the reconstructedworld. This seems natural and ratherobvious, but the term can beapplied to the literarytext in various ways and is, itself,farfromunambiguous. It is.necessary, then, to examine the whole range ofproblems arisingfromthe use of the termwithregardto the literarytext. If this task as a whole lies outside the scope of the presentstudy,we can at least clarifyone essential aspect of it: therelation-shipbetween space and timein thenarrative ext.1. THE ASYMMETRY OF TIME AND SPACE IN THE NARRATIVEIn the extra-literary ield, there are good reasons to combine spaceand time: they are the two complementaryaspects that togethercover all the dimensions of empirical existence. Accordingly, itmakes no differencewhetherone holds to a separativetheorywhichconsiders the aspects of space and time to be parallel yet indepen-dent - e.g., the theories of Euclid, Newton, Kant, and Leibnitz -or whether one supports a theory which regardsthese aspects asinterdependent, composing together a single, four-dimensionalcomplex (chronotopos, spacetime) - as does Einstein. Independentor interdependent,space and time are perceived as complementaryaspects of equal status,belongingto a common fieldof debate.* This s a somewhat evised ersion f a paperpresentedt Synopsis I, Narrative heoryand Poeticsof Fiction, an internationalymposium eldat thePorternstitute orPoeticsand Semiotics,Tel AvivUniversity,nd theVan LeerJerusalem oundation,June16-22,1979.It is based on partsof a thesisfor hedoctoraldegreeprepared nderthesupervisionfProfessor enjaminHrushovski.

    Poetics Today,Vol. 5:2 (1984) 309-335

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    310 GABRIEL ZORANThis conception of the relations between space and time isoccasionally applied to the narrativetext, and is acceptable from

    several viewpoints. From others, however, it is problematic. Therelationshipbetween space and time in the narrativetext lacks boththe clarity and the symmetry t possesses when applied to the fieldof reality. Literature is basically an art of time. Although no onetoday would state this as baldly as Lessing (1974:102-115) did, thedominance of the time factor in the structuringf thenarrative extremains an indisputablefact.The existence of space is pushed into a corner,so to speak. It isnot altogether discarded, but neither does it have a recognized andclear-cutstatuswithinthe text. It can be understood in variousways,but none is as clear and unambiguous as the termtime.This lack ofsymmetry n the relationshipbetween space and time is evident notonly in theirstatus in the text,but also in the extentof theprogressof research on these concepts. Although the subject of space hasbeen dealt with more than once, research in general on the subjectis quite diffuse, and there are few assumptions that have becomegenerally ccepted.The difficultyapparently lies in one basic differencebetweenspace and time in narrative.One may speak of time in termsof thecorrelationbetween the structuringf the text and thatof theworld,whereas it is impossible to speak about space in such terms.What-ever specific terms are used in discussingtime, theywill always bedominated by the basic opposition between the time of the textand that of the world (narratedtime and time of narration,erzdhl-zeit-erza'hlte Zeit, time of presentationand presented time, and toa large extent also fabula and sujet [see especially Mtiller 1950;Liment 1955; Tomashevsky 1965; Even-Zohar 1968]). The variouspossible relationshipswithin these pairs of components can createa wide range of categories, based on the modes of correlation(whether it is a negative or a positive correlation [see Even-Zohar19611), and on specific types of deviation fromthe natural struc-turingof time (such as contraction,reversalof temporalorder,etc.).In principle,one may also distinguishbetween the application ofthe termspace to the reconstructedworld and its application as adimension of the verbal text itself. The conception of the verbaltext as an exclusively temporal structure as, forexample, Lessing'sconception), is not acceptable today, and one may mention in thisconnection Frank (1963) and Segre (1975). Nevertheless,despitethe possibility of distinguishing etween the space of the text andthat of the world, one cannot point to any constant correlationbetween them.1.1. The spatial dimension of the text may be conceived of as itsgraphic existence. There are texts, particularly those of concrete

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 311poetry, in which graphic space is exploited and activated as aninseparable part of the generalstructuring f the text. Still,thisdoesnot alter the factthat anguage is a systemof arbitrary igns; n otherwords, the connection between the signifier nd the signified s notbased on any real structural imilaritybetween them,but simplyonconvention. The fact that a certain poem may attempt to createstructural similaritybetween the described object and its graphicorganization (for example, Lewis Carroll's poem arranged in theshape of a mouse's tail) does not signify ny fundamentalconnectionor constant correlationbetween the verbal text and the world, butrather the opposite - the correlation here is an unexpected thing,a curiosity. It is completely differentfrom the correlationwhichexists between the two ordersof time in the narrative.The latterisa permanent phenomenon based on the temporal structure oflanguage, existingeven when there is a contradiction between thetwo orders of time (a negativecorrelation s not the same as a lack ofcorrelationaltogether).1.2. It is a more complicated matterwhen thedimensionof space isattributedto the structureof signifieds n a text.Here thereferenceis to the structuring f meaningsinto a patternnot identical to thetemporal order in which they appear in the text. A spatial pattern sany pattern perceived solely on the basis of theconnection betweendiscontinuous units in a text, demandingtherefore perception ofthe whole text or part of it as givensimultaneously n space (whichis, forexample, the case of analogies).1Two problems arise when the termspace is used to describesuchpatterns: (a) the problem of whether the termhas the same meaninghere as it has had thus far,and (b) the problem of whether we canfind a kind of correlation between spatial structure n this senseand the space of the world.As far as the firstproblem is concerned, I believe thatwe havehere a completely differentusage of the concept of space. Thejustificationfor the use of the word here is that we are speaking ofintemporalityand coexistence.2 These may, of course, be regardedas importantaspects of space; however, ifwe consider the termasit is generallyused, and as we have used it thusfar, t becomes clear1. This common use of theadjective spatial is inspiredmainlyby the theory f Frank(1963) about the spatial form n modern literature.Frank, however,used the conceptmainlyto describea property f an historicalcorpus of texts,while today it is used todescribe generaltextual properties.See, for example, Sternberg's 1973:228-230) dis-cussionofanalogy, s wellas some ater rticles fFrankhimselfe.g., 1978:275-290).2. A definition ased on such a conception is the classic Leibnitziandefinition f spaceas the order of possible coexistences ( ordre des coexistencespossibles ), but it is notmerechance thatLeibnitzconceives of space as a subjectiverelative ystem,whileNewtonconceivesofitas somethingbsolute and objective, kind of reservoir freality.

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    312 GABRIEL ZORANthat the above usage is not theusual one. For one thing, pace is notnecessarilyan absence of time; the fact that thingsare not arrangedin chronological order, but ratherin a simultaneous pattern, doesnot make them necessarily spatial, except in a purely metaphoricalsense. Again, our perceptionof space has to do withconcepts such asvolume, extension, and three-dimensionality, nd all these areunrelated to the concept of the spatial pattern.This patternhas noparticular location, no contours,no volume. It is a kind of abstractorganization,but it has nothingto do with the real existence of thething t organizes.As to the second problem - whether one may speak of theconnection between the spatial patternand the space of theworld -here the situation is more complex. It is impossible to reconstructthe space of the world without structuring he information bout itinto some kind of a spatial pattern, o there s a certainconnectionbetween the two. But this characteristic s not necessarily imitedtoreconstructedspace alone, since the reconstructionof everyaspectof the world necessitates a spatial point of view - psychology,characters,norms, and even, strangeas it may seem, plot and time.Still, there is no doubt that the reconstructionof space is especiallydependent on a spatial point of view.3 In any case, it is importantto distinguishbetween the spatial point of view and the spatialobject viewed. Moreover, although the connection between thecomponents is a permanent one, this connection can certainlynotbe perceived as a correlation. The spatial pattern of the text doesnot stand in any kind of correlationwith the space of theworld.Finally,whateverthe connection between the spatial patternandthe world may be, it should be emphasized again that the spatialdimension of the text has no autonomous existence. The text exists,and is structuredfirstand foremost in time. The so-called spatialpattern is actually nothing other than a superstructure f a sub-stance whose basic structure is in time. It is thus impossible tobypass the time factor in the narrative.The narrative,with allits components, is arranged in time, so that in a certain sense onemay speak of a temporal arrangement f space. We must thereforeidentify the various principles of transformationfrom a worldexisting n space to a mediumstructured n time.2. THE TRANSFORMATION FROM SPATIAL OBJECTS TOTHE MEDIUM OF TIME2.1. The possibility of describing the relation between the verbaltext and the world in terms of transformation s not a peculiarity3. The importance f the spatial point of viewforthereconstructionf fictional pacewillbe discussed n more detail n the sectiondealingwiththefield ofvision. See 4.1 andespecially .1.4.)

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 313of the poetics of space. There are principles governingthe trans-formation of every component of the world into the structuring finformation about this component in the text. Characterization,forexample, can be conceived of as transformation romthephysiol-ogical-psychological existence of characters in the world to theirtextual existence, i.e., dialogues, descriptions, actions, etc., allarranged in a temporal verbal continuum. Needless to say, thetransformations a two-wayrelationshipfromthe text to theworldand vice versa, and does not necessarily reflect real processes ofreadingor of creating.The peculiarity of the transformation f the time factor in thenarrative is thus characterized by the fact of its being a transitionfrom one type of temporal structure to another. For this reason,one can also speak of a correlativerelationshipbetween them. Thistype of relationship is also possible for the dialogic component ofthe text, but for most aspects of the reconstructedworld it makesno sense to speak of a correlation. The transformation akes placebetween completely different evels of organization which have nostructural imilaritybetween them. Space is unique in that here thetransformationfroman object to a system of signsinvolvesalso atransformationfrom a spatial arrangementto a temporal one. Adiscussion of the problem of space in the narrativerequires, first fall, a confrontationwiththeseprinciplesof transformation.2.2. Space as it appears in the narrative s a verycomplex pattern,and only a small part of its existence in the text is based on directdescription. It is actually a combination of various kinds and levelsof reconstruction.Before dealing with such a complex problem, letus examine how, in general, language is activated to describe anobject in space.A spatial object is characterized by its being complete, full,andexisting simultaneously. In the attempt to giveverbal expression tothe structure of such an object, the object must first ose someof its completeness, since it is impossible to give an identicalexpression to all its parts and aspects: some of them may bedescribed explicitly, some of them implicitly,and some bypassedaltogether. Language cannot give full expression to the spatialexistence of any object. Second, when the simultaneous parts areexpressed as units of information,they must receive some kind oftemporal arrangement.One may begin fromthe overall patternandpass to the individual units or vice versa; the various units can bearranged in differentways: fromup to down, frontto back, theimportantto the subordinate,etc. In any case, the spatial aspects arecut off, so to speak, from their spatial and simultaneous context,and are arranged long a temporal ine.Thus far we have discussed descriptions of completely static

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    314 GABRIEL ZORANobjects. However, space does not involve only static objects andrelationships- thingsmay also move and change. Space is one aspectof spacetime (chronotopos). Language can exploit this situation byarranging ts items of informationby linkage to a movement. Thismovement can be a real route of an object or a transfer f the lookor the thoughtfromone object to another. In daily speech there iseven a markedpreferenceforthe spatial-temporalmethod of arrange-ment (i.e., along a line of movement) over the static, map-likestructure, s was shownby Linde (1974).42.3. When we transfer hese considerations fromthe discussion ofthe possibilities of language in general to the discussion of thestructuresof narrative exts,we must take into account two essentialdifferences.First, as far as the usual verbal usage is concerned, theobjects of space and of the world in general constitutean externalfactor not dependent on language, whereas within the narrativetext neitherspace nor the world have an independent existence butrather an existence derived from the language itself. In terms ofBenjamin Hrushovski's text theory (1974, 1975), this is an internalfield of reference.Thus, the importantquestion to be posed at thispoint is not onlyhow is a givenspace expressed in language?but alsowhat is the nature of this space? The decisions of the text bear notonly on theverbalmaterial,but also on the world.The second differencewhich must be taken into account is thatthe movement discussed above, which can serve in daily speech asa vehicle for a certainarrangementof information, an have in thenarrativetext a most central and dominantstatus. In fact,the entireplot can be regarded as such a movement. A plot can be spaceoriented, serving s a motivationforthe inclusionof space units; anextreme example of this is Nils Holgersson's WonderfulJourney,by Selma Lagerl6f, whose plot serves to present, in several ways,a complete geography of Sweden. Obviously, plot is not usuallysubordinate, especially in relation to space, but whateverthe statusor functionsof plot in the text, itmust be seen as more thansimplya structuren time. It includes routes,movement,directions,volume,simultaneity, tc., and thus is an active partner n the structuringfspace in the text.The transformation f space into the temporal-verbal extmaybesketchedas shown in Figure 1.The differentpoints of the verbal continuummay referdirectlytopoints in space or to points in the continuum of events,relatingtospace through spacetime (the chronotopos). The text can referto4. In a studyshe carriedout on the ways English speakersfrom givengroupdescribeapartments,Linde discoveredthat most people organize theirdescription s a walkthroughheapartmentnd onlya fewdo it likean aerial map.

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 315

    space-tinme

    verbal continuum fcontinuum events n timeFigure1

    space and spacetime units which are large or small, complete orpartial, and can structurethem in any orderand manner itchooses.3. THE THREE LEVELS OF STRUCTURINGFrom the above sketch, one may distinguishthree different evelsof the structuringf space in the text:The topographical level: space as a static entity expressed in thediagramby the bottom of the cube).The chronotopic level: the structure mposed on space by eventsand movements, i.e., by spacetime (in the diagram,the projectionsof the inside of the cube on the lower square).The textual level: the structure mposed on space by the fact thatit is signifiedwithin theverbaltext.These levels all belong to the reconstructedworld, and can beregardedas threelevels of reconstruction.The most immediate evelof reconstruction s the textual one, in which the world stillretainsseveral of the structuring atterns of the text. In the chronotopiclevel, the reconstructed world is already independent of the verbalarrangementof the text, but is still dependent on the plot. Finally,on the highest level of reconstruction,the topographic one, theworld is perceived as existing for itself, with itsown naturalstructure, ut offentirelyfromany structure mposed by theverbaltext and theplot.As mentioned in the discussion of transformation section 2.1),it must be rememberedthat no temporal order is implied here; thethree levels of reconstructiondo not representdifferent tages in areal act of reconstructionor of creation. The reader does not beginat the textual level and then pass on to the others, or vice versa;rather, he is continually moving back and forthamong the threelevels and, moreover,he perceives them at once without being ableto separatethem.

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    316 GABRIEL ZORANThe levels may be compared to three diapositive slides coveringeach other. There is a differencen clarity mong them: theyare not

    all receptive to the same extent, nor do they attract attentionequally. From the observer'spoint ofview, however,theyare alwaysperceived together, ne throughthe other.53.1. The Level of Topographical StructureAs mentioned, this is space at its highestlevel of reconstruction,perceived as self-existent nd independent of the temporalstructureof the world and sequential arrangementof the text. The text canexpress topographical structureby means of directdescriptions, .g.,as in Balzac's well-knownopenings,but in facteveryunit of the text,whether narrative,dialogic, or even essayistic, may contribute tothe reconstruction f the topographicalstructure.This structure may be conceived as a kind of map based onelements fromthe entire text, including all its components. True,a map such as this cannot be entirelyexhaustive. Some of its areasare blank, and in thereal world it maynot be ofmuch use in findingone's way. For the purpose of reading, however, it provides asufficiently learpictureof theworld.The map is based on a series of oppositions, some of which aregeneral and typical, others of which are more specific. It encom-passes the horizontal structureof the world, relationshipssuch asinside and outside, far and near, center and periphery, city andvillage, etc. It may also include contours signifying he verticalorganization of the world and representing he opposition up-down.5. The distinctionbetween the three levels of structuringwes a lot to two existingdistinctions: hat of Petsch 1942:162-189) and thatofKristeva 1970:191-197), but itdiffers rom hese nsomeprincipal oints.Firstof all, these distinctionsrebinary, otternary,nd both seem to be a result fthetendency o describe pace in terms ntirelyymmetrical ith those used to describe ime,and indescribingimethebinarydistinctionsreactuallyclearcut.Petschdiscriminates etweenRaum and Lokal. The Lokal is space given nitself,nd isthusmoreor less parallelto the level of topographical tructure. aum is space connectedwith other evels of the text.Amongothers, t is connected with the timefactor,beingaspace revealed step by step. But this important spect is pointed out only as an aside;actuallythe Raum is connected withmanyaspectsand properties f the textthathavenoreal connection with each other: it is also space experiencedby the characters, t issymbolic, t bears meanings, nd so forth.Petsch's distinctions somewhat mbalancedin favor of the Raum. The Raum is, in thefinal nalysis, nything f interest ne maysay about space, while Lokal is nothing ut a neutralmaterial,acking ny significancenitself. n contrast, he distinction etweenthe three evels of structure roposedhere hasnothing o do withmeanings: very evelcan be equallymeaningfulnd functionwithin hetext s a whole.Kristeva'sdistinction s closerto myproposal.She discriminatesetween space textueland espacegeographique.The geographic pace in heranalysismay parallelboth thetopo-graphic nd chronotopic evels, nd the espace textuel, fcourse,parallels he textual evel.But thedevelopment f the distinction nd thedescription f the evels re quitedifferent.

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 317In addition, the map has patternswhich refernot to the location ofthings,but rather to their quality - patternsof colors, substances,typesof objects, etc.Unlike topographicalmaps in reality, hismap can structure paceon the basis of ontological principles as well; that is, space can bedivided up according to the modes of existence of its units. Thesemodes of existence sometimes overlap with the factor of topo-graphical location: for example, the world of the gods - up; theworld of man - down. Yet they may relate to one another in rela-tionshipsin themselves ompletely unspatial,such as therelationshipbetween the space of a dreamand thatof realitywithinthenarrative.Again, the ontological levels may be completely differentiated romone another, or they may be mingled, appearing together in onecontinuous space, such as in fantastictales.It is difficult to define beforehand all the differentpossibilitiesof patterns n the topographicalworld, forthese are not dependenton the logic of the verbal text - on the contrary, s faras languageis concerned, everystructure s possible. The possibilitiesopen to thewriter are, instead, dependent on his personal outlook, tradition,culture, ndividualqualities, etc.

    Only one aspect of the structure of topographical space isdependent on the logic of the narrative text: the special spatialexistence of the characters.The charactersare generallyperceivedas belonging to a separate narrativelevel with its own particularproblems. It should not be forgotten, owever,thattheyalso exist asphysical bodies in space, but the factthattheyhave many importantfunctions n other areas of the text makes them,spatially,a distinctand exceptional entity. The formation of a character's externalappearance constitutes a special problem, different from theformation of an inanimate object - although every text expressesthisdifference n a differentway. Imagine the grotesque effect thatwould be created if a characterwas handled as a physical object.In principle, therefore, one may state that the differentiationbetween subject and object determinesa basic differentiation ithinspace - between the external appearance of the characters and theenvironmental bjects.66. Someremarkabletudiesealing ithpace re ctuallyoncernedith uestions hichmaybe regardeds belongingo thetopographicaleveloforganization.noutstandingexamplesBachelard's1974) poetics fspace,whichsa discussionf the opographyfspace n thepoeticalmagination.owever, achelard'sonceptionf the iteraryext svery roblematicndquite emote romwhatspresupposedere. thertudiesegardhetopographicaltructureo a largextentsa structuref igns,ndconnecttwith he evelofmeaninge.g.,Wilbur'study f thehouse nPoe'stales Wilbur967]). This stypicalforstudies ased on a mythicalonceptionf space,whetherheydealexplicitly ithmythicrfolkloric aterial,rwhetherhey eveal hemythicevel nwritteniterature.See,for xample,egal's 1974)discussionbout oviet tructuralism.

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    318 GABRIEL ZORAN3.2. The Level of Chronotopic StructureAs mentioned earlier, this plane has to do with the effect on thestructureand organization of space produced by the chronotopos,the movement and the action of the narrative.Before continuing,a clarification of the term chronotopos here is necessary. ThisEinsteinian term was introduced into literarycriticismby Bakhtin(1978), who uses it to signify he entirecomplex of space and timetogether, including physical objects, events, psychology, history,etc. I, however, have not used the term to signifythe totality ofspace and time, but ratherto describe a specific aspect; i.e., not tosignifyall thingsthat may be found in space or in time,but onlywhat may be defined by an integration of spatial and temporalcategories as movement and change. One may thus speak of theeffectof the chronotopos on the structure f space.Within the overall chronotopos of the reconstructedworld, oneshould distinguishbetween synchronicand diachronicrelationships,which each have a different ype of effecton the spatial structure.3.2.1. Synchronic Relations: Motion and Rest. At every point ofthe narrative,that is, at every synchronic situation, some objectsmay be found at rest and others in motion. Naturally,the distribu-tion can vary from point to point. One may generalize and statethat there are certain objects in space which are characterized bytheir capacity for movement and otherswhich remain at rest. Thisis not the same as the relationshipbetween subject and object, orbetween characters and environmental objects; the differentiationbetween the states of motion and rest may be determinedamonginanimate objects and among characters like. There are characterswhich have a capacity formovement and there are those which are,so to speak, tied to theirplaces (see Uspensky 1973, Lotman 1973).It is important to rememberthatmovement and rest are relativeterms; rest is the state of being bound to a given spatial context,while movementis the abilityto cut oneself offfrom patial contextand to switch over to different ontexts. As to the nature of thespatial context itself, this is determined by the narrative. Forexample, the Cyclops in the Odyssey can move about freelyon hisisland, but the structureof the work - based on Odysseus's move-ment from place to place - determines the Cyclops's island as asinglecontext, and theCyclops as a character t rest.3.2.2. Diachronic Relations: Directions, Axes, Powers. The dia-chronic structureof the chronotopos also imposes its own structureon space. Space, in its topographical structure, s all potential - it isneutral,with regardto any specificmovement or direction,and onemay seeminglymove within it, from and to any point. In contrast,the chronotopos determinesdefined directions n space: in the space

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 319of a givennarrative,one may move frompoint a to point b, but notvice versa; in anothernarrative, he movementmay be reversible. nboth cases, movement ceases to be potential; it is fullyrealized, andis, so to speak, incarnated in space. Thus, forexample, in the topo-graphical space of the Odyssey, Troy and Ithaca are two places, andthereis a possibilityof movingfromone to the other.But theactualdirection of movement is determinedby the chronotopic structure;thus, one place is definedas the point of departure,another as thetarget,and othersas stations on the way, deviations,etc. Thus,axesof movement in space are determined; one may state that space,on the chronotopic level, is structured s a networkof axes havingdefinitedirectionsand a definitecharacter.Axes may or may not be determinedby motions which actuallytake place in the world of the text.An actual movement s a resultofseveral powers: will, obstructions, ideal, characters'intentions,andso forth. These powers can also act in space when there is no realmovement. In Kafka's The Castle, for example, the line stretchingbetween the village and the castle is the central axis in the spatialstructureof the novel, focusing ll thepowers acting n the world,despite the fact that it is never actively traversedby the maincharacter. Chronotopic structure of space does not mean anoccasional movement on a neutral scene, but rather a conceptionof theentirespace in termsof afield ofpowers.73.3. The Level of Textual StructureTo reiterate,this level encompasses the structurewhich is imposedon space by the fact that it is formedwithin the verbal text. Itshould be emphasized that the structureunder discussion is notthat of the text itself as a verbalmedium,nor that of its linguisticmaterials, but rather an organization of the reconstructedworld.This structure,however, although applied to the world, is notderived fromit. The objects structuredbelong to the reconstructedworld, but the structure tself s imposed on themby the linguisticnature of the text.

    7. The concept of theaxis appears nMeyer's 1957) analysisofspace inGoethe'sNovelle,where looking througha telescope creates an axis connectingbetween the two mainlocalities.However,Meyer'suse of theword is rather ocal and metaphoric, nd I believeit can be made systematic nd consequent.Brown (1967) tackles,thoughnot in detail,questionswhichseem to me to belongto thechronotopic evel,when he triesto classifyspaces accordingto thedirections fmovements akingplace within hem.The conceptionof space as a fieldof power is inspiredmainlyby thetheory f KurtLewin,who triedtoapply thephysicalconcept offieldand theprinciples ftopology o psychologynd socialsciences Lewin 1936, 1938, 1957). Thismethod eemstomeapplicablefortextual nalysisas well, but forthe timebeing tspoetic potentialities ave not been developedto a largeextent. For a fewexceptions, ee Lotman1973, O'Toole 1980).

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    320 GABRIEL ZORANOne may compare this to the relationshipbetween thefabula andthe sujet. Both belong to the reconstructedworld, both may be

    regarded as levels of organization of elements of reality (events),but the fabula retain their natural arrangementwhereas the sujetforces on the motives the verbal order of the text. Still, thesujet initself is not identical to the verbal level. Here, too, at the level oftextual structure, hereare patternsof organization imposed on thereconstructed world which are not natural to it, neither as spacenor as spacetime, but are rather forced onto it because of its beingsignified n a verbal text.These patterns of organization have to do mainly with threeaspects of the verbal text: (1) the essential selectivity,or the in-capacity of language to exhaust all the aspects of given objects;(2) the temporal continuum, or the fact that language transmitsinformationonly along a temporal line; (3) the point of view, andtheperspectivestructure f the reconstructedworld due to it.3.3.1. The Selectivity of Language, and its Effects. The fact thatlanguage cannot express all aspects of space results in a certainmeasure of selectivity. t may express some things n a concreteway,others in a vague or general way, and may ignore still others al-together. What selection actually takes place is of course up tothe specific text, but in any event there must be some selection.Language is not able to give a complete and continuous reportonspace and, moreover, the reader does not always demand such areport. The reader is much more demandingabout the filling n ofgaps on the narrativeplane than he is about the filling n of gaps inspace.8 There are many gaps in the information bout space, and it isnot essential to fill them all. They do not always attract attentionduring the process of reading. Yet their very existence causes apermanent distinction in space between absolute, clear, specificelements and unclear, unspecific elements. This distinction hasnothingto do with the real existence of space in thereconstructedworld, but ratherwith its verbal existence in the text. Thus, entireareas in space may be differentiated romone anotherby the typeof verbal selection carried out in them.In theOdyssey,forexample,the events taking place on earth are sketched in greatdetail, whilethe scenes on Olympus do not materialize and lack detail. Thisdistinction is congruent with that between two ontological areas,but the congruence is not an automatic one. In the liad, thenature8. The concept of informational ap connected with the structure f plot has beendeveloped to a large extentby Perry nd Sternberg1968) and Sternberg1973). But,aswill be shown in the followingdiscussion, tend to focusrather n whattheycall gapsthe filling f which s automaticand unnecessary, .e., mydiscussionmakesmore use ofIngarden's 1965) broader nd moreneutral onceptofspotsofindeterminacy.

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 321of the verbal selection s identical n both areas: this,of course,createsa completelydifferentmageof therelationshipsetweentheworldofgodsand thatof man seealsoHellwig 964).3.3.2. The Linearityof the Text. Recognition f the principle fthetemporal ontinuumf anguage,nd thenecessityfstructuringinformationbout space in a temporal ontinuum,eadsus to ask:(1) what is the principleof segmentationf spatial nformation;that s, how does the textpass from ne unit of space to another;and (2) what effects oes theorderof transmissionf informationhaveon the mageofspaceandtheway tisreconstructed.3.3.2.1. The principleof sequentialstructure,r the ordering fspatialunits n thetext,maybe borrowed rom hespatial tructurediscussed bove. It maybe based on thechronotopicevel- on thetracing f movement n space: the movement f a character,f anobject,of the eye,etc. It maybe based on thetopographicalevel,proceedingfrom one object to the object nearby,fromthe sur-rounding o the surrounded, rom heupperto the ower, tc. Butit may also follow orders which are not spatial in themselves:catalogues of items belongingto a similarcategory,functionalrelationships,r scales ofvariouskinds, tc. Naturally,ll the aboveprinciplesmay intermingle,verlap,dominate n variousdegrees,andconnect nits fdifferentcopes.3.3.2.2. The Effects of the OrderChosen. In the sameway thatdifferent rders xistingn space can motivate he arrangementfthe text continuum long a certain ine, the same orderscan beespecially tressed y meansof the continuumtructure.When, orinstance, hetextpassesfromhighobjectsto low ones,theverticaldimension f space is stressedmorethan tsotherdimensions. hetext continuum an also imposekindsof direction ponspace.Thisprocess s similar o thatof the axes previously iscussed, ut herethe directionsre not determined y powersor motions n space,but only bymeansof theverbal rrangement.ne shouldalso takenote of thedifferentffects f thespatial mage fthetextchoosesto movefrom he nternal o theexternal rviceversa, rom hehighto the ow orviceversa, nd so forth.Another ffectworthnoting oncernsheordernwhich nforma-tion of variousscopes is rendered.The textsupplies nformationabout concreteocal itemswhich ompose paceaswellas aboutthewiderglobalcontextswithinwhichthese tems restructured. henthe global informationappears at an early stage in the description,the concrete items oin in lateron, and thepicturetakes on a unifiedcharacter. On the other hand, it is possible to delay the appearanceof thisglobal information, n which case the individual temsappear

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    322 GABRIEL ZORAN- at least fora while - withouta clear-cutcontext,and one receivesthe impressionof a non-unified, isconnected space.3.3.3. The Perspectival Structure. The point of view in the textforces upon the reconstructed space a perspective structure. Thisstructure differs from the perspective organization of space in adrawing, although it may sometimes aspire to similar effects. Inprinciple, the spatial perspective of a drawing (or a photograph) isbased on a continuous line stretchingfromthe onlooker out to thehorizon along which the sizes of objects get continually smaller.In contrast, the spatial perspective of language is not based on acontinuous line but on a binaryopposition ofhere and there.Here-thererelationshipsoccur in two ways: between the spatiallocation of the act of narration and the world as a whole; and,within the world, between thingsperceived at a certain instantas in the foreground nd those perceivedas in thebackground.Thesetwo here-thererelationships re parallel to two typesof coordinationsystems n language (Miller,Johnson-Laird1976): the deictic system,whose center ( hero ) is the spatio-temporal ocation of the speechact; and the intrinsic ystem,whose centeris any point in theworldchosen for that purpose. These two centers exist side by sidethroughout the text as a matter of principle. But the relationshipsbetween them can change at any point: they may come closertogether,one may become prominent at the expense of the other,the objects which are here and theremay change, and the relation-shipsbetween here and theremay be reversed.4. THE HORIZONTAL STRUCTURE OF SPACE4.0. So far we have discussed the threelevels of space in the text.The differentiationbetween these levels is to a large degree ver-tical. In order to proceed furtherwith this analysis, it is necessaryto take account of a horizontal viewpoint as well; that is, toexamine the parts of space, its boundaries, its scope. Up to now wehave not discriminatedbetween units of different copes, and haveconsidered the space of the narrative s a complete whole. We mustnow examine the nature of thiswhole. It may be seen as a complexentity comprised of parts or, alternatively, t may be regarded asa singleunit formingpart of some spatial totality extendingbeyondit. Thus, one may speak of three possible scopes of spatial units:the total space which encompasses the world of the text; thespatialcomplex which the textactually presents;and thespatial unitswhichcompose thiscomplex.It should be evident, in the light of the distinction between thethree levels of structure,that the different copes of spatial unitsare not expressed identically at each level, nor do they necessarilycorrespond from level to level. The discrimination between thescopes is a logical one ratherthana clear-cutboundaryin space.

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 323the otal pace

    the omplex fspacetheunit fspace

    --- 1 ---t levelf extualstructure- - ---- level fchronotopicstructure

    ---- I - - t level ftopographicstructure4.1. Unitsof Space: The Field of Vision4.1.1. The Basic Units Composing Space. The largestunits that canbe conceived as parts in relation to the entirespatial complex wouldbe something n the scope of a scene, presuming hatspace is a seriesof such scenes, and that each such unit consists of many smallerunits. Within the three levels of spatial structure discussed above,a scene on the topographical level is a place, on the chronotopicallevel a zone of action, and on the textuallevel a field of vision.4.1.1.1. Places may be houses, cities, streets, fields, mountains,forests,etc. A place is a certain point, plane, or volume, spatiallycontinuous and with fairlydistinctboundaries, or else surroundedby a spatial partitionseparating t fromotherspatial units.4.1.1.2. A zone of action is not definedby spatial continuityor aclear topographical border, but rather by the proportions of theeventtakingplace within t.The event itself has nothingto do with given spatial bordersnordoes it necessarily take place in a defined topographical unit; it isdefined, rather,by its relationship to other events which occurredbefore or after t. Several simultaneous eventsmay take place withinone place, forexample, in a room; or, a singleeventmay take placein a discontinuous space. A telephone conversation,for example,is one event which takes place in two nonadjacent, disconnectedplaces (ignoring for the time being the assertion that telephonewires or radio waves are a part of space; they are a part of thephysical space, but not of the human eventdefinedas the telephoneconversation).99. This claimis based on thewell-known istinction etweenmathematical-physicalpaceand experiencedspace, in which human lifeactuallytakes place (erlebterRaum, espacevicu). See Minkovski1933, 1936); Binswanger1955); Bollnow 1963); Bachelard 1974).

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    324 GABRIEL ZORAN4.1.1.3. The concept field of vision may be understood if weexamine for a moment the example of the telephone conversation,consideringthe differentways inwhich such an event can take shapein a text. The text may attach itself to one of the conversants n hisroom, leaving the reader to reconstructthe words of the otherone:in this case, we would say that the field of vision of the text, or ofthis section, is attached to a place (room) but not to an event.Or theopposite: The textmay choose to describethe conversationfromthepoint of view of both conversers,seeing each one as he acts in hisown place: in this case, the field of vision attemptsto attach itselfto the disconnected zone of action. But a field of vision is notnecessarily limited to places or zones of action: it may actuallyencompass any spatial unit.In our discussion on the perspectivestructureof space, we statedthat every point in the text has certain elementsperceivedas hereand other elements perceived as there. One may define thefieldof vision as thatpart of the world perceived as being here. Otherfields of vision which preceded it in the continuum,or which willfollow it, and spatial units indirectlyformedor unrealized as fieldsof vision - all these are perceivedas there.

    Although we perceive the field of vision as being here, it shouldnot be understood as a focalized, spatial unit givento clear localiza-tion.We have alreadyseen thatfrom the topographicalpoint of view,it does not necessarily have to encompass a solid, continuous, orclosed unit. The text refers to this spatial unit, however, as if itwere somethingcontinuous and defined,and it surveys t in a singleview, independent of real conditions of vision or of perceptionexisting n the world.The field of vision of the text is thus different romthe ordinaryoptical field of vision. The text may refer to an entirecityas a fieldof vision, to a split event (such as a telephone conversation), to acomplete battlefield, to a complete house (disregardingthe wallswhich divide its rooms), etc. Naturally,thereis also the possibilityof followingoptical rules of perception in a field of vision,but thisis only one convention among others and it is no more naturalfor the field of vision than the convention of linear perspectiveisfor a drawing.104.1.2. Two Examples of Field of Vision. To illustratethe Field ofVision, let us pick two concrete examples - the opening sentencesThe importanceof this distinctionfor the historyof the concept of space in literarycriticismshighlymportant.10. Examplesof analysesof visualand sensual structuresf fieldsof visionmaybe foundin Alewin (1957) and Iskra (1967), althoughtheirdiscussions re in terms f descriptionandofcoursenotoffield fvision.

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 325of two short stories: Wolfgang Borchert's Die Drei DunklenK6nige ( The Three Dark Kings ) and Heinrichvon Kleist's DasErdbeben in Chili ( The Earthquake in Chile ).Er tapptedurchdie dunkleVorstadt.Die Hiuser standen bgebrochen egenden Himmel. Der Mond fehlteund das Pflasterwar erschrockenfiberdenspatenSchritt.Dann fand er eine alte Planke.Da trat r mit dem Fuss gegen,bis eine Latte morschaufseufzteund losbrach.Das Holz roch miirbeundsiiss.Durchdie dunkle Vorstadttappteerzuriick. ternewarennichtda.(Borchert1949)

    (He gropedhisway through he dark suburb.The houses stood in a brokenline againstthe sky.The moon was absent and thepavementwas frightenedby the late step. Then he found an old plank.He kickedagainst twith hisfoot until a lath gavea rotten igh nd broke oose. The wood smelledrottenand sweet.Throughthe darksuburbhe gropedhisway back.There werenostars.)In St. Jago,derHaupstadtdes K6nigreichs hili, tandgerade ndemAugen-blickedergrossenErdeschiitterungomJahre1647, bei welchervieletausendMenschen hrenUntergang anden,ein unger ufeinVerbrechenngeklagterSpanier, NamensJeronimoRugera, an einem Pfeiler des Gefangnisses,nwelchesman ihneingespert atte,und wolte sich erhenken. (Kleist 1923)(In Santiago, the capital of the kingdomof Chile,at theverymomentof thegreat arthquakeof 1647 in whichmanythousands f lives were ost,a youngSpaniard by the name ofJeronimoRugera,who had been locked up on acriminal harge,was standing gainsta prison pillar,about to hanghimself.)In the first xample, thereader sees in one glance an area whichis about the size of a suburb,and which could be similarly urveyedin reality.The scene includes a perceptiblebackground (the houses)and a foreground the man kickingat the plank). The topographicalplace (the suburb) is entirely overlapped by the zone of action(defined by his walking) and by the field of vision. The secondexcerpt presentsa different indof fieldof vision.Here, too, there sa perceptibleand ratherconcreteplace (the cell), but itsbackground,in contrastto that of the Borchertexcerpt, is not a seriesof objectsseen togetherwith thecharacterbut an immensespace whichcannotbe shown as vividly s theprison.This is due not only to the interior-exterior relation, but also to the fact that there are two differentkinds of perception here: a concrete and visual perception, and aconceptual sight from a historical-geographic oint of view. Butthe condensed structureof the sentence forces thesetwo domains -although perceived in entirelydifferentways - to be surveyed inone fieldof vision.These two examples cannot, of course, exhaust the largerangeofpossible structures of fields of vision,nor do theyrepresentall theaspects of such structures.An extensiveanalysisis beyond the scope

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    326 GABRIEL ZORANof this paper, which proposes to analyze the concept field ofvision ratherthanits concretephenomena.4.1.3. Field of Vision and Description. One should bear in mind thedifference etween a field of visionand a scenic description.Both areverbal units definedby theirreferenceto the fictionalworld. But ascenic description is a particular instance of a field of vision, andonly one of its possible components. A field of vision may consistof a scenic description,an action, a dialogue, a summary,an essay,etc. The concept of field of vision solves, in my opinion, theambiguity caused by the classical dichotomy between descriptionand narration,and its automatic parallelismwith the pair space andaction. This set of concepts is to a great extent responsible for thefalse identification of space in the narrative with the descriptivesections, and for excluding action as well as most of the othercomponents of the text from the phenomena relevant to space. Afield of vision is not a phenomenon confined to those specificsections in the text thatcontain direct nformation bout space; eachsection in the text constitutesa fieldof vision fromthepoint of viewof its spatial reference, although this spatial reference can be ofseveral kinds and degrees. Thus, fields of vision may differ n theamount of informationabout space they contain and in the im-portance of this information,but they do not differ n their basicrelevanceto space.4.1.4. The Problem of Identification and Delimitation of the Fieldof Vision. If everyunit of the text constitutes a field of vision, thequestion may then be posed: What is it that causes the reader toidentifya particularspatial unit as a field of vision,to differentiatetfrom another unit and at the same time demarcate a specific unitwithin the reconstructed world? Here we must deal with the mainproblem of the concept field of vision - the fact that it is a unit ofthe reconstructed world, determined not by properties of theworld as such but ratherby the perception of the world throughlanguage.At this point it is necessary to examine the function of the readerin the course of his reading. t was stated earlier that a field of visionis what the reader can perceive as being here. Strictlyspeaking,thismeans that at any one momentof reading,there s only one tinyunit, or aspect, in frontof the reader,and thatduringthereadingprocess he passes fromone tinyunit to the next, so that the overallimage of space must be like a chain of tiny objects. This is whatLessing (1974, Laokoon, Chap. 16) implied when he negated thepossibility of reconstructingthe appearance of an object in one'smind froma detailed descriptionof its parts. He argues that by thetime the list ofpartsis finished, he first temswill alreadyhave been

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 327forgotten.This, to a certainextent, s an atomisticconception of theprocess of reading, reducingit to a row of points, each of which isconnected only to the point just before or after t. The functionofthe memoryis reduced to that of merelyconnecting adjacent units.In a conception such as Lessing's, there is no place for a field ofvision: when he speaks of space, he is referring nly to solitaryobjects - Agammemnon's sceptre, Hera's chariot - never to anentire systemof spatial relationships.When theact of reconstructionis identifiedwith the verbal decoding, space cannot be perceptibleotherthanas a series of smallparticles.Space can be truly perceptible only in the framework f a con-ception which assumes that the reconstructionof the world is notparallel to the verbal interpretation lone, but also has to do withaccumulation in the memory and with various acts of linking: Aconception of this type was proposed by Segre (1975), forexample.He describes the point at which the reader findshimself t a certainmoment of readingas being continuallyin a systemof relationshipswithsynthesis n memory,whichpreserves ll which has alreadybeenread, including the possibilities that have been eliminated,while atthe same time aspiring towards the open possibilities in the con-tinuation of the text. Only in the framework f such a model can theconcept field of vision be explained. The field of vision is the com-bination of the presentmoment of readingwith the synthesisof thememory.Here, however,backward synthesisrefersnot to thewholecomplex of passages read, but only to those passages which relatein some way to the spatial framework f the itemabout whichone ispresently reading. This is a combination of the element perceivedat this moment of reading, togetherwith other items and informa-tion, in such a way that they may be perceived as spatially con-tinuous and as forming one spatial wholeness, given to a singlesurvey.This synthesisof memory may encompass a scene extendingover many pages, or may be limited to a shortdescription. In anycase, the backward synthesisneeded for the field of vision acts ona consecutive textual unit: the overall synthesis can of courseencompass informationtransmitted n earliertextual units,relatingto other parts of space, or even to the same part within a differentcontext, but this informationwill not belong to the same field ofvision. Its functionmay be that of an invisiblebackgroundwhich isalso an importantelement in the general complex of space, but nolonger belongs to what is perceived as here. The field of vision isthus to a certainextentthepoint of intersectionbetween the hereof space and the now of the text. It is a unit of reconstructedspace which has a correlativein the verbal text: it may be locatedand identifiedboth withinthe text and withintheworld.

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    328 GABRIEL ZORAN4.2. The Complex of SpaceWe have observedin the foregoing hatthe textual existence of spaceis like a series of fields of vision. We have defined and demarcateda single field of vision, but it remains for us to understand howdifferentfields of vision combine to create the complex of spaceas a whole. This process takes place in two dimensions: the dimen-sion of the text continuum - how fields of vision change as thereader progresses throughthe text; and the world dimension -the arrangementof fields of vision within the reconstructedworlditself.Fields of vision may shift from one to another in various ways.Most obviously, there may be a break, such as a chapteror sectionending. However, this is not necessarily the most characteristicmethod. Unlike scenes in a naturalistic theater, textual fields ofvision do not always occur in complete, closed units. They may bemuch more fluid, they may widen or narrow in scope, as with amovie camera, or move graduallyfromone place to another,makingtheir demarcation less clear-cut than our previous discussion mightindicate (see section4.1.4). They may also shift y wayofprojection:one field of vision may be constructedfrompieces of informationsupplied by another. A character in fieldA may relate somethingthatoccurredin anotherplace, therebycreatingfieldB.There are also various ways forfieldsof visionto combine withinthe reconstructedworld. The firstpossibilitythat comes to mind isthe perspectival one, in which one field is perceived as being infront and another serves as background. This is the situation ofalmost everyfield of visionin relationto the other fields n the text:what is perceived at any given moment is foreground; the otherfields of vision form the unseen background. This foreground-background relation is especially apparent in cases of projection.Although projection usually results in a complete substitutionofone field of vision for another, the perspectival aspect can bepreserved,creatingthe effect of two simultaneous fields of vision.This can happen when the projected area is not structuredas anautonomous field of vision - for example, in the case of discon-tinuous mentioningof certain places by charactersin a givenfieldof vision (i.e., not a continuous narrationby one of the characters,which would mean a complete displacement to the new field ofvision). Here the field of vision, rather than being autonomous,becomes a kind of background existing outside the area of theprimary field.11 But two concrete and fully autonomous fields of11. A similar ffect, lthoughmuch more rare, s sometimesgainedwhen theprojectedfield of vision s dominant nd autonomousbut the text mentions nsistentlyheprimaryfield of vision.For instance, ake thedescription f Achilles's shield n the liad: there re,of course, autonomous fieldsof visionencompassing he realitydepicted on the shield,

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 329vision cannot occur simultaneously because by definition a fieldof vision encompasses all the items of space surveyed at a givenmoment.So we returnto the question, what does join the fields of visionto form a map of reality. I propose that it is the materials of realitythemselves, in a furtherdegree of reconstruction; that is, at thechronotopic and topographic evels. At these levelsof reconstruction,the materials are abstracted from their fields of vision and re-organized in the topographic and chronotopic patterns of the text(the horizontal and vertical structures,the system of axes, etc.;see sections 3.1, 3.2).4.3. Total SpaceHaving constructed a scheme of the complex of space, based on aseries of fields of vision, we still may discover that some spatialinformation xists which is not structuredwithin ny field of vision;that is, spatial elements that the text presupposes, or providesindirectly,but does not show. This informationbelongs to thetotal space - that spatial information which exists beyond theboundaries of the actuallypresented space.

    The concept of total space in a text is necessarybecause of theway we generallythinkabout space. It is impossibleto imaginespaceas anything other than total. Of course, we do consider limitedsections of space, but at the same time we regardthem as parts ofa larger pace encompassingthem.This tendency is not necessarily connected with the Euclideanconception of empty space;12 it may also be connected with thesemantic properties of words. Thus, for example, the meaning ofthe word room includes the possibilities for additional rooms, ahouse, a place of settlement,and so forth.Any spatial object mayalso be perceived as a synecdoche fora more comprehensive space.Total space, however, is not merelya vague duplication of spaceactually shaped in a literarytext: it is an essential component withits own functions and modes of existence, as can be shown withregardto the three evels of structuring.4.3.1. Total Space from the TopographicPoint of View. From thepoint of view of the topographic level, the concept total spaceis needed because it enables us to locate the events, to answer thebut the textcontinues nsistently bymeansofnamingmaterials nd verbs fproducingto referback to the primary ieldof vision,Hephaestus'workshop,which s in the fore-ground.12. The irrelevance f theEuclidean conceptionof space to the literarywork of artwasclaimedby Ingarden 1965). Ingarden,however,concluded from t the finiteness f theliterary pace,which eemstome a wrong onclusion.

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    330 GABRIEL ZORANquestion, where does it happen? All the internal relationshipstaking place on the topographical level answer only the question,what does it look like? or how is it made? - but in order toreconstruct pace, the answer to thisquestion alone is not sufficient.It is essentialto locate the entiresystemwithin some larger pace.Texts may be differentiatedfromone another by the degree ofimportancewhich they attach to thequestion of localization, as wellas by the degree of exactness withwhich they answerthisquestion.Place of eventsmaybe located preciselyby street nd house number,or in a very general way - by the name of the city or country,oreven less than this. Each of these cases implies a differentway of

    coordination withinthe total space.Apart from the question of specific location, total space also hasto do with theassumptionsof the textabout thenatureof the worldin general, and thus it is stronglyconnected with the externalfieldof reference (see Hrushovski 1976). The text refersthe reader to acertain model of external reality by means of which he must re-construct the world. As regards the spatial complex of the text,there is constant play between thismodel and the internalfield ofreference, whereas in total space the external field of referencebecomes the prominent factor.The external field of referencemaybe of several types: historical, geographical, mythical, science-fictional,fantastic,etc. Naturally,the clarityof the localization andreconstruction s dependent on the typeof fieldof reference eferredto in the text. In any event, it should be emphasized that the con-nection between total space and the external field of referenceinno way signifies that we are dealing here with something whichdepends for itsvalidityon somethingoutside the text.The text itselfdetermines the nature of its total world, and the model of externalreality, although not necessarily created by the text, is chosen,modified,and fullycontrolledby it.4.3.2. Total Space from the Chronotopic Point of View. Here onemust examine the possible connections in the domain of plotbetween total space and the complex of space. One can imagine anabsolute separation between them in the case where total space hasno significant elation to theplot, serving nly as a staticbackgroundagainstwhich the plot unfolds. In this case, the narrative onstructsan entirely autonomous chronotopos. Examples of this possibilitycan be found in the stories of Edgar Allan Poe. Even if one couldlocate his stories in some geographical-historicalpace, it would beinsignificant; ne can conceive of his total space as emptyspace. Atthe otherextreme, there is the possibilityof active connectionwithtotal space, such as when general historical events determine thecourse of action. In this case, total space may be schematized as afield of powers, the center of which is outside the actual complex

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 331of space, but does, of course, affect t. The connection is not neces-sarily made by means of abstractpower lines: one can also imaginereal axes of movement in the text that continue into total spaceor emerge from it. The best example of chronotopic connectionbetween total space and the complex of space occurs in the epics; infact,the connection is so close that it almost annuls thedifferentia-tion between them. The voyages ofOdysseus encompass all the areasof the world fixed in the conscience of its contemporaryreader,the early Greek, ust as Paradise Lost covers the entirecosmologicalsystem of the Renaissance. In these cases, the text totally exhauststhe world. These are spaces which can no longerbe imaginedas partsof somethinglarger. From the chronotopic aspect, the complex ofspace here is almost identical to total space.4.3.3. Total Space from the Textual Point of View. From thepointof view of the textual level, the nature of total space and its relationto the space complex should be describedby means of two distinc-tions: one between presentation and representation,and the otherbetween determinacyand indeterminacy.'3 These two distinctions,of course, are applicable not only to the relation between thecomplex of space and total space, but also to otherareas of the textand the world. Within the complex of space and even withina singlefield of vision, there are also spots of indeterminacy nd representedelements, but total space is the most complete and comprehensivearea whichcan be describedby these two attributes.It should be stressed,however, that thesetwo distinctions re notoverlappingand that these attributesare not applicable to the sameaspects orpartsof total space.The quality of representationbelongs to all thatcan be positivelysaid about total space. All these thingsdifferfromthe informationabout the complex of space because they are rendered indirectly:they are notpresentedbut represented.Actually,this s what we saidat the beginningof our discussion (4.3) when we claimed that totalspace is not structured n the fields of vision. Fields of vision arethe modes of presenting space; the materials of total space arenot structuredwithin them but scattered in various indirectways:mentioningofplaces by charactersand evenbythenarrator,materialsof metaphors and similes,synedochic itemswhich enable to rebuildtheworld,and so forth.But this information, apart from being indirect, is sparse inrelation to the information bout the complex of space. One of theprominentqualities of total space is the immensedomain ofmissing13. The distinction between presentationand representationwas suggested by B.Hrushovski. The distinctionbetween determinacy nd indeterminacy s, of course,Ingarden's 1965).

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    332 GABRIEL ZORANinformation. All that can be said about it, both on the basis oftextual hints and on the basis of a generalknowledgeof the externalfield of reference- all thatdoes not abolish its indeterminacy.Totalspace is an immense area of indeterminacy,and relative darkness,in which the complex of space appears as an island of determinacyand clarity.Total space is also an essential assumption for determiningtheperspectivalstructureof the world. To a certain extent it constitutesthe absolute there,because it is always conceived as being beyondthe horizon of the field of vision. But similarly,t is necessarywhenlocating the primary here - the act of narration. If the act ofnarration s not actually concretized as a partof thenarratedworld,its spatial existence and the coordinates connecting t with theworldare also one of the aspects of total space.4.3.4. The Ontological Opacity of Total Space. Finally,an importantcharacteristicof total space, which concerns all the levels of struc-turing,to a certain extent, is lack of ontological clarity.This is ofcourse related to the generalpropertyof indeterminacywhichexistsin total space, but here it is not only the result of an absence ofinformation, but rather of certain contradictions or fundamentallacks of claritywhich are covered, so to speak, by the general in-determinacy of this area: total space is a kind of no man's landbridgingdifferent ntological areas. It is perceived not only as thedirect continuation of the reconstructedworld in the text,but alsoas a continuation of the real space of the reader, of the externalfield of reference,the act of narration,and possibly more. All theseareas, which could be completely incompatible fromthe ontologicalpoint of view, are somehow swallowed up in the total space, and areperceivedas existingon one continuousplane ofbeing.This situationis best typifiedby the frequent location of fairytales in distantlands: The ontological passage from the reader's world which isdominated by realisticprobabilityto a world of imaginationis thusexpressed by a physical remotenesswithinan indeterminate pace.14

    14. One shouldpointout threeconceptionsrelevantn some way to theconceptoftotalspace proposed here. Timpe (1971) distinguishes etweenactual space and thepotentialone, but thedescription f potential pace as the dimensions he actual space can achieveis rathervague. Hrushovski,n his studyon War nd Peace (1976), raisestheproblemoftotal space while discussing he possibility f locatingthe fictional alon of Annawithinthehistorical etersburg. ut, in thisdiscussion, he conceptof externalfield of referenceis used forwhat I call total space. I believethatthese redifferentoncepts, lthough heyhave a close connection see section 4.3.1). And, finally,Rokem's discussion bout theoff-stage orld n the theater 1979) may throw ome lighton theproblemof total spacefrom very nterestingngle.

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 3335. CONCLUSIONIn thispaper I attempted to set forth model which would indicatethe central aspects of space in the narrative and determine theirmutual relationships. The aspects discussed have to do mainlywiththe inherentstructureof space and its mode of existingas a partofthe reconstructedworld. This may clarify s well the issuesI did notdeal with in theframework f thisstudy- the functionality f spacewithin the overall structure of the text. The discussion was limitedto themode of existence of space and did not deal withitsfunctions.It goes without saying that space is not a neutral material justexisting n the world; it has variousfunctionsrelating o otherplanesof the text. Every element in space - actually everyelement in thetext - has to be regarded,to use the termof Hrushovski 1976), asa juncture, in which patternsfromall the textual planes may inter-sect: patterns of space togetherwith patternsof characterization,ideas, mythology, nd so forth.The functions of space may appear clearly when dealing withsingle texts and pointing out the system of relations within thecomplex of its components. One could, perhaps, even describe andanalyze its possible functionswithinthe framework f a theoreticaldiscussion; this, however, is a domain of questions entirelydifferentfromthose dealt with here. The fact thatspace hereis neutralized-formethodical purposes - from tsspecificfunctionsdoes not meanthat space in itself is conceived here as a neutral factor. On thecontrary, the assumption that all the textual components havefunctionalrelations with each other is rigorouslymaintained;what islacking here is an assumption about a hierarchy: did not stipulatein advance which element is the means and which is the end. Despiteany functional approach, one tends to regard space as subordinateto charactersrather than characters to space, and the same aboutthe relation of space to other aspects of the text: it is alwaysregardedas a means to certain ends. It was exactly thissituationthatprompted many discussionsdevoted to space to deal withcharacters,ideas, or general nterpretation, eglecting heirspecific ssue.I, however, tried to begin with space and end with it, withoutturning aside even at junctions with roads that seem, from anhierarchicalpoint of view, more like highways.No discussion aboutthe functionsof space could be worthwhilewithout analyzing firstits mode of existence and its several aspects. Furthermore, partfromthe way it may be exploited in specifictextsand themeaningswhich may be conveyed through t, it should not be forgotten hatspace is first nd foremost centralaspect of theworld,whetherrealor fictional and in whatever medium it may be transmitted.Thepurpose of the model suggested here was to throw light on someproblems raised by the status of space within a fictional worldconveyed through verbalmedium.

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    334 GABRIEL ZORANRE FERENCESAlewyn,Richard,1957. Eine Landschaft ichendorffs, uphorion51, 42-60.Bachelard, Gaston, 1974. La poetique de l'espace (Paris: Pressesuniversitairese France).Baxtin,M. M., 1978. The formsof Time and the Chronotopos n theNovel: From theGreekNovelto ModernFiction, PTL 3:3, 493-528.Binswanger, udwig,1955. Das Raumproblemn derPsychopathologie, n:AusgewdhlteVortrdgendAufsdtzevonLudwigBinswanger, ol. II (Bern: FrankeVerlag),174-225.Bollnow,Otto Friedrich, 963. MenschundRaum (Stuttgart:Kohlhammer erlag).Borchert,Wolfgang,949. Das GesamtwerkHamburg:Rowohlt).Brown,Russell E., 1967. On Classifyinghe Settingof the Novel: Hans HennyJahnn'sFluss ohone Ufer, NeophilologusLI, 395-401.Even-Zohar, ., 1968. CorrelativePositiveand CorrelativeNegativeTime in Strindberg's

    'The Father' and 'A DreamPlay,' Ha-Sifrut1:3-4, 538-568. (In Hebrew;Englishsummary p. 770-771.)Frank,Joseph, 1963. Spatial Form in ModernLiterature, n: The Widening yre NewJersey:RutgersUP), 1-63.1978 Spatial Form:Some FurtherReflections, riticalnquiry5:231-252.Hellwig, Brigitte,1964. Raum une Zeit in homerischen pos (Spudasmata: Studien zurKlassischenPhilologieund ihre Grenzgebieten,Vol. II. GeorgOlms Verlagsbuch-handlung,Hildsheim).Hrushovski, enjamin,1974. A UnifiedTheoryof the LiteraryText, in: Z. Ben-Poratand B. Hrushovski,tructuralistoetics n srael Tel AvivUniv.: Institute orPoeticsand Semiotics),13-23.1976 Segmentationnd Motivation n the Text Continuum fLiterary rose: TheFirstEpisode of War nd Peace (Tel AvivUniv.:Paperson Poetics and Semiotics).Ingarden,Roman, 1965. Das Literarische unstwerkTiibingen:MaxNiemeyerVerlag).Iskra,Wolfgang, 967. Die Darstellung es Sichtbaren n derdichterischen rosa um 1900(Miinster:Aschendorff).Kleist,Heinrich on,1923. GesammelteWerke, ol. III (Berlin: Tillgner erlag).1962 (1923) The Earthquake in Chile, in: The Marquise of 0 and OtherStories,trans.MartinGreenbergNewYork: Signet).Kristeva, ulia, 1970. Le texte du roman:approchesemiologiqued'une structure iscursivetransformationnelleThe Hague/Paris:Mouton).Liamert, berhard,1955. Bauformendes Erzdhlens Stuttgart:J. B. MetzlerscheVerlags-

    buchhandlung).Lessing,Gotthold Ephraim, 1974. Werke.SechsterBand. Kunsttheoretischend Kunst-historischechriftenMiinchen:CarlHanserVerlag).Lewin, Kurt, 1936. Principlesof Topological Psychology New York/London:McGraw-Hill).1938 The Conceptual Representation nd the Measurementof PsychologicalForces(Durham,N.C.: Duke UP).1957 Field Theory nSocial Science (NewYork: Harper nd Brothers).Linde, Charlotte, 1974. The Linguistic Encoding of Spatial Information unpublisheddissertation, olumbiaUniv.).Lotman,JurijM., 1973. Die Struktur es Kiinstlerischen extes Frankfurtm Main: Suhr-kampVerlag).Meyer,Herman,1957. Raumgestaltung nd Raumsymbolikn derErzahlkunst, StudiumGenerale,Vol. 10, 620-630.Miller,GeorgeA. and PhilipN.Johnson-Laird,974. Language ndPerception Cambridge/London/Melbourne: ambridgeUP).Minkowski,E., 1933. Le tempsvecu: Jtudesphenomenologiques t psychopathologiques(Paris:Collection de l'evolutionpsychiatrique).1936 Versune cosmologie:fragments hilosophiques Paris: FernardAubier).

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    TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 335Muller,Giinther, 950. Uber das Zeitgeriistes Erzghlens: m BeispieldesJiirg enatsch,in: Deutsche VierteljahrschriftiirLiteraturwissenschaftndGeistesgeschichte4:1,

    1-31.O'Toole, LawrenceM., 1980. Dimensionsof SemioticSpace in Narrative, oeticsToday1:4, 135-149.Perry,Menakhemand Meir Sternberg, 968. The King Through ronic Eyes: The Nar-rator'sDevices in the BiblicalStoryof David and Batsheba and Two Excursusesonthe Theoryof NarrativeText, Ha-Sifrut :2, 263-292. (In Hebrew;English um-marypp. 449-452.)Petsch, Robert,19422. Wesenund Formender ErzdhlkunstHalle: MaxNiemeyerVerlag).Rokem,Freddie,1979. The Off-StageWorld manuscript).Segal, Dmitry,1974. Aspectsof Structuralismn SovietPhilology Tel Aviv Univ.: Paperson Poetics and Semiotics2).Segre,Cesare,1975. Space and Timeof theText, 20thCentury tudies,37-41.Sternberg,Meir, 1973. Delicate Balance in the Story of the Rape of Dinah: BiblicalNarrative nd the Rhetoric of the NarrativeText, Ha-Sifrut :2, 193-231. (InHebrew;English ummary . XIII.)Timpe, Eugene F., 1971. The Spatial Dimension: A StylisticTypology, Yearbook ofComparativeCriticismII: Patterns f Literary tyle,ed.JosephStrelka. UniversityPark,Penn./London:The PennsylvaniatateUP), 179-197.Tomashevsky, oris,1965. Thematics, n: Russian FormalistCriticism,ee T. Lemon andMarionJ. Reis,eds. (Lincoln,Nebraska: Univ ofNebraskaPress).Uspensky,Boris, 1973. A Poetics of Composition:The Structure f theArtisticTextandTypology of a Compositional Form (Berkeley/LosAngeles/London:Univ. of

    California ress).Wilbur,Richard,1967. The House of Poe, in: Poe: A Collectionof Critical ssays, R.Regan,ed. (EnglewoodCliffs, .J.:Prentice-Hall).

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