Zoolec3rd Dep Reviewer

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Functions1.) Absorbs and transports nutrients (from digestive)2.) Transports hormones (from endocrine)3.) Delivers wastes (to excretory)4.) Transports gases (with respiratory)5.) Thermoregulation - distributes heat 6.) Immune - defends the body against invading microorganisms7.) Buffer - maintain blood pH at 7.35

Types of circulation1.) Continuous- single-celled protozoans, sponges, cnidarians, and flatworms- small size, simple architecture- ciliary movements and contractions of the wall stirs body fluid in the coelom2.) Discontinuous- specialized system in charge of circulation

Types of circulatory system1.) Open- nematodes, arthropods, mollusks, echinoderms- Hemolymph: not true blood, blood + interstitial fluid; blood is not enclosed within vessels- structures: hemocoel: where blood is collected; sinuses ostia- advantages: even distribution of materials- disadvantages: a.) slower circulation - no pressure going up b.) cannot achieve high rates of oxygen transport

2.) Closed- annelids, all vertebrates- has true blood that remains within a completely enclosed system of vessels and is separated from the interstitial fluid- materials move between blood and interstitial fluid through the capillaries- advantages: a.) more rapid circulation of materials - pressure between walls b.) regulation of blood flow - elastic and muscular fibers of the vessels- disadvantages: less even distribution of materials

artery vein capillary

BLOOD

Properties1.) 4-5x thicker than water2.) temperature: 38 C3.) pH: 7.35-7.454.) isotonic: .85% NaCl5.) weight: 8%

Functions1.) Regulatory a.) water movement between blood and tissues b.) body temperature c.) pH maintenance2.) Protective a.) platelets against blood loss and entry of pathogens b.) plasma factors against toxins3.) Transport a.) soluble products of digestion b.) waste products of metabolism c.) plasma proteins from liver d.) hormones e.) respiratory gases

Cells- originated from stem cells in the bone marrow by haemopoeisis

Stem cell Monoblast MacrophageStem cell Lymphoblast LymphocyteStem cell Hemocytoblast Proerthyoblast ErythrocyteStem cell Hemocytoblast Myeloblast LeukocyteStem cell Hemocytoblast Megakaryocyte Platelets

1.) Erythrocytes- most numerous blood cells- functions: a.) transport of O2 and CO2 b.) contribute to the buffering capacity of blood- Hemoglobin: red color; keeps viscosity low; allows best arrangement of enzymes and solutes; prevents reduction in blood water potential

2.) Thrombocytes- involved in blood clotting

3.) Neutrophils- most abundant leukocytes- responsible for phagocytosis of microorganisms

4.) Eosinophils- inactivates histamin to control allergic responses

5.) Basophils- secretes histamine which increases inflammation- secretes heparin which balances blood clotting and not clotting

6.) Monocytes- largest of the leukocytes- mature into phagocytic macrophages

7.) Lymphocytes- responsible for immune response and direct cell destruction

Composition1.) Plasma a.) Water b.) Plasma Proteins i.) Serum albumin - transports steroids and fatty acids; controls osmotic pressure; important and abundant ii.) Serum globulin - -globulin: transport pyrosine and retinol, -globulin: transfer iron, -globulin: antibodies iii.) Fibrinogen - blood clotting c.) Regulatory and protective proteins - hormones, antibodies, enzymes d.) Organic substances - wastes, nutrients e.) Inorganic substances - Na Cl K Ca Mg HCO3 Fe f.) Gases - O2 CO2 N

2.) Formed elements a.) Erythrocytes - biconcave disc; no nucleus; 127 days lifespan; Rouleux formation; Erythropoeisis: production of RBC in the bone marrow b.) Leukocytes - no hemoglobin; has nuclei; 9-12 days lifespan; granulocytes and agranulocytes c.) Thrombocytes - enucleated discs; derived from megakaryotes; 10 days lifespan; involved in blood clotting

ErythropoeisisHemacytoblastRubriblastProrubricyteRubricyte: hemoglobin starts to appearMetarubricyte: maximum hemoglobinErythrocyte: mature RBC accommodate hemoglobinPhagocytosis: at the spleenFe groupHeme groupLiver - store Bone marrow Bilirubin - bile

Stimulus1.) HypoxiaOxygen deficiencyActivates kidney cells to release renal erythropoietic factor or erythrogenin into the bloodREF activates plasma globulin or erythropoietinogen in the plasma to become erythropoietinInitiate erythopoiesis in the bone marrow

2.) Anemia a.) Nutritional anemia - lack of Fe in the diet; delayed synthesis of hemoglobin b.) Pernicious anemia - lacks absorption of Vit B12; failure of parietal cells; unable to produce healthy RBCs

Abo blood group

GroupAntigenAntibodyReceiveDonate

AABA OA AB

BBAB OB AB

ABA B-A B AB OAB

O-A BOA B AB O

Rh blood group(+) Rh antigen(-) no Rh antigen

Blood clotting1.) Extrinsic pathway - rapid clot formation; damaged blood vessels; release thromboplastin2.) Intrinsic pathway - massive clot formation; damaged platelets; release Factor XII

Factor XProthrombin thrombinFibrinogen fibrin CLOT Withdrawal of pseudopods Plasminogen plasmin

HEART

Fish2 chambers - 1A, 1V

Amphibian3 chambers - 2A, 1V

Mammals4 chambers - 2A, 2V

Humans4 chambered hollow

Structure1.) Pericardium - sac enclosing the heart a.) Parietal pericardium - outer b.) Visceral pericardium - adhere to the heart and epicardium2.) Walls of the heart a.) Epicardium - outer b.) Myocardium - middle c.) Endocardium - inner3.) Chambers of the heart a.) Atria - receiving chambers divided by interatrial septum b.) Ventricle - pumping chambers divided by interventricular septum4.) Heart Valves - prevents backflow of blood a.) Atrioventricular valves - between atria and ventricle i.) Tricuspid valve - right ii.) Bicuspid/mitral valve - left b.) Semilunar valve - pumps blood i.) Pulmonary valve - between PA adn RV ii.) Aortic valve - between LV and aorta*Openatrial pressure > ventricular pressure Closeatrial pressure < ventricular pressure*Heart murmur - sound of leaking blood a.) narrowed openings b.) incomplete closure of valves

Intrinsic cardiac conduction system- due to gap junction + in-house conducting system- specialized cardiac cells initiate and distribute impulses- components: a.) sinoatrial node - pacemaker b.) atrioventricular node c.) av bundle of his d.) purkinje fibers e.) ventricular myocardium- Electrocardiogram: instrument used to record electrical changes during heart activity- Electrocardiograph: record i.) P wave - depolarization of arteries ii.) QRS complex - depolarization of ventricles iii.) T wave - repolarization of ventricles- Cardiac cycle: alternate contraction and relaxation of the heart a.) Systole - lub contraction; force blood out under high pressure; closure of atrioventricular valves b.) Diastole - dub relaxation; reduced pressure as blood enters from the atria; closure of semilunar valves- Cardiac output: amount of blood pumped by heart per minute of life- Stroke volume: volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each contraction; Frank-Starlings Law of the Heart: stretch contraction strength

Circulation1.) Pulmonary circulation - right side; deoxygenated blood to the lungs for aeration

Vena cavas -> RA -> TV -> RV -> PV -> PA -> Lungs

2.) Systemic circulation - left side; oxygenated blood is distributed to the various parts of the body

Lungs -> PV -> LA -> BV -> LV -> AV -> Aorta -> Tissues

a.) Coronary circulation - supply blood to the heart b.) Portal system - collects blood before going back to the heart i.) Renal - kidneys ii.) Hepatic - stomach, intestine, pancreas, spleen liver

Control of the heart1.) Autonomic nervous system - parasympathetic fibers2.) Hormonal influence - stress, adrenaline and noradrenaline3.) Temperature heart rate4.) Electrolyte balance a.) Potassium heart rate b.) Sodium heart rate c.) Calcium heart rate5.) Sex a.) Female heart rate b.) Male heart rate6.) Age a.) Old heart rate b.) Young heart rate

BLOOD VESSELS - layers:1.) Tunica intima - inner; endothelium2.) Tunica media - middle; muscular3.) Tunica adventitia - outer; ct

AteriesVeins

Wall thicknessThickerThinner

Pronounced layerTunica mediaTunica adventitia

ShapeRoundCollapsed

LumenSmallerWider

RBCsX/

ValvesX/

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Functions1.) Fluid balance - returns the excess tissue fluid and proteins to the blood2.) Absorption of fats from the intestine via lymphatic capillaries3.) Surveillance and defense - filter out bacterial and produce disease-fighting lymphocytes

Components1.) Lymph- lymphatic fluid- water + leaked out biomolecules + interstitial spaces- filtered and diffused tissue fluid that leave the blood capillaries and are not returned to the bloodstream- lymph formation and function: a.) osmotic pressure return of fluid to the bloodstream b.) interstitial pressure force of fluid into lymphatic capillaries

- lymph movement: a.) Hydrostatic pressure - entry of lymph to the lymphatic capillaries b.) Muscle contraction - propels lymph into lymphatic capillaries c.) Edema - interferes with the flow of lymph; due to disturbed lymphatic vessels or tissues

2.) Lymphatic vessels- one-way system- returns lymph to the general circulation

Lymphatic capillariesLymphatic vesselsThoracic ductRight lymphatic ductLeft subclavian veinRight subclavian veinGeneral circulation

a.) Lymphatic capillaries - tiny, close-ended tubes that extend into interstitial spaces; receive fluid through their thin walls; fluid becomes lymph once inside the lymphatic capillaries b.) Lymphatic vessels - capillaries unite to form lymphatic vessels; vein-like structure only thinner; same three layers with semilunar valves c.) Lymphatic trunks and collecting ducts - larger lymphatic vessels pass through lymph nodes and merge to form lymphatic trunks; drain lymph from the body i.) Thoracic duct - drains to the left subclavian vein ii.) Right lymphatic duct - drains to the right subclavian vein3.) Lymph nodes- 1-25mm, bean-shaped organ made of ovoid or round mass of lymphatic tissue along the lymphatic vessels- with blood vessels, nerves, efferent lymphatic vessels (attached to the heilum) and afferent lymphatic vessels (entering on the convex surface)- clusters in groins and armptis- covered with fibrous capsule CT that extends the node and divides it into nodules- lymph nodules: a.) Payers patches b.) Adenoids c.) Tonsils - mucus membrane; has a geminal center: generate lymphocytes; palatine (oropharynx), pharyngeal (nasopharynx), lingual tonsil (tongue)

- functions: a.) macrophages and lymphocytes filter lymph and remove bacteria and cellular debris b.) site of lymphocyte production c.) add antibodies d.) afferent vessels filtered out of efferent vessels

4.) Thymus- soft, bilobed organ along the trachea, behind the sternum- Involution: disappears with age- surrounded by a capsule CT that extends inside and divides into lobules: contain lymphocytes to provide immunity- secretes thymosin: influences the maturation of T lymphocytes (Tc)- for differentiation, maturation and training of Tc- absent: get Tc in the paracortex in the lymph nodes

5.) Spleen- largest lymphatic organ between the stomach and the diaphragm- CT divides spleen into lobules which contain sinuses filled with blood instead of lymph- spleen lobule: a.) Red pulp - contains components of circulating blood (RBC, lymphocytes, macrophages) b.) White pulp - lymphatic nodule-ish (lymphocytes)

- functions: a.) filters and purifies blood b.) phagocytose worn out RBCs c.) blood reservoir d.) site of erythropoeisis

- seals: a.) large spleen which makes blood available under low pressure b.) dive and remain underwater

6.) Red bone marrow- involution to yellow bone marrow- site of origin of all blood cells- child: most bonesAdult: skull, sternum, ribs, clavicles, pelvic bones and vertebral column

7.) Lymph tissue a.) Diffuse lymphatic tissue - no capsule; scattered macrophages and lymphocytes b.) Lymphatic nodules - (Payers patches in digestive) no capsule; oval-shaped; in singles/clusters c.) Lymphatic organs - capsule is present

Disorder- Elephantitis: extreme edema that occurs when lymph vessels are blocked by filarial worms

IMMUNE SYSTEM- ability of the body to defend against infectious agents, foreign cells and abnormal cancer cells- functional system with cells and molecules

Components1.) Immunocytes - lymphocytes and macrophages2.) Molecules - antibodies and lymphokines

Significance1.) Recognize 2.) Immobilize and neutralize3.) Destroy*initial exposure before it is capable of protecting the body against the substance (memory cells)

Origin of immunocytes1.) Erythroid stem cell Erythrocytes2.) Lymphoid stem cell Natural Killer cells B-lymphocytes T-lymphocytes3.) Myeloid stem cell Monocytes Macrophages Myeloid progenitor Megakaryocytes Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils

Kinds1.) Non-specific immunity - does not distinguish between different kinds of pathogens

a.) First line of defense - natural/physical barrier i.) skin and mucus membrane of reparatory, digestive and urinary tract ii.) oil gland secretions - bacteria on skin iii.) ciliated cells in respiratory tract - particles in the throat iv.) lysozyme - tears, saliva and mucus secretion v.) stomach - low pH vi.) good bacteria in intestine and vagina - prevent bad bacteria from invading their territory

b.) Second line of defense i.) Phagocytic and natural killer cells - Neutrophils: attracted to damaged cells (chemotaxis); enters infected tissue and destroy them from within; self-destructed - Monocytes: transformed to macrophages once they enter infected tissue; effective and long-lived; macrophage: engulf microbe in vacuole fused with lysosomes kill the microbe; lungs (alveolar), liver (Kuppfer), kidney (mesanglial), brain (microglial), ct (histiocytes), spleen and lymph nodes (mixed macrophages) - Eosinophils: against larger parasitic invaders; release destructive enzymes targeting the parasites external wall - Natural killer cells: destroy virus-infected cells or abnormal cells; mount an attack via lysis of infected cell

Natural killer cellsCytotoxic killer t-cells

No receptor and nonspecificWith receptors and specific

GranulatedNongranulated

Not thymus-dependentThymus-dependent

ii.) Localized inflammatory response - damage to the tissue; entry of microorganisms; 4 symptoms: redness (rubor), pain (dolor), swelling (tumor), heat (calor)

Tissue damageRelease of bradykininLocal pain receptor stimulates mast cells to release histamineVasodilation and increased permeability of capillaries(localized imflammatory response)Neutrophils and macrophages migrate to site of injuryDiapedesis: squeeze through capillary wallPus: accumulation of dead neutrophils, tissue cells, bacteria and living WBCs

*Pyrogens - from leukocytes; sets the bodys thermostat at a higher temperature*Fever - severe infection a.) inhibit growth of microorganism b.) facilitates phagocytosis c.) speed repair of tissues - enhance chemical reaction*Septic shock - high fever, low blood pressure caused by bacteria

iii.) Antimicrobial proteins - Lysozyme: antimicrobial enzyme in tears, saliva and mucus secretions - Complement system: 20 serum proteins that lysises - Interferons: secreted by virus-infected animal cells; bind to receptors of noninfected cells to produce substance against invaders; produced in large quantities by recombinant DNA technology

Complement proteinsProtein seals invaderProtein attaches to invader and punctures cell membraneProtein attaches to invader and attracts leukocytes

2.) Specific immunity - immune response; reacts in specialized way to various invaders; third line of defense: a.) B-lymphocytes - for humoral immunity (body fluids); produced in the bone marrow b.) T-lymphocytes - for cell-mediated immunity; produced in the bone marrow, stored and matured in the thymus

Characteristicsa.) Antigen specific - recognizes and directed against particular antigensb.) Systemic - immunity is not restricted to initial infection site (not localized)c.) Memory - recognizes and mounts enhanced attack on previously encountered antigens; magnitude*Antigen - antibody generator; foreign molecule that elicits specific response by lymphocyte

a.) Clonal selection - antigen-driven cloning of lymphocytes i.) Effector/plasma cells - derivative of B-cells that secrete antibodies; 1st exposure to antigenneutralize lang ii.) Memory cells - remains in the lymph node until activated be exposure to the same antigen

b.) Primary and secondary immune response i.) Primary - initial immune response to an antigen; selective proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes in 1st exposure ii.) Secondary - encounter the same antigen again; rate magnitude duration

c.) Self from nonself i.) Lymphocytes - react to foreign molecules; distinguish self from nonself as it migrates to lymphatic organs; nonfunctional undergo apoptosis ii.) Self tolerance - no mature lymphocytes react against its own cell components iii.) Autoimmune disease - when self tolerance fails resulting to autoimmune disease iv.) Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) - cell-surface antigens encoded by a family; foreign mhc may lead to rejection of a transplanted tissue or organ; unique to each individual - Class I MHC: present in all cells; bound to Cytotoxic T - Class II MHC: present in specialized types as in macrophages, B-cells, T-cells; bound to Helper T

Immune response1.) Central role of helper T a.) Structure of T-cell receptor b.) CD4 and CD8 surface proteins c.) Antigen-presenting cell d.) Class I and Class II MHC e.) Interleukins 1 and 2

Antigen-presenting cell engulfs a bacteria and transport it via Class II MHC forming MHC II antigen complexSpecific TH is activated; CD4 and Interleukin 1 enhances activationActivated TH proliferates and gives rise to clone of identical cellsCytokines further stimulate TH to activate B-cells and TC for cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity

2.) Cell-mediated response a.) Antigen-presenting cell - macrophages and B cells that presents degradation products (peptide remnants) to TH b.) Cytotoxic TC - lymphocytes that kills infected cells c.) Helper TC - TC + B-cells that make antibodies; TC + TC that respond to antigens or secrete lymphokines or interleukins d.) Suppressor TC - suppress development of TH and help prevent B-cells and T-cells from getting out of control; shuts down immune response e.) Memory TC - clone of B-cells or T-cells mobilized during secondary immune response

Macrophages engulfs and digests a pathogen and bind to Class I MHC displaying MHC I antigen complexTC is activated; CD8 of TC and Interleukin 2 of TH enhances the activationActivated TC secretes perforinWater and ions flow into the infected cell; Cell lyses

3.) Humoral immune response*Antibody - large protein; basic subunit; 2 binding sites for the antibody; aka immunoglobins*Antigen - stimulates the formation of specific antibodies reacts with antibody to form antigen-antibody complex activation and removal of antigen a.) IgM - pentamer; first circulating antibodies to appear in response to an initial exposure to an antigen; concentration in blood declines rapidly; indicates current infection; effective in agglutinating antigens b.) IgG - monomer; most abundant; readily crosses the walls of blood vessels and enters tissue fluids; immunity of fetus; protects against bacteria, virus, and toxin in the blood and lymph c.) IgA - dimer; from the mucus membrane; prevent attachment of viruses and bacteria to the epithelial surfaces; found in many body secretions such as saliva, perspiration and tears; first milk for infants protection from gi infections d.) IgD - monomer; do not activate the complement system and cannot cross the placenta; antigen receptors that help initiate differentiation of B-cells to plasma cells and memory cells e.) IgE - monomer; small fraction of antibodies; triggered by antigen to release histamine for allergic reaction

Opsonization a.) Neutralization - cover toxic sites of antigenic agents b.) Agglutination - multiple antigenic agents are bound together into a clump by antibodies c.) Precipitation - antigen-antibody complex is insoluble and precipitates -PHAGOCYTOSIS- d.) Lysis/complement - antibodies directly attacking membranes and cause rupture of cells

Invertebrate immune system

SpongesSponge sort themselves and reaggregate if mixed with other sponges

InsectsHemolin (hemoplymph protein) binds to microbe and assists in their disposal

EchinodermsCoelomocytes (amoeboid cells) and interleukin 1 phagocytose foreign matter

EarthwormDefense system form memory against tissue grafts

Immunity in health and diseaseA.) Humoral immunity1.) Active - develops following exposure to antigen; human body produces antibody a.) Natural - during actual bacterial or viral infections b.) Artificial - provided using vaccines i.) Vaccines - contains dead pathogens which have antigenic determinants necessary to stimulate immune response ii.) Immunization - use vaccine to induce active immunity2.) Passive - antibodies are supplied by an immune human or animal donor

B.) Blood transfusion and tissue transplantation- limitation: immune systems capacity to distinguish self from nonself- if incompatible blood is transfused, transfused cells are killed by antibody (IgM)- Erythroblastoesis fetalis: hemolytic disease of infants (IgG)- Immunosuppressive drugs: prevent rejection in tissue transplantation

C.) Abnormal immune function1.) Allergic reactions - allergen triggers histamine release from mast cells a.) Allergies - hypersensitive response to certain environmental antigens called allergens b.) Anaphylactic shock - acute allergic response, life-threatening reaction to allergens; mast cell degranulation abrupt dilation of peripheral blood vessels drop in blood pressure dedz

2.) Autoimmune diseases a.) Systemic lupus erythematous - autoantibodies against all sorts of self molecules; skin rashes, fever, arthritis, kidney malfunction b.) Rheumatoid arthritis - damaged and painful inflammation of the cartilage and bone of joints c.) Insulin-dependent diabetes - beta cells of the pancreas are the tagets of autoantibodies d.) Multiple sclerosis - T-cells reactive against myelin infiltrate the CNS and destroy myelin of neurons

3.) Immunodeficiency diseases a.) Severe combined immunodeficiency - immune system fail b.) Hodgkins disease - cancer that suppresses the immune system by damaging the lymphatic system c.) Acquired immune deficiency syndrome - caused by destruction of CD4-bearing T-cells by HIV virus; marked by lower TH levels and opportunistic disease, infections and cancers

EXCRETORY SYSTEM- convert complex substances to simple compounds (harmful in small amounts): a.) CO2 lungs b.) Toxic wastes large intestine c.) Alcohol liver, kidney d.) Nitrogenous wastes liver, kidney

Functions1.) Excretion - rid the body of nitrogenous waste resulting from metabolism (catabolism of proteins) a.) Ammonia - toxic, water-soluble; gills of aquatic animals b.) Urea - 2NH3 + CO2; liver of mammals, amphibians c.) Uric acid - nontoxic, water-insoluble; guano: uric acid + feces2.) Osmoregulation - regulate salt and water content; maintain physicochemical balance; osmolarity: depends on concentration of mineral ions Na Cl K HCO33.) Renin production - JG apparatus: important in human hemodynamics (blood pressure and blood volume)4.) Erythropoietin secretion - process of erythropoiesis

Invertebrate excretory system

ProtozoansCell membrane (marine species)Contractile vacuole (freshwater species)

Sponges, CnidariansSkin

Flatworms, Rotifiers, RibbonwormsFlame cell system / Protonephridia

Terrestrial insectsMalphigian tubules

Collembolas, SpringtailsFat bodies: depository for organic wastesExoskeleton: eliminate deposited organic wastes

SpipersCoxal glands

CrustaceansGreen glands

Aquatic arthropods, Mollusks, EarthwormMetanephridia

Vertebrate excretory system1.) Kidneys a.) Archinephros - kidney found in the embryo of hagfish; inferred ancestral condition of the vertebrate kidney b.) Pronephros - functional kidney in adult hagfish and embryonic fishes and amphibians; fleeting existence in embryonic reptiles, birds and mammals c.) Mesonephros - functional kidney of adult lampreys, fishes and amphibians; transient function in embryonic reptiles, birds and mammals d.) Metanephros - functional kidney of adult reptiles, birds and mammals2.) Ureter - common collecting duct that carries wastes posteriorly3.) Urethra - median duct that discharges to the exterior of mammals4.) Cloaca - common passageway of excretory, digestive and reproductive systems; amphibians, reptiles, birds

HUMAN URINARY SYSTEM

Anatomy1.) Kidney (2) - bean-shaped, reddish brown, retroperiotoneally located2.) Ureter (2) - conducts urine from kidney to bladder3.) Bladder - stores urine*Sphincter muscle - controls urine; hold upto 600mL4.) Urethra - where urine exits; penis (male), vaginal opening (female)5.) Nephron a.) Renal corpuscle/malphigian body - filtration i.) Bowmans capsule - flattened cells on a basement membrane; distended, blind end of the renal tubule ii.) Glomerulus - highly coiled network of anastomosing capillaries; podocytes: visceral layer of Bowmans capsule; afferent arteriole: blood vessels that supply the nephron; efferent arteriole: drains the glomerulus b.) Renal tubule - reabsorption and secretion; highly convoluted i.) Proximal convoluted tubule ii.) Loop of Henle iii.) Distal convoluted tubule iv.) Collecting duct

Physiology1.) Filtration - initial urine; urea, uric acid, salts, glucose, vitamins, amino acids, water2.) Reabsorption - simple diffusion

Filtrate in renal tubuleInterstitial fluidPeritubular capillariesBlood system

3.) Secretion - final urine; 96% water, 2.5% urea, 1.5% others

Blood systemPeritubular capillariesInterstitial fluidFiltrate in renal tubule

Urine formation

ProcessMolecules

Glomerular filtrationBlood pressure forces small molecules from glomerulus to glomerular spaceWater, glucose, amino acid, salt, urea, uric acid, creatinine

Tubular reabsorptionDiffusion and active transport return molecules to blood at the pctWater, glucose, amino acid, salt

Tubular secretionActive transport moves molecules from blood to dctUric acid, creatinine, H ions, ammonia, penicillin

Reabsorption of waterWater returns by osmosis following active reabsorption of salt along loh and cdWater, salt

ExcretionUrine formation rids the body of metabolic wastesWater, salt, urea, uric acid, ammonium, creatinine

Countercurrent multiplier effect- produce concentrated urine in loop of Henle and collecting duct- opposite direction of fluid in loop of Henle- ion exchange in loop of Henle increases osmotic concentration

Glomerulus: reabsorb high threshold of substancesProximal tubule: expel NH3, H+Descending arm: expel H2O; osmosisLoop of Henle: highest concentration of urineAscending arm: expel NaClDistal tubule: aldosterone reabsorb biomoleculesCollecting duct: expel H2O (outer medulla), urea (inner medulla); forms concentrated urine

Controlling urinary output- adjust volume and osmolarity of urine- regulate water reabsorption by the collecting ducts- Diuresis: production of voluminous urine- Diuretic substance: antagonize ADH; no water reabsorption; produce water urine; ie. tea, alcohol, coffee- osmolarity: shrink osmolarity: restore size

Human hemodynamics- 300 mOsm- Kidney: regulate blood pressure and blood volume- Aldosetrone: Na absorption Osmotic gradient H2O moves out BP BV- Angiotensin: constriction of vessels; BP BV

JGA: renin productionRenin: angiotensin angiotensin IIVasoconstrictionAdrenal gland Aldosterone

- responses: a.) RAAS - Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system; control blood Na level and BP b.) ANF - Atrial natriuretic factor; opposes RAAS; BP Na secretion release of renin release of aldosterone

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Cell communication- critical for multicellular organismteamwork- uses different molecules but only a few mechanisms- via signal transduction mechanism

Signal transduction mechanism1.) Reception - exogenous molecule is received by the cell; similar to recognition of an enzyme to its substrate (lock-and-key hypothesis); ligand molecules are recognized by only one receptor protein2.) Transduction - conversion to a response; leads to conformal change in receptor3.) Response - cellular activity (enzyme catalyst); rearrangement of cytoskeleton (movement); specific gene activity

Types of signaling1.) Paracrine/local signaling - targets small areas a.) Growth factor proteins - cell division and growth b.) Neurotransmitters - move across synapses2.) Endocrine/distant signaling - specialized cells release molecules into the blood vessels; hormones move to distant target cells; delayed3.) Cell to cell contact - direct signaling; ie. gap junction

Main functionProduces hormones that control and integrate body processes of cellular physiology and behavior

Functions 1.) Reproduction 2.) Growth and development 3.) Mobilization of bodily defenses 4.) Maintenance of balance 5.) Cellular metabolism

Hormones- chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands, transported in the circulation to target cells, where they regulate metabolic processes- types: a.) Steroid hormones - lipid-based; ie. estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone, ecdysone b.) Polypeptide hormones - protein-based; ie. oxytocin, insulin, glucagon, ADH, ACTH c.) Glycoproteins - carbonprotein-based; ie. FSH, LH, TSH d.) Iodine-containing amino acids - thryroid hormone

- mechanisms: a.) Steriod hormone - fat-soluble; steroid + thyroxine; pass through membrane easily; regulation of gene expression i.) Testosterone secondary characteristics - vocal cords: deep voice - shoulder muscle: broadening - epidermis: hair development ii.) Aldosterone kidney Na reabsorption

Lipophilic hormone in the bloodstreamSteroid diffuses to the cellsBind with steroid receptor complexForm hormone responsive elementsTranscriptionTranslation

b.) Protein hormone - water-soluble; requires a second messenger i.) Somatotropin - bone and muscle for growth ii.) ADH - kidney tubules for water reabsorption iii.) Oxytocin - unterine muscles for uterine contraction iv.) Prolactin - mammary gland for milk production v.) Epinephrine - liver for glucose production; heart for increased heart rate

*Hormone amplification - amplify signal; each activated component can turn on many different molecules; steps amplification

Lipophobic hormone binds with beta receptorActivates G protein; GTP GDPOne subunit activates adenylate cyclase; ATP cAMPcAMP activates kinase, which activates a series of enzymesProduction of desired product/response: glucose

Lipophobic hormone binds with alpha receptorActivates G protein; GTP GDPActivate phospholipase C (PLC)Diaglycerol (DAG) remains in the inner layer and recruits protein kinase c (PKC), a calcium-dependent kinaseInositol triphosphate (IP3) diffuses to the cell and binds to receptors in the er to release Ca ions into the cytosolCa binds with calmodulin increased heart rate

Invertebrate endocrine system

HydraStimulate growth and budding (asexual reproduction) and prevents sexual production

AnnelidsStimulate egg production but inhibits body growth

MollusksStimulate laying thousands of eggs

InsectJuvenile hormone - corpora allatum - ecdysone larva to larva ecdysone metamorphosis

Brain hormone - corpora cardiacum - prothoracic gland secretes ecdysone for each of the stages of metamorphosis

CrustaceansX organ sinus gland complex - in the eyestalk - molt inhibiting - gonald development, water balance, blood glucose level

Y organ sinus gland complex - in the epithelial - molt stimulating - secrete ecdysteroids for molting - negatively regulated by X-organ

HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hormones- chemical produced and transported throughout the organism and produce specific response in target cells- chemical categories:1.) Proteins and peptides - insulin, oxytocin2.) Amines - adrenaline3.) Steroids - testosterone

- hormone-secreting cells:1.) Endocrine - into the bloodstream; ie. Adrenaline2.) Paracrine - affect adjacent cells; ie. Gastrin3.) Autocrine - regulate own activity; ie. Testosterone

HormoneFunction

HypothalamusReleasing/release-inhibiting hormoneControl the pituitary gland

ADHKidney tubules to prevents production of dilate urine

OxytocinUterine muscle and mammary glands to facilitate child birth and breastfeeding

Pituitary glandACTHAdrenal cortex to stimulate secretion of cortisol and aldosterone

FSHGonalds to initiate gamete production

LHGonalds to initiate sex hormone production

GHMuscle and bone for growth; promotes cell division, protein synthesis

PRLMammary glands for milk production; carbohydrate and fat metabolism

TSHThyroid gland to regulate secretion of thyroxine and thiiodothyronine

MSHMelanocytes to increase production of melanin

Pineal glandMelatoninRegulates sleep pattern

Thyroid glandThyroxine, TriiodothryonineIncrease cellular metabolic rates

ParathyroidParathyroid hormoneIncrease blood calcium concentration

Adrenal gland cortexAldosteroneMaintain salt and water balance

CortisolRegulate carbohydrate and protein metabolism

Adrenal gland medullaEpinephrine, NorepinephrineInitiate bodys response to stress; fight or flight

Reproductive gland ovariesEstrogenRegulates female secondary sex characteristics

ProgesteroneMaintains growth of uterine lining

Reproductive gland testes TestosteroneRegulate male secondary sex characteristics

PancreasGlucagonStimulates release of glucose

InsulinStimulates absorption of glucose

Thymus glandThymosinStimulates T-cell formation

Digestive organs stomachGastrinRelease digestive enzyme and hydrochloric acid

Digestive organs small intestineSecretinRelease various digestive fluids from the pancreas and bile from the liver

Anatomy1.) Hypothalamus- beneath the thalamus- regulates body temperature, breathing, hunger and thirst; homeostasis- master switchboard: regulates two-lobed pituitary gland releasing both releasing and release-inhibiting hormones- links the endocrine system to the nervous system- Neurosecretory cells: produce hormones that are either stored in the pituitary gland or regulate the pituitarys activity- sends: a.) nerve signals to medulla to speed up or slow down heart rate b.) hormones

2.) Pituitary gland- 1cm in diameter; connected to the hypothalamus by a stalk-like structure- master gland- hormones: a.) Posterior pituitary i.) ADH/vasopression ii.) Oxytocin b.) Anterior pituitary i.) Releasing hormone ii.) Release-inhibiting hormone iii.) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) iv.) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) v.) Luteinizing hormone (LH) vi.) Growth hormone (GH) vii.) Prolactin (PRL) viii.) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) xi.) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

3.) Pineal gland- near the base of the brain- Melatonin: increase at night, decrease during day

4.) Thyroid gland- at the base of the neck, just below the larynx- requires iodine (from iodized salt) to produce thyroxine and triiodothyronine- hormones: a.) Thyroxine b.) Triiodothyronine c.) Calcitonin - produced by the C-cells; inhibits release of calcium from bones- Goiter: swelling of the thyroid gland due to iodine deficiency- thyroxine rate of cell respiration energy active- Hyperthyroidism: thyroxine body temperature heart rate metabolic rate blood pressure weight- treatment: medication, thyroidectomy

- Hypothyroidism: thyroxine body temperature heart rate metabolic rate (lethargy) blood pressure weight- treatment: supplementary thyroxine

- Cretinism: hypothyroidism in infants; affects normal development of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous system; characterized by dwarfism and mental retardation

5.) Parathyroid gland- at the back surface of the thyroid gland; two in each lobe- hormone: parathyroid hormone (PTH)- Tetany: muscular spasms; PTH Ca in the blood; treatment: administration of large amounts of PTH and Ca

6.) Adrenal glands- on top of each kidney- two hormones: a.) Adrenal cortex - outer; 80% of the mass; responds to ACTH i.) Corticosteroids - steroid hormones essential for normal body functions ii.) Aldostone iii.) Cortisol b.) Adrenal Medulla - inner; specialized part of the sympathetic nervous system; secretes neurohormones/fight or flight hormones i.) Epiphrine/adrenaline ii.) Norepiphrine/noradrenaline- Addisons disease: activity blood pressure energy

- Cushing syndrome: activity obesity sugar levels blood pressure bones

7.) Reproductive glands- Gonalds: gamete-producing organs that also produce a group of steroid sex hormones; ovaries in females, testes in males- Sex hormones: regulate body changes that begin with puberty- Puberty: adol stage when the sex organs mature and secondary sex characteristics- hormones: a.) ovaries i.) estrogen ii.) progesterone b.) testes i.) testosterone

8.) Pancreas- behind the stomach- both an exocrine and endocrine gland- Islets of Langerhans: secretes hormones: a.) Glucagon b.) Insulin- Diabetes mellitus: undersecretion of insulin- Type I/juvenile onset: before 25yo; little or no insulin production; requires strict diet and daily injections of insulin- Type II/adult onset: after 40yo; lack of insulin receptors- Hyperglycemia: insulin blood sugar; can cause nausea and rapid breathing, possibly leading to oxygen deficiency, circulatory and nervous system failure; diabetic coma- Hypoglycemia: insulin blood sugar; glucose is stored rather than distributed; lethargy, dizziness, nervousness, unconsciousness

9.) Thymus gland- beneath the sternum and between the lungs- consists mostly of T-cells which plays a role in the development of immune system- secretes thymosin

10.) Digestive organs- secrete hormones that help digest food- hormones: a.) gastrin b.) secretin

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Modes1.) Asexual - uniparental- a single parents buds, fragments or divides to give rise to two or more offspring that have hereditary traits identical with those of the parent- no special reproductive organs or sex cells or fusion of nuclei occurs- advantages: a.) rapid b.) simple c.) economy

- disadvantages: offspring are similar to the parents and cant cope with changing pressures of the environment

- types: a.) Binary fission - divided into two equal parts; longitudinal, transverse or oblique; ie. Amoeba, flagellate, ciliate b.) Multiple fission - parent cell give rise to several offspring cells simultaneously; schizogony or sporogony c.) Budding - unequal division; internal or external; ie. Sponges (gemmules), tapeworm (cyst) d.) Fragmentation - plasmotomy; fragments into two or more fragments then each forms missing parts; ie. Earthworm, sea anemone

2.) Sexual- biparental- involves reproductive organs for fusion of gametes to form new individual- advantages: a.) promotes genetic variation among members of the same species b.) offspring is more capable of survival than parents in a changing environment

- disagvantages: a.) requires more time and effort b.) many gametes are produced but only a few gets fertilized c.) reassortment of genes: parent cant give its exact set of genes

- types: a.) Conjugation - temporary union of two individuals to exchange gametic nuclei b.) Copulation - fertilization; ensure meeting of sperm and egg i.) External - outside the female genital tract; multiple fertilization; aquatic animals ii.) Internal - delivery of sperms into the body of the female via an intromittent organ

Terms1.) Parthenogenesis - development of egg into a new individual without fertilization; ie. Rotifers, nematodes, arthropods, gastropods2.) Polyembryony - fertilization of a single egg by several to many sperms due to nonfunctionaly fertilization membrane; resulting zygote is either sterile or dead3.) Metagenesis - alternation of sexual and asexual generation in lower forms; ie. Obelia4.) Hermaphroditism - animal possesses both male and female reproductive organs; self-fertilization; ie. Flatworms, clams a.) Protogyrous - female male b.) Protandrous - male female5.) Artificial insemination - sperms are deposited in the female structure by mechanical means without the use of intromittent organ; ie. Testtube babies6.) Spermatophore - packet of enclosed sperms that is delivered to female genital tract7.) Spermatheca - unique organ attached to the vagina of the female where sperms are collected

HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Anatomy1.) Testis- length: 4cm; diameter: 2.5cm- function: a.) production of male gametes b.) secretion of male sex hormone- Seminiferous tubules: structural units of testis containing cells at different stages of development; production of spermatozoa- Cryptorchidism: undescended testis- types of cells: a.) Spermatogonic series i.) Spermatogonia ii.) Spermatocytes iii.) Spermatids iv.) Spermatozoa b.) Nonspermatogenic cells i.) Sertoli cells - nourish spermatozoa ii.) Leydig cells - produce testosterone

2.) Systems of ducts

Seminiferous tubulesRete testisEfferent ductulesEpididymis: sperm maturation and capacitationVas deferens seminal vesicleEjaculatory duct prostate glandProstatic urethraPenile urethea: valve controlling urine and sperm exit semenOutside :-D

3.) Glands a.) Seminal vesicle - membranous pouches lying posterior to the bladder near its base; secretes thick alkaline nutrient-containing fluid: i.) fructose - ATP, energy source ii.) fibrinogen iii.) vit C b.) Prostate gland - surrounds the bladder neck; secretes thin alkaline and milky fluid containing fibrinolysin and citric acid; neutralize acidity of vagina i.) Paraurethral glands - small numerous glands which open to prostatic urethra ii.) Benign prostatic hypertrophy - obstuction of urinary outflow c.) Bulbourethral/cowpers gland - pea-sized gland; secrete fluid which lubricates urethra for passage of semen during ejaculation

*Semen - product of ejaculation consisting of spermatozoa and seminal fluid; 3.5mL each ejaculate; (1) 50-150M spermatozoa per mL (2) desquamated cells (3) prostatic concretions

4.) Penis- male organ of copulation and flaccid structure when not stimulated- erection: blood is engorged: a.) paired corpora cavernosa penis (CCP) b.) single corpora covernosa urethra (CCU)- Glans penis: expansion of lower portion of penis containing sensory end organs and urethral orifice; covered by prepuce

PhysiologyHypothalamusPitutary glandFSHLHSperm-producingtestosterone-producing Regulate sperm-production testosterone

Sexual response1.) Erection - first effect of male sexual stimulation (visual)2.) Lubrication - glands secrete mucus during sexual stimulation or copulation3.) Emission - precam; may contain sperm4.) Ejaculation - actual discharge

Fertility1.) Radiation - affects actively diving cells in spermatogenesis2.) Temperature - prevents spermatogenesis; causes degration of ST3.) Sperm count - 3.5mL, 120M sperms, 3-4days, 30min-3hr travel;