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Cladograms illustrating phylogenetic groupings: Monophyly(upper left and right), Polyphyly (lower left), Paraphyly (lower right). Only monophyletic groups are considered true clades (natural taxonomic group)Pasted from
METAZOA or ANIMALIAEukaryotic
Multicellular (except Myxozoa)
Heterotrophic
No cell wall
Collagen
Gastrulation
Character state terms you should be familiar with:Plesiomorphy- ancestral state1.Apomorphy - derived state2.Synapomorphy - shared derived state3.
How do zoologists categorize animals?Morphology and developmentMolecular data
Body symmetry: Radial (a), Bilateral (b)
Even though starfishes (P Echinodermata) are radially symmetrical, they are in fact more closely related to you than to a jellyfish. Their bilateral ancestry can be seen in their larvae.
Homology of forelimbsPasted from
Convergent evolutionPasted from
Animal PhylogenySaturday, June 09, 20072:01 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 1
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Embryonic developmentSunday, June 10, 200711:59 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 2
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Body plans according to coelom formation
Traditional animal phylogeny (A) and current (B).Adoutte et al. (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 4453-4456Pasted from
Do molecular data support the traditional or the current phylogeny? Recent analyses are now relying on genomic data rather than single genes to reconstruct animal phylogeny. See the following articles supporting either one of the hypothesis:Coelomata: Rogozin et al. 2007. Ecdysozoan clade rejected by genome-wide analysis of rare amino acid replacements. Mol Biol Evol 24:1080-1090. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/24/4/1080
Ecdysozoa: Irimia et al. 2007. Rare coding sequence changes are consistent with Ecdysozoa, not Coelomata. Mol Biol Evol. Epub May 27, 2007 . http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/msm105v1?ck=nck
Body Cavities & Molecular DataMonday, June 11, 20071:59 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 3
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ProtistaUnicellular1.Eukaryotic2.Specialized organelles3.
Protistan phyla (Traditional Classification)
Sarcodina Pseudopodia
Mastigophora Flagellum
Ciliophora CiliaMacro- and micronucleus
Apicomplexa Apical complexNo obvious locomotory structuresEndoparasitic
What is the difference between cilia and flagellum?
Protista is a paraphyletic group
Current "supergroups" of EukaryotesSimpson & Roger. 2004. The real "kingdoms" of Eukaryotes. Curr Biol 14:R693-R696.
Plantae Plastids from primary endosymbiosis of a cyanobacteriumVolvox, land plants
Excavata Distinctive feeding groove (cytostome) of excavate typeTrypanosoma, Trichonympha, Euglena
Rhizaria Filopodia or axopodiaForams & radiolarians
Chromalveolata Plastids from 2ndary endosymbiosis of a red algaCiliates, dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, Opalina
Amoebozoa LobopodiumAmoeba, Arcella
Opisthokonta Single posterior flagellumChoanoflagellates, animals and fungi
The phylum Myxozoa, once thought to be protists, have been found to be members of K Metazoa
Choanoflagellates: sister group of animals
Kingdom Protista (protists)Sunday, June 17, 20073:59 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 4
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Porifera (L porus =pore, ferre = to bear)Asymmetrical or radially symmetrical1.Cellular level of organization2.Body covered with pores (ostia)3.Specialized cells , e.g., choanocytes4.Sessile5.Aquatic6.
Classes of Porifera
Hexactinellida Glass sponges6-rayed siliceous spiculesSyncitial cellsSyconoid or leuconoid
Demospongiae Siliceous spicules (not 6-rayed)May have sponginLeuconoid
Calcarea Calcareous spiculesAsconoid, syconoid, leuconoid
Class Sclerospongiae is no longer a valid class
Not all sponges are filter-feeders
Carnivorous sponge Asbestopluma(Demospongiae)Pasted from
Generalized sponge body planPasted from
Sponge body forms
Calcarea: Leucosolenia eleanorPasted from
Hexactinellidae: Euplectella sp.Pasted from
Demospongiae: Spongilla sp.Pasted from
Why do freshwater sponges have gemmules as part of their life cycle?
Phylum Porifera (sponges)Saturday, June 09, 200712:23 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 5
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CnidocytesPasted from
Why shouldn't you use freshwater to treat jellyfish stings?
Cnidaria (Gk. cnidos = stinging nettle)Cnidocytes1.Planula larva2.Radial symmetry3.Tissue level of organization4.Diploblastic5.Nerve net & musculo-epithelial cells6.Aquatic7.
Cnidarian polyp and medusa formsPasted from
Classes of Cnidaria
Anthozoa True corals, sea anemones, etc.Polyp form with mesenteries
Scyphozoa True jellyfishesMedusa dominant, polyp reduced or absent
Cubozoa Box jellyfishesMedusa dominant w/ velarium
Hydrozoa Hydroids, siphonophores, etc.Polyp w/o mesenteries and/or medusa w/ velum
Anthozoa: Acropora, staghorn coralPhoto : E Aurellado
Scyphozoa: left, jellyfish (photo: E Aurellado); right, Aurelia scyphistoma Pasted from
Cubozoa: Carukia barnesi, Irukandji jellyfishPasted from
Hydrozoa: Hydra w/ bud and ovaryPasted from
What contributed to the diversity of cnidarians?PolymorphismColony formationCoral formation
Phylum CnidariaThursday, June 07, 20078:53 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 6
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BILATERIABilaterally symmetrical -- evolution of actively hunting animals
Cephalization-- development of a head region
where sensory structures are concentrated
Ectoderm
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Triploblastic -- allows for development of organ systems
Protostomes: blastopore becoming the mouthLophotrochozoa: trochozoa & lophophorates
General Characteristics of flatworms:Dorsoventrally flattened1.Acoelomate2.Incomplete digetive system 3.Ladderlike nervous system with simple brain
4.
Protonephridial excretory system5.No vascular system6.Circular & longitudinal muscles7.Mostly hermaphroditic8.Tegument syncitial in parasitic forms9.
Classes
Turbellaria1. Free-livingCovered with ciliated epidermisWell-developed sensory structures, e.g., eyespots
Monogenea2. Ectoparasitic flukesAttachment organs (prohaptor & opisthaptor)Single host
Trematoda3. Endoparasitic flukes2 suckers: oral and ventralComplex life history: intermediate & definitive hosts
Cestoda4. Tapeworms, parasiticScolex, neck, strobila made of proglottids
www.bio.miami.edu
Dugesia1.
Dactylogyrus2.Pasted from
www.bergen.edu
www.cvm.okstate.edu
Schistosoma is an example of a dioecious flatworm3.
www.ndpteachers.org
4.
Pasted from
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms) Tuesday, December 26, 200611:08 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 7
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Pasted from
Pasted from
How are endoparasitic flatworms adapted to their lifestyle?Organs for attachmentCan withstand host's defensesHigh fecundity
Life cycles of parasitic flatwormsWednesday, December 27, 200612:07 AM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 8
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What are the advantages of a complete gut?Allows linear processing of food and specialization of gut regions
Increases feeding efficiencyCould allow increase in body size
Nemertea / RhyncocoelaRhyncocoel - cavity that operates the proboscis1."Acoelomate"2.Complete gut3.Blood system4.Protonephridial excretory system5.Serial gonads6.Mostly marine7. Pilidium larva of nemertines
Pasted from
Enoplan nemertine showing everted proboscisPasted from
Classes (traditional classification)
Enopla Proboscis armed with a stylet
Anopla Unarmed proboscis
Anoplan nemertine: Lineus bilineatusPasted from
Phylum Nemertea (ribbon worms)Thursday, December 28, 200611:50 AM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 9
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Ecdysozoa: protostomes that molt (ecdysis)
Nematoda (Gk. nema = thread):Slender cylindrical body1.Pseudocoelomate w/ high hydrostatic pressure2.Complete digestive system w/ muscular pharynx3.Collagenous cuticle4.Mostly dioecious5.Longitudinal muscles, no circular muscles6.No circulatory system7.Brain & longitudinal nerve cords8.
anterior amphidsa.posterior phasmidsb.
Sensory structures9.
What are the advantages of a tube-within-tube pattern of pseudocoelomates and coelomates?Allows fluid circulationHydrostatic skeletonMore room for internal organs to develop
Females larger than malesmales with copulatory spicules, often a bent tail or copulatory bursa
Ascaris
Classes (traditional classification)
Secernentea1. With phasmidse.g., Ascaris, Ancylostoma(parasitic), C. elegans, T. aceti(free-living)
"Adenophorea"2. Without phasmidse.g., Trichuris, Trichinella(parasitic)
Free-living nematodes
Caenorhabditis elegansPasted from
Vinegar Eel 1 (Turbatrix aceti)http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/zoolab/Table_of_Contents/Lab-4b/V
inegar_Eel_1/vinegar_eel_1.htm
Screen clipping taken: 12/27/2006, 2:11 PM
Ancylostoma
Trichinella
Trichuris
Pasted from
What is eutely?
Phylum Nematoda (roundworms)Wednesday, December 27, 20063:18 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 10
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Rotifera (wheel bearers):Head bears ciliated crown called corona1.Pseudocoelomate2.Modified muscular pharynx called mastax containing trophi
3.
Body comprised of head, trunk & foot (bears pedal glands)
4.
Microscopic 5.Dioecious, some species parthenogenetic6.Maybe a lophotrochozoan7.Mostly freshwater, planktonic or benthic8.
Classes
Seisonidea Epizoic on gills of a marine crustacean, Nebalia
Corona reducedPaired gonadsReproduce sexually
Bdelloidea Corona divided into 2 partsPaired gonadsParthenogenetic, no boys allowed Swimming or crawling (like a leech)
Monogononta 1 gonadReduced coronaAlternate parthenogenesis (amictic) and sexual (mictic) reproduction
Seison (Seisonidea)Pasted from
BdelloideaPasted from
Brachionus quadridentatus(Monogononta)
Pasted from
Both bdelloid rotifers and nematodes can undergo cryptobiosis-- a state of suspended animation under extreme conditions, e.g., dessication, freezing, and heating.Fertilized eggs of monogonont rotifers can also lie dormant in adverse conditions (embryonic diapause)
Monogonont life cyclePasted from
What is the advantage of cryptobiosis and embryonic diapause in rotifers capable of asexual reproduction? How are these adaptations related to their habitats?
http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/Dec2000/pdf/Dec2000p41-47.pdf
Screen clipping taken: 12/27/2006, 6:25 PM
Phylum Rotifera (rotifers)Wednesday, December 27, 20064:15 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 11
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Trochozoa : coelomate protostomes w/ trochophore larvaMollusca (Gk. Molluscus = soft)Radula (rasping tongue)1.Ctenidium2.Mantle covering visceral mass3.Muscular foot4.Hemocoel 5.Nephridial excretory system6.Molluscan shell not a defining characteristic, although it contributed to the diversification of the phylum
Classes
Neomeniomorpha1.Chaetodermomorpha2.
Vermiform bodiesSpiculate
Polyplacophora 3. 8 dorsal platesSpiculate
Monoplacophora4. Calcareous shellserial replication
Scaphopoda 5.Bivalvia 6.Gastropoda 7.Cephalopoda8.
Calcareous shellReduced serial replication
Chaetodermomorpha: no foot & pedal groovePasted from
Neomeniomorpha: foot w/ pedal groovePasted from
Polyplacophora (chitons)Chiton - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyplacophora
Screen clipping taken: 12/28/2006, 6:24 PM
Aculifera: spiculate molluscs
What advances are made possible by a true coelom?Independent movement of gut and body wallDevelopment of more complex respiratory, circulatory, and excretory systems
Trochophore larvaPasted from
Basic molluscan body planPasted from
Phylum Mollusca (mollusks)Thursday, December 28, 20062:43 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 12
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V. Horigue
Bivalvia: Tridacna (giant clam)2 lateral shells; no radula
A. Spring
Gastropoda: Left, queen conch; right, nudibranchSingle shell, absent in nudibranchs; gills or lung
Gastropods exhibit a condition called torsion. Why did it evolve and what are its disadvantages?
V. Horigue
Pasted from
A. S
pri
ng
Cephalopoda: top, Nautilus; bottom, Octopus; Siphon & tentacles derived from foot-mantle; well-developed nervous system; closed circulatory system; shell internal/absent in coleoids, external in Nautilus
Monoplacophora (ventral view): single shell; serial repetition of kidneys, gonads & gillsPasted from
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a shell?
Scaphopoda: Captacula, no ctenidiumPasted from
Internal anatomy of a squid (Cephalopoda)Pasted from
Conchifera (shelled molluscs)Thursday, December 28, 20065:27 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 13
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Metamerism: serial repetition of segments (somites) along the length of the animalCriteria of true metamerism:Mesodermal1.Embryonic development2.Penultimate budding3.What are the advantages of metamerism?More efficient locomotionFunctional independence among segmentsProvides a framework for specialization
Annelida (L. annulus = little ring)Segmented body1.Coelom divided by septa2.Chitinous setae3.Circular and longitudinal muscles4.Closed circulatory system 5.Complete gut6.Solid ventral nerve cord7.Respire through skin, gills or parapodia8.Metanephridial excretory system9.
Fanworm with radioles exposed Photo by VVHilomen
x-s Polychaete showing parapodia w/ setaePasted from
Classes (traditional classification)
Polychaeta (bristleworms & tubeworms)
Many setae in parapodiaMostly marineSeparate sexes
Oligochaeta (earthworms)
Few setae,no parapodiaClitellumHermaphroditic
Hirudinea (leeches) No setae nor parapodiaClitellumHermaphroditic
Ophryotrocha (Polychaeta)
Pasted from
Basic Annelid StructureProstomium1.Peristomium (1st true segment)2.Segments3.Pygidium (w/ anus)4.
Pasted from
Pasted from
Clitellate annelids: top, Oligochaeta; bottom, Hirudinea
MetanephridiaPasted from
Phylum Annelida (segmented worms)Friday, December 29, 20062:07 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 14
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Arthropods are the largest phylum (>80% species) in the animal kingdom . Arthropoda (arthros = joint, podus = foot)Jointed appendages1.Chitinous exoskeleton2.Segmented body, tagmatization3.Special respiratory structures , e.g., gills, tracheae or book lungs
4.
Open circulatory system, hemocyanin5.Well-developed sensory structures6.Excretory system i.e., malpighian tubules and coxal glands for terrestrial arthropods
7.
Dioecious, fertilization external in aquatic arthropods and internal in terrestrial arthropods
8.
Pasted from
Arthropod Subphyla
Chelicerata Lack antennaeTagmata: prosoma and opisthosomaChelicerae, pedipalps & 4 prs. of walking legs
"Myriapoda" 1 pair of antennaeLow level of tagmatizationMany segments
Crustacea Biramous appendages, 2 prs. antennaeMainly aquatic, nauplius larvaHead, thorax (or cephalothorax) & abdomen
Hexapoda Uniramous appendages, 1 pr. antennaeMainly terrestrialHead, thorax, & abdomen6 legs
Myriapods are often classified with hexapods under "Uniramia", but myriapods may actually be allied with Chelicerata, thus forming the clade "Paradoxopoda" Myriapoda may be a polyphyletic group
Tagmatization - fusion of body segments into specialized functional groups. Each specialized group is called a tagma (pl. tagmata)Pasted from
a body built from a cephalon, thorax, and pygidium
a body divided into three lobes, running from head to tail
one pair of antennae
Trilobites are an extinct group of arthropods, distinguished by the following characters:
Pasted from
Vertebrate (left) vs. Arthropod joint (right).Muscles attach to the exoskeleton and the cuticle at the joints are thin and flexible, allowing for rapid movement.
Phylum ArthropodaFriday, December 29, 20063:58 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 15
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Pasted from
Green gland
Biramous appendage of crustaceans
Daphnia: C. Branchiopoda, O. CladoceraPasted from
Argulus: BranchiuraPasted from
C. OstracodaPasted from
Balanus : Cirripedia Photo by E Aurellado
Cuticle of crustaceans is further hardened by calcium salts to add thickness and deter predators. Because they live in a buoyant medium, weight is not a problem.
Euphausia: C. MalacostracaPasted from
crab: C. Malacostraca,O. DecapodaPasted from
Nauplius larva
Fairy shrimp: C. Branchiopoda, O. AnostracaPasted from
Copepod: C. MaxillopodaPasted from
CrustaceaFriday, February 16, 20074:48 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 16
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Pasted from
Typical myriapod body plan
Pasted from
Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda
C. Merostomata, O. XiphosuraPasted from
C. PycnogonidaPasted from
Arachnid anatomyPasted from
Myriapod Classes
Chilopoda CentipedesPoison claws1 pair of legs/segment
Diplopoda Millipedes2 pairs of legs/segment
Symphyla Resemble centipedesNot all segments bears legs
Pauropods Resemble millipedes9 prs. of legs (> no. segments)
Although all myriapods are terrestrial, they are confined to damp and humid environments.
Chelicerate Classes
Merostomata Horseshoe crabsLimulus, Tachypleus, CarcinoscorpiusMarineBook gills
Pycnogonida Sea spidersMarineNo respiratory or excretory structures
Arachnida Spiders, scorpions, mites & ticksTerrestrialWaxy cuticleBook lungs
Paradoxopoda: Chelicerates and MyriapodsFriday, February 16, 20075:06 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 17
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Butterfly: Order LepidopteraPhoto by E Aurellado
Advantages of flight:Means of avoiding predation1.Facilitates food access2.Means of dispersal3.
Beetle: O. ColeopteraPhoto by E Aurellado
Pasted from
What contributed to the diversity of insects?Ability to invade terrestrial habitatsCo-evolution with angiospermsEvolution of flight (in pterygote insects)
Tracheal system of insects
3 tagmata of insectsPasted from
What adaptations enabled insects to minimize desiccation and thus, dominate land? Epicuticular wax1.Tracheal system with valves2.Elimination of uric acid (insoluble in water)3.Ability to reabsorb water in rectum4.
Hexapoda (insects)Friday, February 16, 20073:49 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 18
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Brachiolaria (Asteroid)
Ophiopluteus (Ophiuroid)
Doliolaria (Holothuroid & Crinoid)
Echinopluteus (Echinoid)Pasted from
DeuterostomesBlastopore forms anusCoelom formed by outpuching (enterocoelous)Radial cleavageEchinodermata (echinos = spiny, derma = skin)Water vascular system1.Calcitic endoskeleton of ossicles2.Mutable connective tissue3.Pentaradial symmetry (bilateral larvae)4.Decentralized nervous system (nerve ring)5.No blood or excretory system6.Marine7.
Water vascular systemPasted from
PedicellariaePasted from
Xyloplax n. sp. Biol.Bull. 208: 7780.(April2005)http://www.biolbull.org/cgi/reprint/208/2/77
Classes
Crinoidea Sea lilies & feather stars
Asteroidea Sea stars
Ophiuroidea Brittle stars & basket stars
Echinoidea Sea urchins & sand dollars
Holothuroidea Sea cucumbers
"Concentricycloidea" Sea daisies
Ophiuroidea: 5 arms sharply marked off; no anusPasted from
Ashley Spring
Asteroidea: typically 5 arms,Mouth w/ anus
Concentricycloidea : Xyloplax medusiformis, X. turnerae, and a new species from N. Pacific. They are named after their WVS of 2 concentric rings; could be highly modified sea stars.
Crinoidea: mainly sessile; ciliated ambulacral groove; mouth upwardPasted from
Pasted from
Pasted from
Echinoidea: globose; long spines & covered in test; aristotle's lantern
Holothuroidea:Elongates; few dermal ossicles; respiratory tree
Phylum EchinodermataThursday, December 28, 20067:46 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 19
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Saccoglossus kowalevskii (Enteropneusta)Pasted from
Nature 444, 85-88 (2 November 2006)Deuterostome phylogeny reveals monophyletic chordates and the new phylum Xenoturbellida
Pasted from
This article in Nature reports that the enigmatic Xenoturbella, a worm-like animal without a brain, gut or gonads discovered in 1949 belongs to a phylum of its own, not to Mollusca as previously thought. P Xenoturbellida may be closely related to Echinodermata and Hemichordata.
XenoturbellaPasted from
Comparison between tornaria and bipinnaria larvaePasted from
Cephalodiscus (Pterobranchia)Pasted from
Hemichordata ("half-string")Body divided into 3 parts: proboscis, collar and trunk1.Gill slits2.Stomochord 3.Dorsal tubular nerve cord4.
Hemichordate Classes
Enteropneusta Acorn worms
Pterobranchia Sessile & colonial wormsWith lophophore (hollow tentacles derived from extensions of the mesocoel)
What evidences support the close relationship between hemichordates and echinoderms?Similarity between the tornaria larva of hemichordates and the bipinnaria of asteroidea
Trimerous body plan of hemichordates and echinodermsLeft coelomic pouches become dominant as the right pouches are lost in both phyla
Molecular evidence
What is the fate of the 3 coelomic sacs in hemichordates and echinoderms?
Coelom Hemichordate Echinoderm
Protocoel Proboscis Axocoel
Mesocoel Collar & collar pore Hydrocoel (WVS & madreporite)
Metacoel Trunk Somatocoel
Phylum HemichordataSaturday, March 03, 20075:25 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 20
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4 main chordate charactersPasted from
Oikopleura (Larvacea)Pelagic, solitary; forms mucus "house" to trap foodPasted from
Salp (Thaliacea )Pelagic, solitary or colonial, barrel-shapedPasted from
Rhopalaea crassa (Ascidiacea)Benthic, solitary, colonial or compound; barrel-shapedPasted from
Megalodicopia hians (Sorberacea)Solitary, deep sea benthic, predatoryPasted from
Chordata (chorda = string)Notochord1.Dorsal hollow nerve cord2.Pharyngeal gill slits3.Post-anal tail4.Subpharyngeal endostyle or thyroid gland5.
Chordate Subphyla
Urochordata Tunicates Tunic (cellulose-like tunicin)Notochord at the tailBlood w/ high concentrations of vanadium
Marine filter feeders
Cephalochordata Lancelets All chordate characters persist in adult
Marine filter feeders
Vertebrata Vertebrates Cranium Vertebral columnSegmented muscles
Inversion HypothesisPasted from
Adult (left) and "tadpole" larva (right) of an ascidianPasted from
Branchiostoma (Amphioxus, subPhylum Cephalochordata)Pasted from
Phylum Chordata (chordates)Friday, January 05, 20078:23 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 21
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Which invertebrate chordate group is the closest relatives of the vertebrates?Many molecular studies strongly suggest the close affinity between cephalochordates and vertebrates. However, in early 2006, an article in Naturehas shown molecular evidence claiming tunicates may actually be the closest relatives to vertebrates. This debate is likely to continue in the near future.
Jawed
vertebrates
Tetrapo
ds
Am
nio
tes
Vertebrate phylogeny (modified from Brooks/Cole 2001)Pasted from
Evolution of jaws from anterior gill arches
Amniote eggPasted from
Vertebrate Classes
Myxini & Cephalaspidomorphi
Jawless fishesHagfishes and lampreys
Chondricthyes Sharks, rays, and chimaerasCartilaginous endoskeletonno operculum & swim bladder
Osteichthyes Bony fishesOperculum & swim bladder
Amphibia Frogs & salamandersAquatic tadpoleCutaneous respiration
Reptilia Turtles, lizards, snakes & crocodilians
Epidermal scales
Aves BirdsFeathers
Mammalia MammalsMilk-producing mammary glandsHair/fur
Chondrichthyes (photo: A. Spring)
Osteichthyes (Photo: E Aurellado)
AgnathaPasted from
Amphibia (photo : J Baril)
Reptilia (photo: A Spring)
Aves
MammaliaPhotos: E Aurellado
Subphylum VertebrataSaturday, March 03, 20076:26 PM
E Aurellado Zoology 3 Page 22