Zheng He and His Voyages (1405-1433)

Two views:

• Manzies: exploration

• Dreyer: “power projection”

Why Zheng He?Why Zheng He?

ZhengZheng He Exhibiti He Exhibition on

• As a general observer: •Resurgent interest in Zheng He, his voyages, and maritime trade

• China’s effort to rebuild its sphere of influence in SE Asia, Middle East, and Africa• China’s redefinition of its foreign policy in terms of peace

•As an Asian scholar: • The magnitude of the impact of China’s tributary system

• The myth of the great exploration symbolized by Zheng’s voyages

• The real purpose of Zheng He’s voyages: exploration or trade?

• Were they for “power projection” only?

• Why did these start and why did they end?

• Are the traditional educated elite to be blamed for the termination?

• How far did Zheng He’s fleets go? America?• What did Zheng He accomplish?• What was the larger meaning of his voyages?

China’s Greatest Explorer?

The 15th century

admiral,

Zheng He

Menzies ViewsMenzies Views

Zheng He’s voyages of exploration began in Zheng He’s voyages of exploration began in 1405 and culminated in early 14211405 and culminated in early 1421

As Yongle emperor’s favorite eunuch, As Yongle emperor’s favorite eunuch, Zheng He was ordered to take Ming’s huge Zheng He was ordered to take Ming’s huge armadas to the unknown world beyond armadas to the unknown world beyond ChinaChina

On the sixth voyage (1421-22), Zheng He’s On the sixth voyage (1421-22), Zheng He’s ships reached Antarctica, the Arctic, North ships reached Antarctica, the Arctic, North and South America, Pacific, Australiaand South America, Pacific, Australia

Yongle emperor Zhu Di (r. 1042-1424)

Facts: 1st-6th voyages took place during Yongle emperor’s reign:

Dreyer:

1st: 1045-07

2nd: 1047-09

3rd: 1049-11

4th: 1413-15

5th: 1417-19

6th: 1421-22Yongle emperor’s death in 1424, the Ming put a halt to the expedition and Zheng He was pensioned off

What Chinese Mariners DidWhat Chinese Mariners Did

Menzies claims that Chinese mariners:Menzies claims that Chinese mariners:– explored the islands of Cape Verde, the explored the islands of Cape Verde, the

Azores, the Bahamas, and the FalklandsAzores, the Bahamas, and the Falklands– established colonies in Australia, New established colonies in Australia, New

Zealand, British Columbia, California, Mexico, Zealand, British Columbia, California, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Rhode IslandPuerto Rico, and Rhode Island

– introduced horses to the Americas, rice to introduced horses to the Americas, rice to California, chickens to South America, coffee California, chickens to South America, coffee to Puerto Rico, South American sloths to to Puerto Rico, South American sloths to Australia, sea otters to New Zealand, and Australia, sea otters to New Zealand, and maize to the Philippines. maize to the Philippines.

– toured the temples and palaces of the toured the temples and palaces of the Maya center of Palenque in MexicoMaya center of Palenque in Mexico

– hunted walruses and smelted copper in hunted walruses and smelted copper in GreenlandGreenland

– mined for lead and saltpeter in northern mined for lead and saltpeter in northern AustraliaAustralia

– established trading posts for diamonds established trading posts for diamonds along the Amazon and its tributaries along the Amazon and its tributaries

Dreyer’s ViewDreyer’s View

According to official historical account:According to official historical account:– The treasure boats going to foreign The treasure boats going to foreign

countries…were to be temporarily suspendedcountries…were to be temporarily suspended– Reasons: Reasons:

another Mongolian campaign another Mongolian campaign

war with Vietanamwar with Vietanam

The reconstruction of BeijingThe reconstruction of Beijing

Duyvendak’s argumentDuyvendak’s argument– The sixth voyage still took place, although Zheng He The sixth voyage still took place, although Zheng He

did not personally visit all places he indicated in his did not personally visit all places he indicated in his accountaccount

– The main body reached Hormuz, the rest of the fleet The main body reached Hormuz, the rest of the fleet sailed by squadrons to locations further west, all of sailed by squadrons to locations further west, all of which had been visited on the previous voyagewhich had been visited on the previous voyage

– Zheng He returned home to Nanjing by September Zheng He returned home to Nanjing by September 1422, leaving his subordinates to sail on to thirty-six 1422, leaving his subordinates to sail on to thirty-six ports in Ceylon, India (both Bengal and the Malabar ports in Ceylon, India (both Bengal and the Malabar coast), the Persian Gulf, and East Africa. The last of coast), the Persian Gulf, and East Africa. The last of the squadrons returned to China on 8 October the squadrons returned to China on 8 October 1423,having completed their journey of some 11,000 1423,having completed their journey of some 11,000 miles in the expected time, about one year and three miles in the expected time, about one year and three months after departing Sumatra months after departing Sumatra

• one squadron, probably Zhou Man’s, went as far as to Aden

• When Zheng He returned to Beijing in 1424, Yongle emperor had died whild returning from his fifth Mongolian campaign.

• Duyvendak’s notion that Zheng He’s trip to Palembang never took place in 1424 is not convincing

From Calicut to Hormuz

Xuande emperor (r. 1425-1435)

7th: 1431-33, voyage resumed during Xuande emperor’s reign

• With Xuande’s death, Ming rulership turned into complete xenophobia

• All voyages of treasure fleets were halted• Overseas trade and travel were banned• Violators were tried as pirates and executed

• In every single aspect of ship building and equipment, Ming ships were centuries ahead of Europe:

• Size, construction, cargo capacity, damage control, armament, range, communications, navigation ability…

China's greatest adventurers

Facts:1st voyage: 27, 800 men2nd voyage: 27, 000 men4th voyage: 27, 670 men7th voyage: 27, 550 men

The fleet of each voyage consisted of several dozen “treasure ships” (bao chuan), each attended by half of a dozen smaller ships

Chinese maps showing the routes of Zheng He’s voyages starting from Long Jiang guan

From Fuhzou to Chamba

• Advanced ship-building technique in China enabled Chinese marine engineers to design strong ships that could survive the fiercest storms on the open ocean

• Knowledge and capacity of distilling and desalinating sea-water helped voyagers to avoid dehydration

• Under Zheng He, fleets were placed under the command of Grand Eunuch Hong Bao, Eunuch Zhou Man, and Admiral Zhou Wen

• Chinese fleets numbered nearly two hundred ships—the largest armada the world had ever known

The first voyageThe first voyage

11stst—(1405-1407)—(1405-1407)– The fleet consists of 255 ships, including 62 The fleet consists of 255 ships, including 62

“treasure ships”“treasure ships”– Route: Nanjing—Liujiagang—coast of Zhejiang Route: Nanjing—Liujiagang—coast of Zhejiang

and Fujian—Min River (Fuzhou)—Taiping and Fujian—Min River (Fuzhou)—Taiping Anchorage (Changle)—Wuhumen/Five Tiger Anchorage (Changle)—Wuhumen/Five Tiger Passage—Champa (Qui Nhon)—South China Passage—Champa (Qui Nhon)—South China Sea—Java—Palembang (Sumatra)—Malayan Sea—Java—Palembang (Sumatra)—Malayan Peninsula—Strait of Malacca (Aru, Semudera, Peninsula—Strait of Malacca (Aru, Semudera, Lambri)—Ceylon and Southern India—Indian Lambri)—Ceylon and Southern India—Indian Ocean—Quilon—Cochin?--CalicutOcean—Quilon—Cochin?--Calicut

The Second VoyageThe Second Voyage

2nd2nd

3rd3rd

The remaining four voyagesThe remaining four voyages

4th4th5th5th6th—6th—

Suspended: Construction of Beijing, war Suspended: Construction of Beijing, war with Vietnam and the Mongolswith Vietnam and the Mongols

7th7th

Ming Qinghua porcelain found in a Muslim tomb column in Kenya

Qinghua porcelain produced in the Xuande Period, the best of Ming porcelain

Qinghua porcelain, Xuande period

tributesgifts

Giraffes presented to Yongle emperor of the Ming in 1416 (or 1414) by the King of Malindi (in the present day Kenya). The Chinese regarded it as “Qilin”, a sacred and auspicious animal known as Chinese unicorn.

The Zheng He StudyThe Zheng He Study

1421: the Year China Discovered America is1421: the Year China Discovered America is a a rewriting of history in grand scalerewriting of history in grand scale– the author claims that four of Zheng He’s fleets traveled to the author claims that four of Zheng He’s fleets traveled to

all parts of the world but Europeall parts of the world but Europe– His evidence includes a wide array of books, artifacts, His evidence includes a wide array of books, artifacts,

maps…in Chinese, European, and Middle-eastern maps…in Chinese, European, and Middle-eastern languageslanguages

– He claims that he won’t be wrong in his findings because He claims that he won’t be wrong in his findings because he is capable of reading and interpreting extraordinary he is capable of reading and interpreting extraordinary maps and charts that professional historians can’tmaps and charts that professional historians can’t

– His personal experience in tracking the places the fleets His personal experience in tracking the places the fleets went can validate his theory and findings went can validate his theory and findings

Historians’ CritiquesHistorians’ Critiques

Robert Finlay:Robert Finlay:– the 1421-1423 voyages Menzies describes could not have the 1421-1423 voyages Menzies describes could not have

taken placetaken place– Conti played no role in transmitting knowledge of Chinese Conti played no role in transmitting knowledge of Chinese

exploration to European cartographersexploration to European cartographers– all Menzies's evidence for the presence of the Chinese all Menzies's evidence for the presence of the Chinese

fleets abroad is baselessfleets abroad is baseless– There were no “missing years” for the Ming fleetsThere were no “missing years” for the Ming fleets– It was odd that Zheng He's captains completed a voyage of It was odd that Zheng He's captains completed a voyage of

some17,000 miles in mainly unknown seas in seven some17,000 miles in mainly unknown seas in seven months, while Zheng He took the same amount of time to months, while Zheng He took the same amount of time to journey about 3,500 miles from Sumatra to Nanjing. journey about 3,500 miles from Sumatra to Nanjing.

• His undocumented estimate of 4.8 knots for the Indian Ocean voyages holds as well for the global cruises of the Ming fleets is simply impossible• Niccolo da Conti’s transmission of Chinese geographical knowledge to European cartographers has little plausibility• It is highly unlikely that the Chinese junks (or any ships at any time) carried specially carved stones for ballast.