Zanzibar and Tanganyika: The (Un)Making of a Union.
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Transcript of Zanzibar and Tanganyika: The (Un)Making of a Union.
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Zanzibar and Tanganyika:The (Un)Making of a Union
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Introduction: Thinking in Metaphor
• Horticulture metaphor –seeds of nationalism• Historical writing on Zimbabwe– Cecil Rhodes and the Chimurenga of 1896,
“seeds of nationalism”– Anti-colonial seeds – 1930s – “seeds put down roots” – economic
conditions– Post-WWII – growing discontent, “flowering”– “Second Chimurenga” of the 1970s v. Ian Smith– 1978, end of colonialism – “fruits of
independence”
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Introduction: Thinking in Metaphor
• Horticulture metaphor –seeds of nationalism• Misleading:– Believe nationalism sprung from resistance of
1890s– Zimbabwe – legitimating for Robert Mugabe –
power resides in people of 1890s– 1950s/1960s – school of historians – “roots of
nationalism”– Simplicity attractive – story much more complex– Complexity and post-independence Africa
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East Africa and Zanzibar• Zanzibar and colonial rule in E. African context• Germany – mainland of Tanganyika (until WWI)• British Protectorate (1890) – Zanzibar and 6 mile
coastal strip– British/German trade for islands in the Baltic Sea
• British colonial rule in Zanzibar– Economically viable – agricultural production and taxation– Politically – Busaidi Sultanate (like Kabaka, Uganda)– Bombardment of Stone Town (August, 1896), succession
crisis– Destruction of Beit al-Sahel and Beit al-Hukm– Shortest war in history, 38 minutes
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East Africa and Zanzibar• British colonial rule– “Divide and Rule”– Colonial Institutions – categories of race and
ethnicity codified– Executive Council – Arab and Asian representation– Legal codes and African customary law– Historic fluidity now reified
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East Africa and Zanzibar• British colonial rule– Economy and free market principles
• Arab Indebtedness to Asian lenders. Threat of insolvency and fear of agricultural collapse
• British agricultural subsidies failed. • Marketing Board – Clove Growers Association (CGA) in
1928 – controlled prices and export (1937)• Protection of Arab landlords at expense of Asians. Forbid
Asian land ownership of plantations• Boycotts in India on demand side• 1938 – “Heads of Agreement” – guaranteeing export to
Asians, but prices remained fixed• NOT a free market – interference of state in economy, put
another way, economy embedded in institutions
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Growth of Anti-colonial Politics
• World War II – Turning Point– Fighting in Southeast Asia– African conscriptions, self-determination and
British invincibility• East African Politics– Kenya – Violence and Mau Mau• Settler Society• Anti-colonial and Civil War
– Tanzania – Comparatively Peaceful
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Mainland Tanzania• Julius Kambarage Nyerere and TANU– Studied at Makerere University and University of
Edinburgh; devout Catholic– Founded Tanganyika African Association (TAA) in 1929
– civic organization for civil servants– 1954 – transforms into the politically oriented
Tanganyika African National Union (TANU)• Demand of national sovereignty• Registration, leading political organization• British ultimatum – school teacher or politician• Oratory skills – speech to United Nations• First elections 1958-59 – entered LegCo; 1960 chief minister• Tanzanian independence, Dec. 9, 1961 – Prime Minister
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Zanzibar• Trade Unions – 1948 – dockworkers protest British and
Arab domination– Influenced by strikes in Mombasa and Dar– Spreads in Stone Town – Government and domestic servants,
ex-slaves, migrants, indigenous Zanzibari population– 1958 – Spreads to rural areas – formation of Zanzibar
Nationalist Party (ZNP)• Planters, Arab minority, formed out of Arab Association of the
1920s
• 1957 Elections – Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP)
• Formed with African Association and Shirazi Association• Shirazi identity – challenge Arab hegemony• “The trees are yours, the land is ours”• Cooper – Class consciousness
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Zanzibar• Increasingly rigged elections (1959/1961) –
Increasingly acrimonious political party conflict– ZNP minority – disproportionate representation– 1961 election riot – Stone Town, spread to rural areas
68 dead, 381 injured– Assaults at polling stations, groups targeting Arabs,
settling of old scores• June 1963 vote – British introduce limited self-
government– ASP lost, despite winning 54% of the vote
(gerrymandering)– December 10, 1963 – Sultanate of Zanzibar
established
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Zanzibar Revolution
• John Okello – – Similar to Clement Khadalie in South Africa– Born in Uganda, orphaned– Peripatetic life – moved to Kenya, unskilled jobs – gardener,
house servant, office clerk, laborer– 1959 – travels to Pemba for work (cloves)– Joins ASP, begins amassing following– Message from God to unite the struggle and overthrow
oppressors in Zanzibar– Moves to Unguja – joins trade union – builds mass following– Not a major player in ASP, nor close to its head, Abeid Amani
Karume
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Zanzibar Revolution
• January 11th, 1964 - Revolution • ASP – Committee of Fourteen plans revolution• Karume tries to warn British police, not taken seriously• “Field Marshall” Okello leads some 600 supporters• Some 12,000 Arabs and Indians killed • Arabs and Indians flee, together with their capital• Zanzibar’s last Sultan, Jamshid ibn Abdullah, flees to
Britain in exile
• Creation of new Zanzibar Government• Okello lacked support• Karume made himself President of the People’s Republic of
Zanzibar and Pemba
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Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar
• Aftermath of Zanzibar Revolution– Nyerere fear of destabilization. Himself survived an
army mutiny– Act of Union – provide Nyerere power to intervene
unilaterally – Karume – economic devastation of Revolution; lack of
foreign aid for leftist organization – Union his only option
– April 26, 1964 – United Republic of Tanzania• Nyerere – President• Karume – one of two Vice Presidents• Okello – barred from returning from mainland to Zanzibar
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United Republic of Tanzania
• National Assembly– 343 seats, 50 for Zanzibar– Union matters – foreign affairs, taxation, education– Laws passed applicable to Zanzibar on Union matters –
increasing number of Union matters defined by fiat• Legal system
– Five-level judiciary– Combination of English common law, African customary law, and
Islamic law• Zanzibar House of Representatives
– 76 members – jurisdiction over all non-Union issues– “Semi-autonomous” government – unique– Islamic courts still govern many matters
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Arusha Declaration• February 1967 – Socialist economic program/African socialism.
One-party state, no ethnic organizations. Ally with China in Sino-Soviet rivalry/TANZAM railway.
• “Ujamaa” – “Familyhood”– Collectivization, or villagization, as country’s agricultural policy– 1970s – Forcible transfers into collective farms. By 1977, 80% of
population uprooted– Food denial to those who resisted– Abandonment of crops and structures– Food production plummeted – once one of largest producers now
one of largest recipients of food aid– Ujamaa villages – 90% population, 5% of production
• Nationalization– Banks, retail, import-export– Corruption and repression extreme – “Wabenzi”
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Zanzibar after Union
• Divisions, including pro-government Unguja and pro-opposition Pemba
• Karume– Economic ruin similar to mainland– Paranoid and dictatorial – mass deportations of Asians and
remaining Arabs– April 1972 – assassinated
• Creation of Chama Cha Mapinduzi – CCM (Revolutionary Party) – February 1977– Aboud Jumbe – successor to Karume– Merger of Zanzibar’s ASP with Mainland’s TANU
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End of African Socialism• 1980s – Tanzania in economic ruin– IMF and World Bank impose structural adjustment– Nyerere forced to step down; Ali Hassan Mwinyi
handpicked successor– Forced privatization of industries – Nyerere – left Tanzania one of poorest, least developed,
and most dependent on foreign aid– “Father of the Nation”– End of one-party system – first multiple party elections
in 1995 – Mkapa to power, followed by Kikwete– Zanzibar – Continued fraught politics and violence
• Police brutality, arbitrary arrests, “treason trial”• 2000 Elections – 26 demonstrators killed, brought Karume
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Conclusion• Hardening of ethnic and racial categories under British
colonial rule• Creation of institutions and structures, both political and
economic, to facilitate preferential access to state and wealth
• Tensions created and heightened in colonial period gifted to independent government
• African nationalism not a neat, heroic story• Nyerere and African socialism– Failure economically, but…– High literacy rates– African conceptions of modernity– Contemporary culture