Yugoslavia: A Concise History

Yugoslavia: A Concise HistoryLeslie Benson

© Leslie Benson 2001

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission ofthis publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied ortransmitted save with written permission or in accordance withthe provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copyingissued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham CourtRoad, London W1T 4LP.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to thispublication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civilclaims for damages.

The author has asserted his right to be identifiedas the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

First published 2001 byPALGRAVEHoundmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10010Companies and representatives throughout the world

PALGRAVE is the new global academic imprint of St. Martin’s Press LLC Scholarly and Reference Division andPalgrave Publishers Ltd (formerly Macmillan Press Ltd).

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling andmade from fully managed and sustained forest sources.

A catalogue record for this book is availablefrom the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataBenson, Leslie.

Yugoslavia: a concise history / Leslie Benson.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Yugoslavia—History. I. Title.

DR1246 .B464 2001949.7—dc21

2001133052

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 110 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01

ISBN 978-1-349-41927-2 ISBN 978-1-4039-1383-8 (eBook)

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2001 978-0-333-792 41-4

DOI 10.1057/9781403913838

For James and David, and in memory ofMarija (‘Mis’), Ivan and Bora Milojeviç,their grandparents and uncle

Contents

Acknowledgements viiiNotes on Serbo-Croatian language xMaps xiiGlossary xiiiChronology of Events xv

1. Prologue: The Road to Kumanovo 1

2. War and Unification 21

3. The Brief Life of Constitutional Government 38

4. Encirclement and Destruction of the First Yugoslavia 57

5. War, Civil War and Revolution 73

6. The Long March of Revisionism 94

7. Reform – and Reaction 111

8. The End of Titoism 132

9. Back to Kumanovo 155

Notes 181Bibliography 191Index 197

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to my friends and colleagues at University College,Northampton, who relieved me of teaching for a term so that I was ableto get this book properly started. John McDonald very kindly offered toread the final draft for me, and I am indebted to him for his comments.I am also glad to have this chance, however belated, of thanking StaneSaksida and Veljko Rus in Ljubljana, Dragoljub Kavran in Belgrade,Dimitar Mircev in Skopje and Mustafa Imamoviç in Sarajevo, for theirkindness and hospitality during my travels around (the former)Yugoslavia. My years there now seem to belong to another existencealtogether, but memories of (former) family and old friends still tug, andthe book’s dedication is intended to embrace them all. These personaldebts of gratitude are a cheering reminder of other Balkan realities.

I am extremely grateful to the Librarians at the School of Slavonic andEast European Studies, University of London, for permission to use theiroutstanding collection.

Maps are an important part of the book. Maps 1–7 are based on mapsin Jugoslavia, volume II, published by the Naval Intelligence Division,1944. These maps are out of copyright, but I should like to express myappreciation of the cartographic skills of Miss K.S.A. Froggatt, Miss M.Garside, Mrs Marion Plant and Mrs Gwen Raverat. They have beenredrawn by Peter Cory. The original titles of the maps have beenretained.

Map 8 is based on the map in F. Singleton, A Short History of theYugoslav Peoples, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985 (Fig. 4),reproduced by kind permission.

Maps 9, 10 and 11 are based on maps in John B. Allcock, MarkoMilivojeviç and John J. Horton (eds), Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia:An Encyclopedia, published by ABC-CLIO: Denver, CO; Santa Barbara,CA; Oxford, 1998 (map 1, p. xxii; map 3, p. xxv; map 9, p. xxxi),reproduced by kind permission.

Linda Nicol of Cambridge University Press was most helpful inresponse to my several enquiries, and gave permission to reproduce Map8. Dr Robert Neville of ABC-CLIO and Mrs J.M. Braithwaite of theUniversity of Bradford very generously allowed me to reproduce Maps9, 10 and 11.

viii

My IT skills were frequently not up to the demands of modernpublishing methods, but David Benson plugged the worst gaps, withpatience and aplomb. Many thanks to Luciana O’Flaherty at PalgravePublishers, and to Ray Addicott of Chase Publishing Services, for theirhelp in getting the book in shape for publication. My wife Anne Mariewas at the heart of everything.

Acknowledgements ix

Notes on Serbo-Croatian Language

Croatian and Serbian are nowadays the national languages of twosovereign states, but linguistically they are one, created by politicaldesign during the nineteenth century (see Chapter 1). The South Slavsspoke three major dialects of a common tongue: stokavian, cakavian andkajkavian, terms derived from the variant interrogative pronoun (sto?,ca? and kaj?) meaning ‘what’? The Vienna Agreement of 1850 betweenSerb and Croat scholars adopted the stokavian dialect as the foundationof a common Serbo-Croatian language with two separate but equalvarieties, which became the standard language of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia-Hercegovina and Montenegro. This speech community is bounded tothe north-west by Slovenia, where the kajkavian dialect forms the basisof the modern standard language, and to the south-east by Macedonia,where the national language of the Slav inhabitants is close kin tostandard Bulgarian. The cakavian dialect now survives only as anattenuated vernacular in the remoter island regions of Dalmatia.

Apart from the aesthetically and politically very sensitive question ofthe two different alphabets, the differences between the Serbian andCroatian varieties are linguistically quite minor. The main one is the wayin which they signal the varying quantity (long or short) of the letter e.Thus, for example, the ‘ekavian’ (eastern/Serbian) and ‘ijekavian’(western/Croatian) variants of the word ‘river’ are ‘reka’ and ‘rijeka’. The‘ekavian’ form is normally written in Cyrillic script, but can be translit-erated exactly using the modified Latin alphabet adopted in Croatianorthography.

Serbo-Croatian is completely regular in pronunciation, and there areno silent letters. Eight Serbo-Croatian consonants do not feature inEnglish, and four consonants appear identical but are pronounceddifferently. They are:

c ch in ‘church’ç t in ‘mixture’dz j in ‘jam’dj d in ‘duke’s sh in ‘shoe’z s in ‘treasure’

x

lj ll in ‘million’nj n in ‘new’c ts in ‘Tsar’h ch in Scots-English ‘loch’j y in ‘yet’r r in Scots-English ‘person’, always sounded

Of the remaining consonants it need only be pointed out that g is alwayshard (as in ‘gag’), and so is s (as in ‘sack’). The English letters w, x and yare absent. The vowels in Serbo-Croatian are sounded as follows:

a a in ‘father’e e in ‘pet’i i in ‘machine’o o in ‘hot’u u in ‘rule’

Notes on Serbo-Croatian Language xi

Maps

1. The growth of Serbia, 1817–1913 xix2. The military frontier of Austria and Hungary xx3. The Slovene lands xxi4. Yugoslavia in relation to Austria-Hungary xxii5. The territorial formation of Yugoslavia, 1913–19 xxiii6. The administrative boundaries of Yugoslavia, 1929–41 xxiv7. The dismemberment of Yugoslavia, 1941 xxv8. Yugoslavia 1945–91: boundaries of the republics and of

the autonomous provinces within Serbia xxvi9. The former Yugoslavia and its successor republics in their

regional context xxvii10. Distribution of peoples in the former Yugoslavia, 1991 xxviii11. Dayton Peace Agreement territorial dispensation,

inter-entity boundary line and I/SFOR operational zones, 1995–8 xxix

xii

Glossary

Ausgleich ‘Compromise’, of 1867 between Vienna and Budapest thatcreated the Dual Monarchy within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. AVNOJ (Antifasisticko Veçe Narodnog Oslobodjenja Jugoslavije) ‘Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia.Ban Vice-regal governor, especially associated with Croatia.Banovina Vice-regal province.Bosniak Self-appellation of the Bosnian Muslims.ceta A guerrilla band, hence cetnik.cetnik A member of the band – see also hajduk.Chetniks (Cetnici) Serbian nationalist fighters during World War II.hajduk Bandit and leader of resistance to Otttoman rule in Serbiaduring the nineteenth century.Muslim–Croat Federation A joint entity within Bosnia-Hercegovina,created by the Dayton Agreements (1995). The Serb entity is RepublikaSrpska.Nagodba ‘Agreement’ between the Hungarians and Croats in 1868 ona measure of autonomy for Croatia.NDH (Nezavisna Drzava Hrvatska) Independent State of Croatia,puppet regime under Ante Paveliç established by the Axis occupiers inApril 1941.Obznana ‘Proclamation’ outlawing the Communist Party in 1921.Old Serbia The name for Macedonia and Kosovo in the firstYugoslavia.Old Kingdom Serbia within the frontiers established in 1878.Partizans (Partizani) Communist-led resistance fighters during WorldWar II.precani Serbs Literally those Serbs living ‘on the other side’ of theRiver Drina from the Old Kingdom, under Austro-Hungarian andOttoman rule.Republika Srpska The Serb entity within the Republic of Bosnia-Hercegovina established by the Dayton Agreements – normally appearsin its Serbian form so as to avoid confusion with the Republic of Serbia. Ustashas (Ustase) ‘Insurgents’, fascist followers of Ante Paveliç in theIndependent State of Croatiavilayet Ottoman administrative district.

xiii

VMRO/IMRO Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization.zadruga Communal form of land ownership based on extendedfamilies.

xiv Yugoslavia: A Concise History

Chronology of Events

1 December 1918 Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenesproclaimed

28 June 1921 Constituent Assembly adopts VidovdanConstitution

20 June 1928 Shootings in the Assembly lead to the death ofRadiç

6 January 1929 King Aleksandar suspends VidovdanConstitution. Kingdom of Yugoslavia comesinto being on 3 October

November 1932 ‘Zagreb Theses’ signal strengthening oppositionto dictatorship

9 October 1934 King Aleksandar assassinated in Marseille.Prince Pavle becomes Regent

May–June 1935 Elections fail to give the government party aconvincing mandate. Stojadinoviç appointedpremier

August 1937 Josip Broz Tito becomes General Secretary of theCommunist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY)

October 1937 Bloc of National Agreement forms a unitedopposition

March 1938 Austria incorporated into the Third ReichSeptember 1938 Munich agreement between Chamberlain and

HitlerDecember 1938 Stojadinoviç’s poor showing in elections leads

to his resignation15 March 1939 Germany invades Czechoslovakia3 September 1939 Britain and France declare war on GermanyOctober 1940 Italy invades Albania6 April 1941 Luftwaffe bombs Belgrade. Yugoslavia

surrenders 17 April10 April 1941 Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Drzava

Hrvatska – NDH) founded8 September 1943 Italy surrenders

xv

29 November 1943 The Anti-fascist Council for the Peoples’Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) proclaimsitself a future government of Yugoslavia

31 January 1946 Constitution establishing the FederativePeoples’ Republic of Yugoslavia (FNRJ)

28 April 1947 Five Year Plan adopted28 June 1948 Fifth Congress of the CPY learns of Yugoslavia’s

expulsion from CominformNovember 1952 Sixth Congress renames the Party as the League

of Communists of Yugoslavia (LCY), andannounces a programme of reform

January 1953 New Constitution. Djilas expelled from PartyOctober 1956 Hungarian revolution crushed by Red ArmyApril 1958 LCY Seventh CongressApril 1963 New Constitution. The state is renamed the

Socialist Federal Republic of YugoslaviaDecember 1964 LCY Eighth Congress endorses market reformsAugust 1965 Market reforms implementedJuly 1966 Brioni Plenum dismisses RankoviçMarch 1969 LCY Ninth Congress1 December 1971 Purges of republican leaderships begin, and

extend to all levels of the political bureaucracyJanuary 1974 New Constitution confirms the powers of the

republics won during the reform yearsMay 1974 LCY Tenth CongressJune 1978 LCY Eleventh CongressMay 1980 Death of Tito. Collective Presidency installedMarch 1981 Riots break out in KosovoJune 1982 LCY Twelfth CongressAugust 1983 Death of RankoviçApril–May 1986 Kucan and Miloseviç elected to lead their

republican League of Communist organizationsJuly 1986 LCY Thirteenth CongressOctober 1986 Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of

Sciences and Arts is leaked to a Belgrade eveningnewspaper, attacking the ‘genocide’ of the Serbsin Kosovo

Autumn 1987 Yugoslavia rocked by ‘Agrokomerc’ fraudSeptember 1987 Miloseviç ousts ‘liberal’ opposition within the

Serbian party organization

xvi Yugoslavia: A Concise History

Spring 1988 Tensions between the Yugoslav People’s Armyand the Slovenes erupt in protests with thearrest of the ‘Ljubljana Four’

October 1988 Autonomous federal status of Vojvodinaabolished by a new Serbian republican constitu-tion

March 1989 Autonomous federal status of Kosovosurrendered by the provincial assembly inPristina, amid a strong show of armed force.Serious riots, shootings and thousands of arrests

28 June 1989 Miloseviç addresses a million Serbs at the 600thanniversary of Kosovo Field, and warns of‘armed struggles’ to come

December 1989 Hyperinflation hits the Yugoslav economyJanuary 22 1990 LCY Fourteenth Congress abandoned after the

Slovenian delegates walk outFebruary 1990 Serbian Democratic Party founded, representing

the Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia-HercegovinaApril 1990 Multi-party elections in Croatia and SloveniaJuly 1990 Miloseviç announces that the Serbian League of

Communists will from now on be known as theSocialist Party of Serbia

November–December 1990 Multi-party elections in Bosnia, Montenegro

and Serbia9 March 1991 Huge anti-government demonstrations in

Belgrade25 June 1991 Army moves into Slovenia to restore federal

authority but is forced to withdraw after onlyten days

8 October 1991 Slovenia and Croatia declare independence.War in Croatia

December 1991–April 1992 Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia-Hercegovina are

all recognized as independent states by the EUand the United States

27 April 1992 Communist Yugoslavia ceases to exist. FederalRepublic of Yugoslavia proclaimed, comprisingSerbia and Montenegro

April 1992 Full-scale war breaks out in Bosnia-Hercegovina.Sarajevo comes under years of siege

Chronology of Events xvii

2 January 1993 Vance–Owen Peace Plan, rejected by BosnianSerbs

November 1993 Mostar falls to Croatian forcesApril 1994 Contact Group formed, superseding

Vance–OwenSummer 1995 Combined Croat–Bosniak offensives roll Serbs

backJuly 1995 Massacre of Bosnian Muslims at Srebrenica14 December 1995 Dayton Agreements end war in Bosnia-

HercegovinaApril–May 1996 Mass demonstrations against government in

Serbia3 November 1996 Opposition coalition ‘Zajedno’ contests

elections. Milosevic refuses to concede losses,triggering mass protests which last for months

Spring 1997 Increasing activity by the Kosovo LiberationArmy

March 1998 Seselj joins government. Serbian reprisals inKosovo escalate the conflict

February 1999 West brings Serbs and Kosovars to Rambouillet,to engineer a peace agreement. Negotiationsbreak down

24 March 1999 NATO launches airstrikes against targets inKosovo and Serbia, in a campaign of 78 days ofcontinuous bombing

10 June 1999 Serbia begins withdrawing its forces fromKosovo

xviii Yugoslavia: A Concise History

H U N G A R Y

R O M A N I A

G R E E C E

B U L G A R I A

B O S N I A

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Map 9 The former Yugoslavia and its successor republics in their regional context

xxvii

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xxix