Young Scientists Journal (Jan-Jun) 2013

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Have you enjoyed reading Young Scientists Journal?

Read on for some ideas about how to get involved!

www.ysjournal.com

First of all, who are these Young Scientists?

They areYOU!

All our articles are written by and, perhaps even more unusually, EDITED - by young people aged 12-20.

The journal was founded in 2006 by a group of students at The Kings School, Canterbury but now we

have authors and editors from high schools all over the world, communicating across the globe by email,

Skype,Facebook, etc. The team is managed by the Chief Editor, a student usually in her/his last year at

high school.

It is the only peer review science journal for this age group, the perfect journal for aspiring scientists likeyou to publish research.

What if Id like to write something for the journal?

Perhaps youve done a science project, coursework, holiday placement, competition or presentation in

science which made you proud?

It is easy to submit your contribution by uploading it online at www.ysjournal.com and we can accept

submissions in a variety of different forms, including pictures, videos and presentations.

We are also keen to receive shorter, review articles, and also other material such as news items,

competitions, videos or cartoons for the website.

Can I help to run Young Scientists?

Yes! We love to hear from students aged 12-20 who would like to join our team, editing articles,

managing the website, graphic designing, helping with publicity.

You gain unique experience of working on an open-access, peer-reviewed, ISSN-referenced journal

while still at school, learning editing and journalism skills which will impress any university.

Send an email to our Chief Editor, Fiona Jenkinson: [email protected]

or find out more by visiting the Young Scientists Facebook page.

And if you are a scientist, science communicator or teacher and would like to know more about how to

support the work of the journal, please contact Christina Astin, at [email protected]


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Young Scientists Journal

This magazine web-based Young Scientists Journal is online journal open access journal (www.ysjournal.com). It has been

in existence since June 06 and contains articles written by young scientists for young scientists. It is where young scientists

get their research and review articles published.

Published by

MEDKNOW PUBLICATIONS AND MEDIA PVT. LTD.

B5-12, Kanara Business Center, Off Link Road,

Ghatkopar (E), Mumbai - 400075, INDIA.

Phone: 91-22-6649 1818

Web: www.medknow.com

Editorial Board

Chief Editor:Fiona Jenkinson, UK

Editorial Team Members Arian Atae, UK

Team Leader:Chloe Forsyth, UK Matt Harrison, UK

Louis Wilson, UK Kiran Thapa, UK

Louis Sharrock, UK Hannah Morrison, UK

David Hewett, UK Anne de Vitry, France

Mei Yin Wong, Singapore Muna Oli, USA

Ben Lawrence, UK Clarissa Ching, Malaysia

Tim Wood, UK Chloe Atkinson, UK

Robert Aylward, UK George Topaloglou, UK

Savannah Lord, UK Sam Slattery, UK

Emily Thompsett, UK Toju Iluyomade, UK

Natalie Cooper-Rayner, UK Aimee Serisier, UK

Rachel Wyles, UK James Rand, UK

Emma Copland, UK Diego Paz, Peru

Fiona Paterson, UK Technical TeamAlex Lancaster, UK Team Leader:Jea Seong Yoon, UK

Gilbert Chng, Singapore Mark Orders, UK

Arthur Harris, UK

Young Advisory Board

Steven Chambers, UK Malcolm Morgan, UK

Tobias Nrbo, Denmark Arjen Dijksman, France

Lorna Quandt, USA Joanna Buckley, UK

Jonathan Rogers, UK Lara Compston-Garnett, UK

Otana Jakpor, USA Pamela Barraza Flores, Mexico

Muna Oli, USA

International Advisory Board

Team Leader:Christina Astin, UK

Ghazwan Butrous, UK Sam Morris, UK

Sir Harry Kroto, UK Anna Grigoryan, USA/Armenia

Baroness Susan Greenfield, UK Don Eliseo Lucero-Prisno III, UK

Thijs Kouwenhoven, China Lee Riley, USA

Paul Soderberg, USA Vince Bennett, USA

Corky Valenti, USA Tony Grady, USA

Mike Bennett, USA Charlie Barclay, UK

Ian Yorston, UK Andreia Alvarez Soares, UK

Joanne Manaster, USA Armen Soghoyan, Armenia

Alom Shaha, UK Linda Crouch, UK

Mark Orders, UK John Boswell, USA

Anthony Hardwicke, UK Debbie Nsefik, UK

Prof. Clive Coen, UK

Volume 6 | Issue 13 | Jan - Jun 2013


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Volume 6 | Issue 13 | Jan - Jun 2013Young Scientists JournalContents...All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, or

transmitted, in any form or by any

means, electronic or mechanical,

including photocopy, recording, orany information storage and retrieval

system, without permission in writing

from the editor.

The Young Scientists Journal and/

or its publisher cannot be held

responsible for errors or for any

consequences arising from the use

of the information contained in this

journal.

The appearance of advertising or

product information in the various

sections in the journal does not

constitute an endorsement or

approval by the journal and/or its

publisher of the quality or value of

the said product or of claims made

for it by its manufacturer.

The Journal is printed on acid free

paper.

Web sites:

www.ysjournal.com

E-mail:[email protected]

Published by

MEDKNOW PUBLICATIONS &

MEDIA PVT. LTD.

B5-12, Kanara Business Center,

Off Link Rd, Ghatkopar (E),

Mumbai - 400075, INDIA.

Phone: 91-22-6649 1818

Web: www.medknow.com

Editorial

Fiona Jenkinson .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1

Interview

Interview with Cleodie Swire

Fiona Jenkinson .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3

Review Articles

Stem cells: The future of medicine?

Max Crean, Shiv Mahboobani .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5

Senescence, cancer, and immortality

Alex Joseph .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 9

Lift generation: Some misconceptions and truths about Lift

Federico Bastianello .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .12

Discussion

IBM Watson: Revolutionizing healthcare?Kunal Wagle .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .17

Original Research

Articial photosynthesis

Takamasa Suzuki .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .20

Research on light pollution by using a sky quality meter

Sobue Hideaki .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .23

Binchotan:The future battery

Haruno Murakami, Kentaro Asai, Tatsuhiko Watanabe, Naoko Oyobe,

Mio Oe, Yuya Hiramatu .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .25

Seven kinds of light by chemical reaction chemiluminescence by oxalate ester

Yumi Sato, Yuri Tokushige, Atsuki Nishikawa, Kazuya Sato, Mineki Yamamoto. .. .. .27

Why does the Blue Grotto appear blue?Yuki Hara, Yuki Matsuoka, Ken Ohashi, Shuji Yamada .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .29

The mystery of why the sh tank is always clean

Megumi Muramatsu, Tomoya Shigyo, Karin Watanabe .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .31

The habits of Mosquitoes

Nana Asakura, Oishi Kenta, Suzuki Aki, Kato Asuka, Taniguchi Keina .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .33

The effect of omotehama environment on incubation of Loggerhead sea turtles

Ryuto Kimura, Tomohiko Sato, Yumi Sato, Natsuki Sugiura, Erika Kodama,

Mami Sibata, Haruka Ogura, Shota Inoue.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .35

A study of aphid behavior resulting in: A method of aphid repellence, the

discovery of a strange descent of aphid, and variations in nourishment in

development in kinds of aphid larvae

Satoyo Ohya, Mako Kawai, Kimiko Oota. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .37

Water repellance of leaves

Miyako Ishio, Tamami Katsu, Nanaka Horii .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .41

Can we nd out the natural abundance of biodiversity of the dandelion?

Masatoshi Suzuki, Shunsuke Fujita, Takahiro Hanebuchi, Masataka Sugiyama,

Daiki Yamauchi . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .44

Crystal self-organization

Arisa Okumara.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .46

Using ultrasound technology and computational analysis to develop an

automated champagne pourer

Rajiv Dua . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .54


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Young Scientists Journal | 2013 | Issue 13 1

Editorial

The Young Scientists Journalis proud to present issue 13 - a special issue on the St. Pauls Anglo-JapaneseScience Conference, 2012. This issue includes an unusually high proportion of original research articleswhich is refreshing as well as a selection of review and discussion articles. On the 9 thMarch, 2012, a team

from Young Scientists Journal, including myself, Cleodie Swire (Former Chief Editor), Ben Lawrence (Editor),and Christina Astin (co-founder of YSJ), set out to attend the first Anglo-Japanese International ScienceConference for Students at St. Pauls boys School, London.

The conference opened with welcoming speeches by Dr. Ken Zetie (Head of Science, St Paul's School, London),Mr Hayashi Takaki (Principal of Jishukan High School, Aichi Prefecture) and Mr Tsuchiya Daisuke (DeputyDirector of Japan Information and Cultural Affairs at the Embassy of Japan). These made those in attendancerealize what a brilliant opportunity this was to meet others our age with an interest in Science. The rest of theday consisted of a series of PowerPoint presentations given by both English and Japanese students and, in asimilar manner, poster presentations for smaller research projects. I think everyone was highly impressed bythe high standard and variety of topics presented that day. This included the majority of those from Japan forwhom English was a foreign language. It was inspiring to see such effort dedicated to communicating ideas,research, and observations. We invited those who gave presentations to adapt them to article format for thisSpecial Issue in the hope of sharing this experience with more Young Scientists.

With this years Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine being awarded in this area, Max Crean and ShivMahboobani begin by exploring stem cells and how cells increase in diversity of function from zygote to adult.Conveniently complementary, Alex Joseph explains the causes of aging and potential cures for cancer withan article on telomeres. Moving from medical research to a potential to revolutionize health-care: The usesof IBM Watson, a super-computer, has been discussed by Kunal Wangle. For a different use altogether, RajivDua tries to use technology to solve the problem of glass overflow when Champagne is poured.

Modern technologies from super-computers to nanobots require energy to function. A study on Biochotanbattery is published in this issue which explores ways of increasing efficiency and material usage. Anothergroup turns to the use of natural resources by researching the use of the commonly problematic green algae

as a biofuel. Although they show that it helps keep aquatic waters clean, if conditions are right, an algal bloomcan form killing most life in its habitat through eutrophication.

Photosynthesis is common to green algae and plants. Growing in swampy areas, mud can block thesunlight from lotus leaves but, as shown in our water repellence article, these plants have some adaptationsto prevent this problem. On the molecular level, the chemical pathways behind photosynthesis are studiedusing an alternative, simple chemical model by Takamasa Suzuki. Chlorophyll itself has the property ofChemiluminesence and emits energy in the form of red light if too much is present to be efficiently used. Thelight emitted by this and other fluorescers is studied in Seven Kinds of Light by Chemical Reaction. The waythat light behaves in water may hold the answer to the research into why does the Blue Groto appear blue?But as marvellous as light is, it is also polluting our skies and affects the habits of light-sensitive species.Sobue Hideaki calibrates the Sky Quality Meter to measure light pollution levels around Japan.

There are also a few bioconservation articles: The effect of temperature on Loggerhead turtle eggs and howthe biodiversity of the Dandelion is influenced by its environment. Some species and populations we striveto conserve, others, however, we struggle to control. Studying the habits of mosquitoes is the way one grouphopes to learn more about reducing their numbers. An observation of the color variety in green peach aphidsby Satoyo Oya, Aya Oonishi, Mako Kawai, and Kimiko Oota has led to the discovery of a method by whichan aphid colony escapes absolute death when their host plant dies.

Some misinterpretations about the force that causes birds and planes to fly, lift, seem to be common, soFrederico Bastellano distinguishes the science from the myth. Shapes are important for aerodynamics and


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2 Young Scientists Journal | 2013 | Issue 13

having found mathematical patterns in nature, Arisa Okumara tests the properties of self-organizing crystalssuch as snowflakes and metal leaves in several imaginative experiments.

Finally, we also are including an interview with our former Chief Editor, Cleodie Swire. Cleodie made so manycontributions to this journal throughout her time working on it. With the journal being entirely student-run, Ithink it is only right to include this as an example of what it can mean to help run the journal.

A great thank you to all in the Editorial and Technical Teams who made this issue possible. As well as a SpecialMention to Chloe Forsyth, who is doing well in her new role as Editorial Team Leader and thanks is in orderto Samuel Slattery, an Editor who helped coordinate international communications with us.

Fiona JenkinsonThe Kings School Canterbury, UK.E-mail: [email protected]

DOI:10.4103/0974-6102.107608


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Interview

Interview with Cleodie Swire

ABSTRACT

What would you say is your biggest personal

contribution to Young Scientists Journal (YSJ)?

When I first started, we did not have very many editorsand there wasnt an Editorial Team Leader as such. So Ithink that there has been a revamp of the way the editingworks since Ive been working on the journal as I was theEditorial Team Leader at that time. Now we have moremore editors and there is a lot more communicationbetween the Leadership Team and the editors, whereas,earlier the editors would upload the articles backthemselves, we now do it through the Editorial TeamLeader so this keeps a check on the quality and the timescale and making sure people arent slacking.

Describe your role as chief editor for young

scientists journal

Its probably easier if I describe it in comparison withthe Editorial Team Leader. Head of Editorial Team

deals with the beginning of the Editorial system: Thearticles when they come in and sending them out tothe editors. The Chief Editor is the one who ties up allthe ends not just with articles but with everything else,checking everything has been properly done. I amcurrently the one who gives the articles a final checkbefore they are sent to the publishers and then checkthe proofs when that comes back from the publishers tying up the ends, just chasing people up.

Do you think you have gained anything from it?One of the most important things that Ive learnt is howto deal with people when you need to get somethingfrom them. For example, when we need to get photosetc., from authors, the way you need to show themhow it could benefit them, in fact, to help you bymaking them aware of the benefits of publishing their

own article. The best way to approach it is to makeit clear that its serious but still being polite becauseyou dont want to be the one bossing them around.

What would you say is the hardest thing about

being chief editor?Probably the fact that whenever there is loads of work,it happens to coincide with lots of work at school-the whole thing of balancing time. Another thing Ivelearnt is how to manage while working on the journal;probably thats one of the hardest things.

Could you estimate how much time you spendworking on young scientists journal?Before there was the Editorial Team Leader and theChief Editor, and the Chief Editor wasnt local so itwas very difficult to work with her. I was doing mostof the roles of the leadersa lot of time! Whereasnow, probably in a normal week, Id spend an hourand a half that we do on a Thursday and probably anhour in addition to that, and then when it is getting

Former Chief Editor, Cleodie Swire, shares with us some of her experiences while workingon Young Scientists Journal. Cleodie is now studying Medicine at Clare College, Cambridge.We wish her all the best for her future.

Fiona Jenkinson

The Kings School Canterbury, UK. E-mail: [email protected]


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towards the publication time, Id probably spendtwo hours each day on YSJ.

What advice would you give then to help

organize your time for ysj as you evidently are

very busy at times?

Well, for me, instead of taking breaks, I kind ofhave different types of work. For example, Maths isquite different than doing a more comprehension-type Chemistry homework and I compartmentalize itlike that. So I do a bit of homework, then a bit of YSJ,then when Im fed up of YSJ, I go back to homework.I find that each type of work uses your brain and yourenergy in a different type of way!

You just got gold standard in duke of edinburgh

award; do you think your work on young

scientists journal helped contribute to that?

It definitely has because I used it as a service. It wasntreally something we used to do when I first joined thejournal. We do a lot more outreach nowactually goingto schools and finding the editors other than waitingfor willing people to come to us because it seems thatwhen people can ask questions face to face, they seema lot more willing to become editors. A lot of thesepeople did actually know about the journal before andwere aware that we were recruiting editors but it seemsthat actually being there persuaded them that it was agood idea. So thats what I used as my service part ofmy Duke of Edinburgh award.

Would you assign any particular qualities

to the sort of people who may benefit from

getting involved in the journal?For someone who is heavily involved, someone whois naturally organized would be at an advantagethats not to say its something you necessarilyhave: If youre not organized, you must be awareof that and be willing to compromise by makinglists, etc. Also, you must want to do it (for whateverreason) because it does involve commitment andtime when you would rather be doing somethingelse. Furthermore, youre working as a team and

in some ways, if youre the one slacking; youreletting the whole team down.

Do you think young scientists journal ispotentially something that would look verygood on a UCAS form or CV?

Yes I put it on my University application form.I wasnt actually asked about it in the interview but Ithink it is a very impressive thing to do and there are

some people who have gone to the University andtold people there that they work on it and they haveactually recognized the name. So I think that moreand more it is something that Universities do knowabout, and even if they dont, it is impressive to haveexperience in the areas that you handle during yourtime working on YSJ, and if you can explain it, it showsthat you are actually very involved.

In retrospect or if you had more time workingon the journal, is there anything more youwould want to do?Definitelybecause I was organizing the editing system,I do feel that I, as a Chief Editor, was over my ears in thisand havent contributed so much to the other aspectsof the journal. Obviously the articles are the mainfeature, so that is what I focused on at that time butthere are other things that I think could have exploitedmore such as the media like videos and blogs. Thereare local schools that do interesting projects and wedefinitely could have pushed to have some good blogson there. Also, commissioning of artwork, which issomething I have attempted every now and then, thatdefinitely could have more of a push I think.

How do you think you will contribute to ysj whenyou go on to become a young iab member?Initially, I will definitely liaise with the people who havetaken up the leadership roles following me because Ihave been working on the journal for quite a long timeand there are things that Ive been naturally doing andperhaps have never told anyone but are necessary to do,and if little things start to fall through, Im definitely willingto help and show people what it is that Ive been doing.

Have you learnt a lot from the articles we publish?Its always interesting learning about what others of ourage find interesting in Science. The majority of the best

original research articles we receive are from abroad;they quite often have the most original ideas.

About the Author

Fiona Jenkinson, Current Chief Editor, is 17-years-old and goes to The Kings School Canterbury where she is currentlystudying for her A Levels. She is studying Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Further Maths and has already taken as French.In her free time she enjoys art, music, photography, and reading. She wants to study Natural Sciences at the University.


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Review Article

Stem cells: The future

of medicine?

ABSTRACT

Stem cells are different from all the other cells inour body. Specialized cells, for example red bloodcells, are known as differentiated cells - they havea particular function. Stem cells, however, areundifferentiated and thus do not have a particularrole in the body. They have three general properties: They are able to divide (proliferate)/renew

themselves for long periods. They are unspecialized. They give rise to specialized cells.

Stem cells start development when a sperm and anegg meet. This produces a special stem cell that

has the potential to grow into a human being and aplacenta that will feed the embryo as it grows.

When the cell starts to divide each cell is stillundifferentiated. However, after a certain point ofdevelopment a series of signals limit each cellspotential. This is when differentiation has begun[Figure 1]. One week after fertilization, the embryois known as the blastocyst. The cells on the outside

of the wall will form the placenta, and the cells on

the inside (the inner mass) will form all the cells inthe body.[1]

Two weeks after fertilization, the cells of the embryoorganize into three layers. Cell signals restrict thepotential of these cells even further; each layer willproduce a different set of cell types. After a few weekseach layer forms the following: Ectoderm (outer layer) becomes the skin, nervous

system, and parts of the face and neck The mesoderm (middle layer) becomes muscle,

blood, blood vessels, bones, and connective

tissue. The endoderm (inner layer) becomes the

digestive and respiratory tracts and the glandsthat feed them - including the pancreas and liver.

After being born, we still maintain areas of stem cells;these somatic stem cells play a very important role ingrowth, maintenance, and repair. Figure 2 indicates theareas where these stem cells are found in the body.

Stem cells are one of the brightest hopes for the future of modern medicine. It is thoughtthat it is possible to use them to cure a vast array of illnesses and disorders, rangingfrom diabetes, to Parkinsons disease and even to help the sufferers of trauma, such asthose with spinal damage. Stem cells are unspecialized cells which have the potential tospecialize into many different types of cell. The number of different cells into which they canspecialize depends on their potency, with embryonic stem cells having the most potential(totipotent). These embryonic stem cells are first formed when a sperm cell fertilizes anegg cell. From this single cell all the cells in your body are descended.

Max Crean, Shiv Mahboobani

St Pauls School. E-mail: [email protected]

DOI:10.4103/0974-6102.107610


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Adult stem cells mostly remain dormant, waiting fora signal to tell them to divide. But some stem cellsare constantly replacing the cells that are lost everyday. The somatic (adult) stem cells are different fromembryonic stem cells as under normal conditions theycan only produce a few cell types. For example, the

bone marrow produces blood cells, like red bloodcells. Bone marrow has many somatic stem cellsnext to many differentiated cells.

Multipotent, Pluripotent, Totipotent

and Unipotent Stem Cells

Pluripotent cells have the ability to make all thedifferent cell types in the body; however, they cannotmake extra embryonic tissues like the placenta.Multipotent cells have the ability to develop into morethan one cell type in the body. Totipotent cells have

the ability to develop into all the cell types in the bodyincluding those embryonic tissues like the placenta.Unipotent cells have the ability to differentiate intoonly one cell type, for example: hepatocytes in theliver.[2]

The Concerns and Controversy

Surrounding the Use of Stem Cells

The main controversy surrounding stem cells arethat one must use an embryo to obtain stem cells.[3]

Clearly, there are many moral implications associatedwith using egg cells. Some believe that potential life iseffectively being killed to help save someone elses.There are other methods like iPSC, which are still inthe early developing stages.[4]

In 2006, Shinya Yamanaka, in Japan, discoveredinduced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs); these cellswere created from ordinary skin cells. By usingembryonic stem cells, he localized the particulargenes that had to be switch on to make stem cells.Each cell in our body has the same 20,000 genes

but a heart cell is different from a liver cell due towhich genes are switched on and switched off. Thisis known as cell programming.

Yamanaka reduced these several million possibilitiesto just four genes after three years of research. He didthis by testing each genes ability to make pluripotentstem cells. This achievement allowed him to turn adultcells, like skin cells, into stem cells. However, thereare still some problems with this method: The virus used to transfer the four genes into a skin

cell can mutate the whole DNA and cause cancer. One of the four genes is a gene that is known to

cause cancer. A high percentage of the mice used to test this

gene did develop cancer.

However, research has been done to remove thiscancer-causing gene immediately after it hadserved its beneficial purpose of creating pluripotentstem cells. This method has been tested and curedmice with sickle cell anemia. There is still a lot ofcontroversy surrounding this method and, therefore,the preferred method is to use embryonic stem cells.

The Use of Stem Cells

Further research into stem cells has the potential toopen up a wide range of exciting new possibilities,

Figure 2: Where are stem cells found in the body? [Available from:

hp://www.learn.genecs.utah.edu/content/tech/stemcells/scintro/]

Figure 1: The development of an embryo [Available from: hp://www.

learn.genecs.utah.edu/content/tech/stemcells]


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both within the medical world and in other areas.[5]Their unique properties allow them to be used ina variety of different ways to cure a wide range ofillnesses, ranging from diabetes to leukemia.[6]

Diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes is caused by the immune systemmistakenly attacking the insulin producing betacells in the pancreas. Insulin is the hormone that isinvolved in the regulation of glucose levels within theblood. It works by binding to an insulin receptor on acell (mainly in adipose tissue and striated muscle),which causes a cascade of reactions that causesmore GLUT4 (Glucose Transporter Type 4) proteinsto move to the plasma membrane. This, in turn,allows for a greater rate of transport of glucose intothe cell, thus taking glucose out of the blood. It canalso lead to the synthesis of glycogen from glucosemolecules to act as a form of energy storage. When

the beta cells are attacked, this leads to depletion ofinsulin, which prevents glucoregulation from takingplace. This can lead to glucose levels in the bloodrising to dangerous, and possibly fatal, levels. Currenttreatment for diabetes involves consistent injectionsof insulin and the regulation of diet to maintain ahealthy level of glucose in the blood. Another form oftreatment would be a pancreas transplant to give thepatient new beta cells. However, there is currently ashortage of pancreases available for transplant, andthere are also other issues involved with transplantssuch as the need for antirejection drugs.

Research into stem cells could yield the exciting newpossibility of being able to grow a new pancreas fromembryonic stem cells. This would solve the issueof lack of organ donors, since the organs could begrown to meet the demand. Another potential wouldbe to use induced pluripotent stem cells. This involvesreprogramming the patients own somatic cells intobecoming pluripotent stem cells, which can thenbe used to grow a new organ. This would solve theproblem of organ rejection since the pancreas wouldhave been grown from the patients own cells and sowould not be viewed by the immune system as being

foreign. This would mean that immune-suppressantdrugs would no longer be necessary and so therewould no longer be the problem of increasedsusceptibility to infection that is the inevitable resultof a suppressed immune system. Much research hasbeen carried out in this area, however, these types ofpancreas that are implanted into mice are shown toproduce less insulin than pancreases that have beentransplanted normally, from a donor. There is also

the issue of the original problem, that of the immunesystem mistakenly attacking the beta cells, can stilloccur. Perhaps this defeats the purpose of using amethod that attempts to avoid organ rejection.

Trachea transplant

The principle of growing organs from stem cells canbe extended to many different organs other than thepancreas. One highly successful operation is that ofthe trachea transplant. An artificial structure of thewindpipe of the patient can be made, or a donortrachea can be stripped of the cells, leaving only thecartilaginous structure behind. This structure canthen be coated with the patients own stem cells,which grow on the structure to form a fully functioningtransplant. The advantage of using an artificialstructure is that it requires no donor at all, and thereplacement trachea can be made within days.

LeukemiaStem cells are already used in the treatment ofleukemia. It involves the transplant of hematopoieticcells from the bone marrow into the patients that cango on to produce new white blood cells.

The nervous systemStem cells can be used to regenerate nerve tissuedamaged by trauma. A person with a broken backmay be able to be treated so that they can walk again.This would be achieved by growing nerve cells fromthe patients cells to reconnect the severed ends of

the spinal cord.

There is also the potential for a cure to Parkinsonsdisease. Parkinsons damages a single, well-identified, dopamine-producing cell in the brain.These are located in a specific part of the brainknown as the substantia nigra. Stem cells couldbe transplanted into this region, and being able toproduce dopamine, could relieve the patient of thedebilitating effects of the disease.

Growing meatRecently, there has been talk of scientists being able

to encourage stem cells to grow into muscle cellsthat could be used for food. If the process wereto be made cheaper and faster, then, this couldbe an effective form of food production and couldalso appeal to vegetarians since no animals wouldbe harmed in the process. However, if you want aburger made from these stem cells anytime soon youare going to have to start saving up approximately200,000![5]


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References

1. The Nature of Stem Cells. The Nature of Stem Cells; 2012.

Available from: http://www.learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/

tech/stemcells/scintro/. [Last accessed on 07 February 2012].

2. 2012. Available from: http://stemcells.nih.gov/staticresources/

info/basics/SCprimer2009.pdf. [Last accessed on 2012 Feb 7].

3. Nova stem cell research - YouTube. Nova stem cell

research - YouTube; 2012. Available from: http://www.

youtube.com/watch?v=Q7hOi_1HBZw. [Last accessed on

2012 Sep 11].

4. NOVA|Stem Cells Breakthrough: Q and A. NOVA|Stem Cells

Breakthrough: Q and A; 2012. Available from: http://www.

pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/daley-stem-cell.html. [Last accessed

on 2012 Sep 11].

5. BBC. Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk. [Last accessed on

2012 Feb 22]

6. Benefits of Stem Cells - Explore Stem Cells. Benefits of Stem

Cells - Explore Stem Cells; 2012. Available from: http://

www.explorestemcells.co.uk/BenefitsOfStemCells.html. [Last

accessed on 2012 Feb 7].

About the Authors

Max Crean and Shiv Mahboobaniare in year 13 and are currently students at St. Pauls School. Max plays the pianoand enjoys playing tennis. He is currently hoping to study Biology at University. Shiv plays violin and enjoys playingcricket. He hopes to study medicine at University.


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Review Article

Senescence, cancer, and immortality

Telomeres and Ageing

The definition of senescence is the scientific termfor biological ageing; the definition of which is thechange in the biology of an organism once it hasreached maturity. Senescence progresses throughcell divisions and in order for DNA in a chromosometo remain undamaged, it needs telomeres as shownby the white caps in Figure 1. A telomere is DNAthat does not code for anything, but is merely arepetitive nucleotide sequence, and this preventsthe damage that would otherwise happen to thechromosome.[1] During cell division, when DNA is

being replicated, Okazaki fragments (strands ofRNA containing 1,000-2,000 nucleotides) need tobe connected together to form DNA after the lastRNA primer has attached. Unfortunately, in orderfor the Okazaki fragments to connect together, bitsof the RNA need to be cut off.[2] Therefore, overtime, telomeres or, meaningless DNA that codes fornothing, have evolved so as to prevent useful DNAfrom being left out.

These telomeres have the code TTAGGG repeatedmany times.[3] However, over time the number oftelomeres in the body decreases. Humans begin witharound 7,000-10,000 nucleotides worth of telomeres,

Alex Joseph

St. Pauls School, London, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

DOI:10.4103/0974-6102.107611

Telomeres are found at the end of chromatids and prevent chromosomes from deterioratingas they are replicated. As these run out in the human body, the amount of times that cellscan duplicate is limited. They therefore can so control the lifespan of the organism. Tumourscan activate Telomerase making them biologically immortal and able to replicate rapidly.

This allows the tumour to thrive without ageing. This article investigates the potentialof using Telomeres in the fight against cancer and the eventual possibility to slow downthe ageing process of the human body.

ABSTRACT

Figure 1: A photo of chromosomes (grey) with lighter telomeres at

the ends of the chromosomes [Available from: hp://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/File: Telomere_caps.gif (lhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

File: Telomere_caps.gif (Last accessed on July 2012)]


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but due to cell duplications in every cell, humans losearound 31 each year. This means that over time thebody begins to run out, which limits the number oftimes a cell can divide. Consequently, in older people,the cells cannot duplicate when tissue needs to berepaired, and as a result, healing is slower and the

body deteriorates as cells age and reach apoptosisor cell death. For this reason, the longer an animalstelomeres are, the longer its lifespan is. The (whateverdamage it is) damage to DNA is most often causedby free radicals and as humans age, less can bedone to repair the DNA and, therefore, life-threateningmutations can persist.[4]

The Senescence Exceptions

This is a photo of a hydra [Figure 2]; it is the onlyknown eukaryotic organism that definitely does notbiologically age. Hydras continually divide on a cellularlevel and this helps to remove flaws in the DNA, asthe proteins involved in the cell-replication can findflaws in the DNA and thus remove them. However,what is most significant about hydras is the factthat they can produce telomeres and maintain theirlength. Therefore, hydras are biologically immortal.This process also occurs in tumors.[5]These roguecells activate telomerase and due to the cip/kipgene,which makes the p53 protein (which blocks cellduplication) being faulty, these cells produce rapidlyand do not age either.[6] The greatest example ofthis is the HeLa cell line. These cells were taken

from the tumor of a woman in the 1950s. Her cells

Figure 3: A graph to show the mortality rate of fruit ies [PNAS December

24, 1996 vol. 93 no. 26 15249-15253 Copyright (1996) Naonal Academy

of Sciences, U.S.A]

Figure 2: A photo of a Hydra [Available from: hp://en.wikipedia.org/

wiki/File: Hydra001.jpg (Last accessed on July 2012)]

have replicated so much over time that there is now400 times her body weight in cells worldwide. Thesecells have not aged at all and can in essence bereplicated indefinitely. This is purely down to excellenttelomerase which replaces the lost telomeres andthus means that cell division does not get obstructed.

As a result, it draws comparisons to prokaryotic cells.In Prokaryotes, while the cells do die (like in the HeLacell line), the colony line theoretically never ends ascells have an unlimited ability to replicate.[7]Thereare also others within the animal kingdom that couldtheoretically live indefinitely, including lobsters andjellyfish. The latter uses a different technique calledtrans-differentiation, which in essence is the creatingof embryonic stem cells and using these to replacethe old cells and add a new cell line. However, this isa different type of biological immortality and it is notknown to definitively produce immortality, but doesallow the jellyfish/lobster to not age during its brief

lifespan whilst continuing to get larger.[8]

The Late Life Mortality Plateau

This is the mortality graph for a type of fly [Figure 3],but the vague model is applicable to most eukaryotes.

As humans age and telomeres get shorter, chance ofdeath increases from mutations causing a problemwith bodily functions or even death. Mortality rateappears to go up exponentially until inexplicably itreaches a plateau, even if it is at a high rate. In humans,at the age of 110, the chance of surviving anotheryear is around half and the chances of dying will not


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fluctuate.[9]This is relatively inexplicable, but somebelieve the telomerase is re-activated and producesjust enough to keep the body working. This is because,at such late ages, no evolutionary selection will haveoccurred so no more selective mutations can occur.Therefore, the chance of death will not increase and the

person will continue to live. Theoretically, this plateauwill never reach 100% mortality.[5]

Telomerase and a Cure for Cancer

Tumours activate telomerase which helps them todivide in large quantities without ageing. However, itdoes put the tumor at a risk. If humans were able todesign a telomerase inhibitor that prevented tumorsfrom negating the shortening of telomeres, thetumor would die by dividing excessively and causingapoptosis. By doing this, further duplication couldbe prevented after a maximum of eight duplications,thus halting the process of cancer. The tumor wouldbecome vulnerable to chemotherapy, or in the caseof a brain tumor, the cells could be prevented fromadvancing any further.[6]

A Cure for Ageing?

Activating telomerase in human cells is not apractical solution to ageing as it greatly increasesones chances of getting cancer. Therefore, we areprobably (unless cancer becomes better understood)not going to be able to use this method as it presents

too high a risk for the patient so it is not viable.[6]However, some argue that there could be severalmethods to lengthen telomeres and naturally inducelonger life spans. In a population where people havechildren before the age of 25, like in most of thevery early civilisations, genetic diseases that causedeath or prevent childbirth at the age of 30 wouldhave remained in the gene pool. When people havechildren at older ages the genes for these mutationsand shorter life spans are removed. This was tested

using the Methuselah fly. Researchers bred the oldestliving flies in each generation and managed to doubletheir lifespan from 60 days to 120 days, with thebreeding taking place where the death would haveusually occurred. However, this method is impracticaland unethical with humans, although people are

naturally having children later.[5]

Theoretically, there is also the use of trans-differentiationof stem cells, such as in jellyfish. Replenishing theexisting stock of cells in the human body with newcells that contain telomeres that have not beenshortened, could only have hypothetical success inan organism as complex and with as many cell typesas humans, so it may be some time before humanscan live forever.

References

1. Pedro de Magalhes, Cellular Senescence; 1997. Available

from: http://www.senescence.info/cel l_aging.html.

[Last accessed on 2012 Jul 27].

2. Colm G. Okazaki fragments; 2012. Available from: http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okazaki_fragments. [Last accessed on

2012 Jul].

3. Zheng L, Shen B. Okazaki fragment maturation: Nucleases take

centre stage; 2011. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

gov/pmc/articles/PMC3030970/. [Last accessed on 2012 Jul].

4. Cawthon R. Are Telomeres the key to Aging and Cancer?

Available from: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/

traits/telomeres/. [Last accessed on 2012 Jul].

5. Callaway E. Telomerase reverses ageing process; 2010.

Available from: http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101128/

full/news.2010.635.html. [Last accessed on 2012 Jul].

6. Greider CW, Blackburn EH. Telomeres, Telomerase and CancerAvailable from: http://www.genethik.de/telomerase.htm.

[Last accessed on 2012 Jul].

7. Biosystems A. Hela cell line. Available from: http://hela-

transfection.com/. [Last accessed on 2012 Jul].

8. Bai N. The curious case of the immortal jellyfish. blogs.

discovermagazine.com; 2009. Available from: http://blogs.

discovermagazine.com/discoblog/2009/01/29/the-curious-

case-of-the-immortal-jellyfish/. [Last accessed on 2012 Jul].

9. Mueller L, Rose M. Evolutionary theory predicts late life mortality

plateaus. Available from: http://www.pnas.org (late life

mortality plateau). [Last accessed on 2012 Jul].

About the AuthorAlex Josephattends St. Pauls School and plans to study Geography. He enjoys photography in his spare time; hisfavorite areas of Science are biodiversity and ecology.


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Review Article

Lift generation: Some

misconceptions and truths

about Lift

ABSTRACT

Introduction

When the World War II (WWII) Lancaster bomberflew over Buckingham Palace on the day of theDiamond Jubilee celebrations, many of thosewatching may have asked themselves how sucha large aircraft, moving so slowly, could possiblystay up in the air. Children probably thought thatthe plane was leaning on its wings, whereas theBernoulli Principle[1]most likely sprang to the mindsof those with some General Certificate of SecondaryEducation (GCSE) (or higher) Physics background.Both categories were probably satisfied with theirown explanation, as well as the Jubilee celebrations.

But were they right?

Some common misconceptionsTo maintain an aircraft in the air during steady andlevel flight, an upward force must be produced tosupport its weight. Such force is commonly knownas lift. So, while it is true that lift can be generallydescribed as an upward force at right angles to thedirection of motion,[2] many contradictory theories

have been developed about the possible waysthrough which lift is generated and the debate stillremains widely open.

Lift is generated by a difference in pressure betweenthe upper and the lower part of the wing, but thetwo common beliefs of why this is so are generallywrong. The first is an assumption that the differencein distance that particles have to travel on the upperand lower surface of a wing will lead to a difference invelocity as particles are assumed to meet up againat the trailing edge (i.e., they take the same time totravel different distances). The second relates to theBernoullis principle, which states that a change in

speed requires a change in pressure, which in turngenerates lift.[1]

The first misconception relates to the equal timeargument. Particles within an airflow splitting at theleading edge are believed to then meet up again atthe trailing edge [Figure 1]: Since the upper surfaceis curved, particles traveling along it must travela greater distance and, therefore, travel faster to

To maintain an aircraft in air during steady and level flight, an upwards force to supportits weight must be produced. Such a force is commonly known as lift. Many contradictorytheories have been developed about the possible ways through which lift is generatedand the debate still remains widely open. The common explanation, which seems togive the correct answer, uses incorrect physical arguments and wrongly appeals to theBernoullis equation. A more correct explanation of the lift relies on the idea that alongcurved streamlines a difference in pressure exists, which provides an explanation for lift.

Federico Bastianello

St. Pauls School, London, England. E-mail: [email protected]

DOI:10.4103/0974-6102.107612


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keep up and make it. What is wrong with thisargument is the belief that the difference in velocityis due to the fact that particles on the upper surfacetravel a longer distance than particles on the lowersurface, taking the same time to do so. Babinsky(2003) showed through an experiment,[3]in which an

aerofoil was immersed in a flow and smoke particleswere injected, that particles do not meet up at thetrailing edge [Figure 2].

Another proof that the difference in the distancetraveled is not what generates lift is the way sailswork; the distance traveled by particles moving alongthe outer and the inner surface is the same, but lift isstill generated [Figure 3].[4]The same time/greaterdistance argument is, therefore, wrong.

The second misconception derives from a faultyapplication of the Bernoullis principle, i.e., that it is

the change in the velocities of particles that generatesa difference in pressure, which in turn creates lift.

This misconception is based on the observation thatif we blow along the upper surface of a curved sheetof paper [Figure 4], it will lift upwards. Hence, it isassumed that the velocity of the air particles flowingalong the upper surface (blown air) is greater thanthe velocity of the particles under the sheet of paper(undisturbed air) and consequently, because of therelationship described in Bernoullis equation, thechange in speed generates a change in pressure,

which leads to lift. However, if we blow down the sideof a sheet of paper hanging vertically [Figure 5], nolift will be generated, thus demonstrating that it is notthe difference in velocity that causes lift.

The reason why the Bernoulli Principle is often thought

of as being the main cause of lift is that Bernoullisrelationship can be used to calculate the lift force onan aerofoil. However, this is not sufficient for it to beconsidered the cause of lift itself, as it doesnt explainwhether it is the velocity difference that causes thedifference in pressure or whether it is the differencein pressure between the upper and the lower surfaceof the airfoil that causes the difference in velocity.

The Truth About Bernoulli and

Some Truths About Lift

Underlying assumptionsThe key to understanding fluid flow around an objectis examining the forces acting on individual fluidparticles (this term refers to a very small but finitevolume of the fluid, not individual molecules) andapplying Newtons laws of motion.[5]

There are some basic assumptions we need to makebefore we can start analysing fluid motion: We neglect most forces acting on a fluid particle

such as surface tension and gravity: The onlyrelevant forces are pressure and friction but atthis stage friction can also be neglected as itis relevant only in a small region close to solidsurfaces (the boundary layer).

The flow has to be steady.

By analyzing the forces acting on the particle and byapplying Newtons second law (the resulting forceacting on a body causes acceleration) we can derivethe laws governing fluid motion.

Figure 2: Smoke parcles owing along a liing aerofoil secon [Available from: Babinsky H. How do wings work? Phys Educ 2003;38:497]

Figure 1: A diagram of the main characteriscs of an aerofoil [Available

from: hp://www.dreesecode.com/primer/airfoil2.html]


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Bernoullis Equation

We now imagine a fluid particle traveling in astraight line as shown in Figure 6 (it is often

overlooked that Bernoullis equation[6]

appliesonly along a straight line) where v is the directionof motion: If the particle is in a region of varyingpressure and if the particle has finite size l then thefront of the particle will be experiencing a differentpressure from the rear. If the pressure is greater atthe back, then the object will experience a positivenet force and, as stated in Newtons second law,the object will accelerate and the particles velocitywill increase as it moves along the streamline.Conversely, if the pressure increases at the front,then the particle will decelerate.

This means that if the pressure drops along thestreamline, the velocity increases and vice versa(this is the real significance of Bernoullis equation).

Lift

The simple experiment we referred to in Figures 4 and 5,which often leads to the second misconception we

discussed in the initial part of this paper, can alsoprovide us with a hint of how the difference inpressure and, therefore, lift is generated. The fact that

no lift is generated if we blow down a sheet of paperwhich is hanging vertically, and that if we hold thatsame sheet of paper at an angle and blow along itsupper surface, it will lift, would suggest that lift hassomething to do with curvature.

If we now look at a particle traveling at a constant velocityalong a curved streamline, we should agree that therehas to be a centripetal force acting at a normal to thedirection of motion to keep such particle along its path[Figure 7]. This force can only arise from pressuredifferences, which implies that the pressure on one side

is greater than the on the other.

If a streamline is curved, there must then be apressure gradient across the streamline, withthe pressure increasing away from the centre ofcurvature. (Note: The pressure gradient is the rateof decrease of pressure in space at a fixed timeor it is simply the magnitude of the gradient of thepressure field).[7]

Figure 3: Flow along the cross secon of a sail [Available from: Available

from: Babinsky H. How do wings work? Phys Educ 2003;38:497]

Figure 4: Paper lis when air is blown along its upper surface [Available

from: Babinsky H. How do wings work? Phys Educ 2003;38:497]

Figure 5: A straight piece of paper doesnt move when air is blown

along one side [Available from: Babinsky H. How do wings work? Phys

Educ 2003;38:497]

Figure 6: Fluid parcle traveling along a straight line [Available from:

Babinsky H. How do wings work? Phys Educ 2003;38:497]


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We can now apply this theory on aerofoils to explainlift.

By looking at Figure 8, at point A the air is undisturbedand hence the streamlines are parallel: This impliesthat the pressure is atmospheric. As we move

perpendicularly to the streamlines from A towardsthe aerofoil surface, the curvature of the streamlinesincreases and hence there must be a pressuregradient across the streamlines. From the directionof curvature, we can deduce that the pressure dropsas we move downwards. Therefore, the pressureat A is greater than the pressure at B (p

Atm> p

B).

Similarly, at point C the air is also undisturbed andconsequently the streamlines are parallel, implyingthat at point C the pressure is atmospheric too. Ifwe now move from C to D, we will notice that thecurvature of the streamline increases: This time the

pressure increases as we approach the aerofoilsurface (pAtm

< pD).

Hence, pD> pA

tm> p

B: The pressure at D is greater

than the pressure at B (pD

> pB): This generates

a resultant pressure force on the aerofoil, actingupwards, i.e., lift.

We can draw an interesting conclusion, which isempirically supported by the very simple experimentinvolving the sheet of paper that we mentionedabove: Any shape that introduces a curvature intoa flow field generates a difference in pressure and,

therefore, lift. Hence, the greater the curvature, thegreater the lift generated.

By looking at Figure 9, the angle of attack can beincreased until it gets to the point where the flow isno longer capable of following the curvature of thesurface. In this case, the flow separates from thesurface and the lift effect ceases: This phenomenonis known as stall.

We can conclude that in the end all in the crowdwatching the Lancaster bomber fly over Buckingham

Palace were right; the children thinking the bomberwas leaning on its wings were correct becausethere was an upward force pushing the plane upfrom underneath its wings; and the adults with aPhysics GCSE (or higher) background were alsocorrect, because there was an upward force liftingthe planes wings. Although, of course, both werewrong, because for lift to occur the two must gotogether.

Figure 9: How stall arises [Available from: Babinsky H. How do wings

work? Phys Educ 2003;38:497]

Figure 7: Fluid parcle along a curved streamline at constant velocity

[Available from: Babinsky H. How do wings work? Phys Educ 2003;38:497]

Figure 8: Streamlines around a liing curved plate [Available from:

Babinsky H. How do wings work? Phys Educ 2003;38:497]

References

1. Airfoil Properties. Available from: http://www.bogan.ca/soaring/

Airfoil_Property.PDF. [Last accessed on 2013 Jan 31].


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2. Airfoil wings. Available from: http://www.dept.aoe.

vt.edu/~lutze/AOE3104/ai rfoilwings.pdf. [Last accessed on

2012 Jan 31].

3. Airplane basics. Available from: http://www.grc.nasa.gov/

WWW/K-12/ai rplane/right2.html. [Last accessed on 2012

Jan 31].

4. Babinsky H. How do wings work? Phys Educ 2003;38:497.

About the Author

Federico Bastianello is currently studying at St Pauls School, Barnes and next October he will start his final year there.He is a very keen chess player, holding an international ranking. To constantly improve his game, he spends quite a bitof time reading books about chess. He plays golf off a 9 hcp and is also a fan of playing tennis. He is planning to applyto study Engineering at the University.

5. Lift. Available from: http://www.pilotfriend.com/training/

flight_training/aero/lift.htm. [Last accessed on 2012 Jan 31].

6. Bernoullis Principle. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/

wiki/Bernoullis_principle. [Last accessed on 2012 Jan 31].

7. The Effect of Pressure Gradient. Available from: http://web.mit.

edu/fluids-modules/www/highspeed_flows/3-5press-grad.pdf.

[Last accessed on 2012 Jan 31].


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Watson has the capability to complete a cycle ofprocesses that all designers of supercomputersstrive to emulate. Watson can: Understand naturallanguage and speech of humans, adapt and learnfrom user selections and responses, and generateand evaluate hypotheses for better outcomes. For

example, if someone was to ask Watson the question,Welch ran this? Watson would sift through all thedata that has been stored on its servers until it findssomething relevant to Jack Welch, such as the textbelow, from Jack Welch and the GE Way by RobertSlater:

If leadership is an art then surely Jack Welch hasproved himself a master painter during his tenure atGE.[5]

From this Watson picks out the keywords: Leadership,Welch, and GE. It then deduces that the answer to

the question is obviously GE. This entire processtakes Watson less than a second.[6]

So how has Watson caught the public eye? Well,in February 2011 IBM Watson beat the previoustwo record holders at a game of Jeopardy, whichis a popular U.S. game show. [7] Jeopardy is agame show where candidates are provided with ananswer to a question and have to provide an answerbeginning with What is. Watson was loaded withall the encyclopedias of the world and came up withthe three most likely answers and an independent

percentage chance of each of them being correct.If no other candidate had answered the question bythis time Watson would answer with the most likelyanswer. Out of all the questions Watson answered,only two of its answers were incorrect. The night hadproved to be a sensational success.

Last year, when discussing the possible uses forWatson, IBM said that we would benefit most fromWatson being in a situation where it would be neededto analyze unstructured data as well as provideprioritized recommendations and the evidence uponwhich that has been based.[8]

So where could these uses lie? Well, an obviousanswer (as is the case with many supercomputersof the current generation) is in the financial sector.[9]Watson could theoretically be used to detect fraud.How? Well, Watson could compare a purchase ona credit card with the previous regular purchases,the location of the purchase, and the amount ofmoney spent compared to previous months. It

would then present a percentage chance that themost recent purchase indicated fraudulent behavior.However, Watson goes one step further than othersupercomputers. It can also be used to predictthe security of an investment, or when retirementplanning. IBM has also provided other possible uses

for Watson including: Government use to determinepublic safety and security, as well as consumerinsight services within the call centre industry.

However the jewel in the crown of the capabilitiesof Watson is clearly in its potential in the healthcareindustry, specifically, in diagnosis.[10]Watson woulduse its understanding of natural language to draw outinformation from a conversation between a generalpractitioner (GP) and a patient. It would then split theinformation into the following categories: Symptoms,Family History, Patient History, Current Medicationsas well as the results of a urine test provided at the

appointment. It would then use these to present alist of three likely ailments and their independentpercentage chance of being correct. The GP wouldthen choose the ailment that appears most likely andprescribe treatment for that.

Here is a hypothetical example: Bob goes to hisGP complaining of a fever, difficulty swallowingand increased thirst, as well as frequent urination.His family medical history includes bladder cancerand Gravess disease. Bobs own medical historyincludes earlier treatment for osteoporosis and

urinary tract infections. His medications includedpravastatin for Esophagitis, the side effects of whichcould potentially include urinary tract infections. Theurine sample tested positive for nitrites. Watsonsfinal results suggested a 95% confidence thatthe ailment was a urinary tract infection and 40%confidence in diabetes. The patient took medicationfor a urinary tract infection and felt better within days.Watson was correct, but provided all other optionsso that the GP could be sure that it wasnt a disease,such as meningitis or fever that could have hiddensymptoms.

It has to be stressed that we are still far off makinga computer as intelligent, or at least intelligent in thesame ways, as a human. This is because for theforeseeable future at least, a computer will always bedependent on a human programming it. But dont besurprised if in five years time you are sitting in a GPsoffice and you are taking advice from a computer.

And dont worry too much. Watson is right almostall of the time.


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References

1. Available from: http://www.techterms.com/definition/

supercomputer. [Last accessed on 2013 Jan 31].

2. Available from: http://www.top500.org/. [Last accessed on

2013 Jan 31].

3. Available from: http://www.macobserver.com/tmo/article/

The_Fastest_Mac_Compared_to_Todays_Supercomputers/. [Lastaccessed on 2013 Jan 31].

4. Available from: Beyond Jeopardy: Applying WATSON to

Financial Services. IBM Research.

5. Jack Welch and the GE Way, Robert Slater.

6. IBM Research.

7. A v a i l a b l e f r o m : h t t p : / / w w w . b b c . c o . u k / n e w s /

technology-12491688. [Last accessed on 2013 Jan 31].

8. Putting IBM Watson to Work, IBM Research.

9. Available from: http://www-03.ibm.com/innovation/us/watson/

watson-for-a-smarter-planet/industry-perspectives.html. [Last

accessed on 2011 Sep 21].10. Available from: http://www-03.ibm.com/innovation/us/watson/

watson-for-a-smarter-planet/industry-perspectives/healthcare.

html. [Last accessed on 2011 Sep 21].

About the Author

Kunal Wagleis a 17-year-old budding Computer Scientist who studies Maths, Further Maths, Physics, and Computing atSt Pauls School, London. Amongst other things advancing technology, and more specifically IBM Watson, is somethinghe takes a keen interest in and researches in detail in his spare time. His other hobbies include cricket, tennis, andplaying on the school bridge team, as well as being Editor of the school magazine.


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ABSTRACT We decided to study the process of converting light energy to chemical energy inphotosynthesis. To do this, we made a three-layer artificial model containing a reducingagent, a photocatalyst, an electron transfer chemical, and an oxidizing agent. The oxidizingagent was only reduced when benzoquinone alone was used in the middle layer. Apotential difference across the layers was only measurable when this experiment wasperformed in light. We can, therefore, conclude that in our model, benzoquinone plays arole in photo catalysis and electron transfer.

IntroductionWe focused on the ability of photosynthesis to convertlight energy into chemical energy efficiently. In orderto investigate this, we agreed to study an artificialmodel of the reaction under laboratory conditions.The experiment was done using a three-layer system[Figure 1].

The upper layer is a reducing agent. The middle layercontains a photocatalyst and an electron transferchemical. The lower layer is an oxidizing agent. Byseparating into three layers, the reaction becomes

similar to plant photosynthesis, and that makes iteasier to investigate which layers react.

We used oxalic acid in aqueous solution as a reducingagent, zinc porphyrin (ZnP) in cyclohexane solutionas a photocatalyst, benzoquinone (Q) in a solutionof chlorobenzene as an electron transfer chemical,and phosphomolybdic acid (PMo) aqueous solutionas an oxidizing agent.

When light hits the three-layer system, zinc porphyrin,

which is a photocatalyst, becomes excited and loses

electrons. Benzoquinone, which is an electron transfer

chemical, receives electrons from the photocatalyst

and protons (H+ions) from the reducing agent, and,

as a result, changes to hydroquinone. Electrons then

move from the reducing agent to zinc porphyrin,

returning it to its previous state. Finally, hydroquinone

passes hydrogen atoms to Phosphomolybdic acid.

Phosphomolybdic acid changes color from yellow

to green when it is reduced. This is summarized as

follows:

2ZnP2ZnP++2e-

Q+2e-Q2-,Q2-+2H+H2Q

2ZnP++2e-2ZnP

H2Q+PMoQ+H

2PMo

Artificial photosynthesis

Original Research

Takamasa Suzuki

Okazaki Senior High School, Tokyo, Japan. E-mail: [email protected]

DOI:10.4103/0974-6102.107614


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Materials and Methods

Since four chemicals are used in the middle layer,it was difficult to specify the reaction pathway. Forthis reason, we decided to simplify the middle layer,and we prepared two hypotheses. One was that only

zinc porphyrin is needed in middle layer. Althoughthe time for which zinc porphyrin remains excitedis very short, but if it gets excited near the surfaceof separation, it will probably emit electrons to thelower layer.

The a l ternat ive hypothesis was that onlybenzoquinone is needed in the middle layer.Through preliminary experiments, it was found thatbenzoquinone gets excited when illuminated. Fromthis, we thought that benzoquinone could be usedas a photocatalyst and an electron transfer agent in

our three-layer system. We experimented to verifythese hypotheses.

To verify the hypotheses, the following procedurewas used: Test tubes were prepared and labeled 1 to

6, varying the presence of zinc porphyrinandbenzoquinone. In addition, we shone a lighton the odd-numbered test tubes (Table 1 showsthe conditions in each test tube).

If phosphomolybdic acid changed its color fromyellow to green, we can conclude that the reactionoccurred.

If the reaction is confirmed, we connected theupper layer and lower layer with a salt bridge[Figure 2] and measured the voltage across thelayers with a voltmeter.

Results and Discussion

As aforementioned, phosphomolybdic acid changesits color from yellow to green when reduced.

As seen in Figure 3, the solutions in test tubes 1, 2,5, and 6 remained yellow. Test tube 3 turned a dark

green while test tube 4 turned a light green. Hence,I concluded that the test tubes in which a reactionoccurred were test tubes 3 and 4. These were thetest tubes with only benzoquinone and a solvent.Therefore, we can conclude that benzoquinone playsa role in photo catalysis and electron transfer.

Next, we measured the voltage across the layers.Test tube 3 gave rise to a voltage of 0.10 V and test

tube 4 resulted in zero voltage. So, the reaction whichoccurred without light (the reaction in test tube 4) canbe ignored.

Figure 1: Image of the three-layer system

Figure 2: Image of salt bridge

Figure 3: Photograph of the appearance of the test tubes

Table 1: The diferent condions present in the test tubes

1 2 3 4 5 6Light

Upper layer

Middle layer Zinc porphirin

Benzoquinone

Lower layer


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It looked like the reverse reaction had occurred in testtube 1 between benzoquinone and zinc porphyrin.

Conclusion

We can, therefore, conclude that in our model,

benzoquinone plays a role in photo catalysis and

electron transfer. In future experiments, we hope

to use benzoquinone and solvent, and we hope toexamine why test tube 4 reacted without light. Finally,

we hope to experiment with water as occurs in plant

photosynthesis.

About the Author

Takamasa Suzukibelongs to Super Science High School Club, and he and his friends are investigating ArtificialPhotosynthesis. He wants to be a scholar as soon as possible.


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L: The brightness, L0: The brightness of the light, e:

The natural logarithm, D: The distance from cities,: The extinction coefficient (6 105).

We used the formula above, considering the effectsfrom the cities near the observation place andsimulated the brightness from it.


Research 1

The measurements of SQM and that of cooled-CCDwere proportional. So, we regarded the SQM as a

reliable device. Measuring the variances amongSQMs, we are able to compare the measurementsfrom different SQMs under the same standard.

We also found that the effect of the moon can beignored if the moon is darker than the half moon. So

we carried out the observation when the moon wasdarker than the half moon.

Research 2

The nearer the observation place is to a large city,the brighter it gets.

Research 3

We were able to predict the night sky brightnessaccurately.[2,3]Also, we changed our estimate of thealtitude at which the light is reflected and found outfrom the formula that lights are reflected at the altitudeof 2~3 km.

Conclusion

From research 1, we found the reliability of SQMsand its character. With these experiments, we foundthe most accurate way to research light pollution.Hereafter, we would like to observe at more placesin a wider area than those of research 2. In research3, our results were close to the true value. Also, wefound out the altitude of where the light reflects. Usinga similar method, we would like to find out eachweather factor effects the night sky and finally make

our own forecasts of the starry skies.

Acknowledgments

Heartpier Anpachi observation place, people who helpedus measure places, Nagoya University - ProfessorShibata.

References

1. The way to value the measures from SQMs. Ichinomiya Senior

High School; 2008.

2. Guideline of Light Pollution Ministry of the environment.

3. The data of the usage of electricity. Federation of ElectricityPower Companies.

Figure 1: Sky quality meter

Figure 2: Brightness map

About the Author

Sobue Hideakilikes to take photographs and to read books, especially any related to History. This meant that he wasvery excited to see historical architecture when he came to England and visited the British Museum. He is currentlystudying Astronomy and Physics and hopes to major in Physics at University. He loves Science and believes in itspotential, so he would like to become a Scientist to be able to use Science to protect our civilization.


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ABSTRACT This group of students aimed to develop a more efficient type of binchotanbattery.They did this by setting up several batteries and changing one of the electrolyticsolution, the electrode material or the material of the conducting wire. Theyplotted graphs of voltage against time as each variance discharged. The higherthe voltage and the longer it endured, the better the material. They found thebinchotanbattery works best using sodium sulphate as the electrolytic solution,platinum wire, and binchotanwrapped in visking tubes.

Introduction

Based on past research by seniors, this projectaims to develop a more eff icient bi nchotan(traditional oak wood charcoal) battery.[1] Whena direct current (DC) is passed through theelectrodes, electrons flow through the electrolyticsolution from the anode to the cathode. As theypass through water molecules, the water moleculesare electrolyzed to form hydrogen and oxygenthrough the following reactions:

2H2O + 2 e-H

2+ 2OH

2H2O4H++ 4e-+ O

2(OLeary, 2000)[2]

This is how abinchotan battery works. Current flowsthrough the wires connected to the terminals tocomplete the circuit for the reaction to proceed.

Experiment

The basic experimental set up was solidbinchotan,wrapped in visking tubes, was used as electrodes,aqueous sodium sulphate was used as the electrolyte,and copper was used for the conducting wire [Figure 1].Charging time for the setup was three minutes underfixed conditions. Effectiveness was determined byplotting voltage against time as the battery wassubsequently discharged, where a higher voltage fora longer duration meant that the battery was more

effective. The experiments varied composition ofelectrolytic fluid, electrode material, and conductingwire material to find the optimal combination.i) Varying Electrolytic solution: For this setup, electrolyte solution was varied

from sodium sulphate, trisodium phosphate, andphosphoric acid.

ii) Varying Electrode:

Binchotan:The future battery

Original Research

Haruno Murakami, Kentaro Asai, Tatsuhiko Watanabe, Naoko Oyobe,

Mio Oe, Yuya Hiramatu

Jishukan Senior High School, Toyohashi, Japan. E-mail: [email protected]

DOI:10.4103/0974-6102.107616


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Conclusion

The binchotan battery works best using sodiumsulphate as the electrolytic solution, platinum wire, andbinchotanwrapped in visking tubes. However, platinum

wire is expensive, so a low-cost conducting wire likecopper would be more desirable than platinum.

References

1. Based on a research on fuel cells in Jishukan High School in

1997.

2. OLeary, D. (2000). Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions. Retrieved

from University College Cork: http://www.ucc.ie/academic/chem/

dolchem/html/dict/electrol.html.[Last accessed on 2012 Feb 2]

Figure 1: A schemac diagram of a Binchotan baery

Figure 2: A graph of potenal dierence against me as the baery

discharges with dierent electrolyc uids Figure 4: A graph of potenal dierence against me as the baery

discharges with dierent conducng wire

Figure 3: A graph of potenal dierence against me as the baery

discharges with dierent electrodes

Graphite as an electrode was compared tocarbon sticks.

iii) Varying Conducting Wire: Copper wire was compared against stainless

steel wire, enamel wire, and platinum wire.

Results and DiscussionIn experiment i, sodium sulphate and disodiumphosphate showed good results [Figure 2]. In experimentii,binchotanwas shown to be better than graphite sticks[Figure 3]. During these experiments, it is worthwhile tonote that after many charges, the conducting wire beganto corrode. Hence, we compared some materials in theexperiment iii for conducting wire. As a result, platinumshowed the best efficiency [Figure 4].

About the Authors

Yuya Hiramatsuwants to be a doctor and helps injured and sick people.

Mio Oe and Naoko Oyobewant to be pharmacologists and hope to make new and useful medicines.

Tatsuhiko Watanabe and Kentaro Asaiwant to be scientists. Tatsuhiko likes the idea of discovering something new,whereas Kentaro wants to devote himself to improvements in modern science.

Haruno Murakamihopes to be an engineer. She wants to develop new materials that are useful and ecofriendly.


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Original Research

Seven kinds of light bychemical reaction

chemiluminescence

by oxalate ester

ABSTRACT

Introduction

The reaction of oxalate ester with hydrogen peroxide

makes peroxyoxalate, which contains a lot ofpotential chemical energy. A fluorescer converts thischemical energy to visible light.[1]Our interest wasin the properties of this light. First, different kinds offluorescer were used for this study and the propertiesof the light given off examined. Next, we assumedthat chlorophyll emits light as a fluorescer torelease excess chemical energy from photosyntheticinefficiencies in the form of light.[1] Red light emittedby chlorophyll has been so far observed.

Materials and Methods

Experiment with different fluorescersA solution was made from bis (2,4,6-trichlorophenol)oxalate (TCPO) and fluorescer and was added toa solution composed of hydrogen peroxide andsodium salicylate. Dimethyl phthalate and tert-butylalcohol were used as solvents. The temperatureof solution was approximately 30 degrees Celsius.Then we took measurements of the intensity and

the quantity of light with an optical sensor. Themaximum wavelength was measured by means ofa spectrophotometer.

Experiment with chlorophyllWe employed chlorophyll as a fluorescer extracted bytert-butyl alcohol from dogwood leaves, measuringthe maximum wavelength of the emitted light with aspectrophotometer.


Table 1 shows that the intensity, the quantity of light,

This group became interested in the light that is given off in chemiluminescent reactionsand by chlorophyll. The intensity, wavelength, and quantity of light was measured fromseveral chemical reactions and compared with the light given off by chlorophyll. They foundthat the properties of the emitted lights are different for each fluorescer. Fluorescers whichcan emit light have several aromatic rings such as chlorophyll.

Yumi Sato, Yuri Tokushige, Atsuki Nishikawa1, Kazuya Sato, Mineki Yamamoto2

Meiwa Senior High School, 1Gojo Senior High School, 2Toyota-nishi Senior High School, Tokyo, Japan. E-mail: [email protected]

DOI:10.4103/0974-6102.107617

Table 1: Experiment 2.1

Fluorescer Intensity

[lx=lmm-2]

Quanty of light

[102lmsm-2]

Max wavelength

[nm]Anthracene * * 408

9,10-Diphenylanthracene 6 0.53 438

Perylene 102 21.00 477

Naphthacene 48 5.70 520

9,10Bis (phenylethynyl)

Anthracene

28 2.70 512

Rubrene 134 27.00 564

Rhodamine 6G 4 0.26 579

Rhodamine B 7 1.30 592

*Impossible to measure


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and the maximum wavelength of light are differentfrom fluorecser. Figure 1 shows that chlorophyll emitsred light.

Conclusion

Properties of the emitted lights are different for eachfluorescer. Fluorescers which can emit light haveseveral aromatic rings and chlorophyll has ringsincluding a metal atom. In future experiments, wewill try to find natural dyes that emit light and theoptimal conditions for the maximum intensity andquantity of light.

Acknowledgment

We thank the Laboratory of Photo-bioenergetics (Department

of Physics, Nagoya University) for their generous supportof measurement with a spectrophotometer.

About the Authors

Everyone in this group is studying Chemistry, Physics, English, Japanese classical literature, modern Japanese, andMaths. Since it is compulsory, they study these at their School.

Mineki Yamamotohopes to be a Japan Air Self Defense Force pilot and enjoys bicycling, reading books, and star gazing.

Kazuya Satoalso hopes to be a pilot but for an international airline and plays billiards and golf.

Yuri Tokushigeis interested in Biology, Chemistry, and Nutrition and would love to study Lye. Yuri would like to work inScience. Her hobbies include reading and making sweets.

Yumi Satowants to be a doctor and enjoys reading, listening to music, watching movies, and cooking.

Atsuki Nishikawalikes cooking and reading detective stories and science fiction. Id like to major in Chemistry atUniversity, says Atsuki. His dream is to be a professor of Chemistry.

Figure 1: (Experiment 2.2) The maximum wavelength was 678nm

Reference

1. Maxwell K, Johnson GN. Chlorophyll fluorescence: A practicalguide. J Exp Bot 2000;51:659-68.


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Original Research

Why does the Blue Grotto

appear blue?

ABSTRACT

IntroductionWhy do Blue Grottos, such as the one in Capri,Italy, appear blue? This question is interesting as itconcerns why water appears blue so I will study thisby calculating its transmissivity.

Experiments

The experiment to calculate transmissivity of

water

Equipment

A foam polystyrene box (35 20 20 cm3

) and ablack wooden box (180 20 20 cm3) were used.

A halogen lamp, when the foam polystyrene box wasused, and a fluorescent light, when the wooden boxwas used, were used as the light source.

Method

The light inside each container was analyzed and thetransmissivity was calculated.

The experiment to check the water absorbs all

red light

Equipment

Three foam polystyrene cubes (5, 10, and 20 cm oneach side) and a drum whose inner part was coveredwith foam polystyrene were used. A halogen lamp, inthe experiment of the foam polystyrene boxes, andsun light, in the experiment of the drum, were usedas the light source.

Method

The lights inside each container was analyzed andthe transmissivity was calculated.


Figures 1 and 2 show the percentage transmittanceagainst wavelength. As Figure 1 shows, waterabsorbs a lot of red light and little green and bluelights regardless of container or light source. AsFigure 2 shows, transmissivity can be almost zero, if

This team of young Japanese scientists were interested in why the Blue Grotto in Italy wasblue and thought it may be to do with the light transmissivity properties of water. They,therefore, carried out several experiments modeling the water in the grotto as water inboxes. They found that percentage of light absorbance was dependent on the dimensionsof the container and the reflective properties of the container wall. In all cases, red lightwas absorbed the most and this was especially significant across large depths of water.

They concluded that this was why the Blue Grotto appears blue and hope to establish arelationship between transmissivity and volume.

Yuki Hara, Yuki Matsuoka, Ken Ohashi, Shuji Yamada1

Ichinomiya Senior High School, 1Kariya Senior High School, Japan. E-mail: [email protected]

DOI:10.4103/0974-6102.107618


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you have a large amount of water as a drum. Largervolumes may absorb a larger spectrum of light.

Conclusion

Water absorbs red light and has potential of makingblue similar to the Blue Grotto. In the future, to clarifythe relationship between transmissivity and volume,Ill experiment with higher precision.

Since the 1stAnglo-Japanese Science Conference, wehave further explored this area. Below is a summary ofour further work in order to achieve greater precision:We believe that F(l) = s(l)*a(l)dholds.

l: Wavelength. Unit is usually nm.

F(l): Strength of light whose wavelength is equal tol. Various units such as W/cm ^2 are used.

s(l): Strength of light used as a light source whosewavelength is equal to l.

Various units such as W/cm ^2 are used.

a(l): Transmissivity of light whose wavelength is

equal to l.

d: Distance light goes through water. Unit is usuallymeter.

After identifying transmissivity (a(l)), we can calculatethe waters colour (F(l)) only by deciding the distancebetween our eyes and the light sources (d) and whatto use as the light source (s(l)).

Therefore, by calculating with a computer, we cananalyze the light of the Blue Grotto only if we measureits spectrum. However, we have not yet had a chanceto measure it in Italy!

About the Authors

Yuki Hara was born in Aichi, Japan in 1996. He has studied about the Blue Grotto for two years since he succeeded tohis predecessors and in 2012 he received some awards and joined the science conference at St.Paul's School. He isvery interested in economics and his ambition is to be a greater entrepreneur than Mark Elliot Zuckerberg, the presidentof Facebook.

Yuki Matsuoka, Ken Ohashi and Shuji Yamada also attended the science conference at St.Paul's School.

Figure 1: The Blue Grotto in Capri, Italy. Available from: http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: Grota_azzurra.jpg

Figure 2: How transmittance varies across wavelengths for each

dimension of the boxes (above) and cubes (below)

8/13/2019 Young Scientists Journal (Jan-

Young Scientists Journal (Jan-Jun) 2013

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