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Transcript of Yellow Crazy Ant
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P e s t a n i m a l r i s k a s s e s s m e n t
Yellow craz y ant
Anoplolepis gracilipes
Steve Csurhes and Clare Hankamer
Biosecurity Queensland
Department o Employment, Economic
Development and Innovation
GPO Box , Brisbane
February 2012
Note: Inormation is still being collected or this
species. Technical comments on this document
are most welcome.
D e p
a r t m e n t o f E m p l o y m e n t , E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t a n d I n n o v a t i o n
B i o s e c u r i t y Q u e e n s l a n d
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CS /
© State o Queensland, Depar tment o Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, .
The Queensland Government supports and encourages the dissemination and exchange o its
inormation. The copyright in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution .
Australia (CC BY) licence.
Under this licence you are ree, without having to seek permission rom DEEDI, to use
this publication in accordance with the licence terms.
You must keep intact the copyright notice and attribute the State o Queensland, Department o
Employment, Economic Development and Innovation as the source o the publication.
For more inormation on this licence visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/./au/deed.en
Front cover: Anoplolepis gracilipes at sugar bait (Lautoka, Fiji)Photo: Sarnat (), used with permission
2
Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
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ContentsSummary
Introduction
Identity and taxonomy
Nomenclature
Description
Reproduction and dispersal
Diet
Origin and distribution
Preerred habitat
History as a pest elsewhere
Use
Pest potential in Queensland
Current impact in Australian territory
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Northern Territory
New South Wales
Western Australia
Current distribution and impact in Queensland
Potential distribution and impact in Queensland
Likelihood o additional incursions
Reerences
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Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
Summary
Anoplolepis gracilipes is commonly known as the yellow crazy ant because o its colour and rantic behaviour when disturbed. While its origin is obscure,
there is increasing evidence that it is native to South-East Asia. Yellow crazy
ants are readily dispersed in sea cargo, especially timber, and have achieved a
pantropical distribution as a consequence o global trade.
The yellow crazy ant has been included among examples o the world’s
worst invasive species by the International Union or Conservation o Nature.
It has naturalised in numerous places, especially tropical islands, across the
world. On Christmas Island, yellow crazy ants are decimating the island’s iconic
red land crabs. A signicant population also exists in the Northern Territory.
Yellow crazy ants were rst detected in in Cairns. Since then, more than
additional sites have been ound, in and around Cairns, Townsville, Hervey
Bay, Caboolture and Brisbane. The total area o inestation involves at least
hectares. Populations at some o these sites have been eliminated, whereas
others are subject to ongoing control.
This pest risk assessment presents evidence that yellow crazy ants have
the potential to become a signicant pest in Queensland. Climate modelling
suggests the species could spread across substantial areas. Habitats most
at risk are oshore islands with dense orest, monsoon orest/rainorest and
plantations along the tropical east coast (generally shady, moist habitats).Negative impacts are likely to include indirect damage to ruit caused by the
ants’ tendency to protect various scale insects, loss or decreased abundance
o native ant species, and predation o a wide range o invertebrates and small
vertebrates, resulting in a general decline in biodiversity.
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Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
Introduction
Identity and taxonomy
Species Anoplolepis gracilipes Smith
Synonyms Anoplolepis longipes Jerdon
Anoplolepis (Anoplolepis) longipes Jerdon
Anoplolepis triaciata Smith
Anoplolepis triasciata Smith
Formica gracilipes Smith
Formica longipes Jerdon
Formica triasciata Smith
Oecophylla longipes Jerdon
Plagiolepis gracilipes Smith
Plagiolepis (Anoplolepis) longipes Jerdon
Plagiolepis longipes Jerdon
Plogiolepis (Anoplolepis) longipes Jerdon
Prenolepis gracilipes Smith
Common names Yellow crazy ant, crazy ant (English), gramang ant (Indonesian
Bahasa), long-legged ant (English), Maldive ant (English, Seychelles)
Sources: Antbase (); GISD (); Harris and Berry ().
Family: Formicidae (sub-amily: Formicinae)
Nomenclature
While the preerred scientic name is Anoplolepis gracilipes, much o the literature uses its
synonym Anoplolepis longipes (ITIS ; GISD ).
It is questionable whether the yellow crazy ant should be included in the genus Anoplolepis.
Even though the centre o diversity or Anoplolepis is in Arica, there is a growing body o
evidence that the yellow crazy ant is native to South-East Asia. There is a possibility that the
yellow crazy ant will be split rom the Anoplolepis genus in a similar manner to Paratrechina
longicornis, which is now recognised as a monotypic genus (LaPolla et al. ; B Homann,
CSIRO, pers. comm. ).
There is evidence o intraspecic variation. Based on mitochondrial DNA analysis o yellow
crazy ants rom the Tokelau Archipelago, Abbott et al. () revealed the presence o two
haplotypes (Type A and Type D). Haplotype D was more aggressive, invasive and able todisplace a higher proportion o other ant species ( per cent ewer ant species were ound on
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islands invaded by haplotype D). The authors concluded that, contrar y to previous evidence
or invasive ant species where environmental actors were thought to play a key role, genetic
characteristics may be equally or more important to invasion success.
Description Yellow crazy ants are brownish-yellow or yellow-orange and – mm long (Figures and ).
Figure 1. Yellow crazy ant ( Anoplolepis gracilipes ) (Photo: Sarnat (), used with permission)
Figure 2. Yellow crazy ants deending their nest
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Workers have uniorm morphology (Holway et al. ), with a long slender body and a gaster
that is usually darker than the head and thorax. The gaster is armed with an acidopore and
erect hairs are present. A sting is absent (Abbott et al. ).
The species has a characteristic erratic walking style when disturbed, an attribute leading
to its colloquial name ‘crazy ant’. Also known as the long-legged ant, yellow crazy ants are
noted or their remarkably long legs and antennae—the antennal scape length is more
than . times the head length and is a key diagnostic eature (Figure ). Antennae have
segments, including the scape.
Figure 3. Long antennal scapes o Anoplolepis gracilipes (Photo: Sarnat (), used with permission)
The body is relatively long, compared to other ants, and incorporates a long ‘neck’ attaching
the head to the thorax. It has a single waist segment—the petiole—which is thick and raised
(with an inverted U-shaped crest), not at (Wikipedia a). The mesosoma, or alitrunk, (the
rst three thoracic segments and the rst abdominal segment) is slender and lacks hairs on
the dorsum. The pronotum (the dorsal portion o the prothorax, the rst o the three thoracic
segments which bears the rst pair o legs) is narrow, with an almost straight dorsum in prole.
The anterior portion o the mesonotal dorsum, back to the propodeum, is gently concave in
prole. The propodeal dorsum is convex in prole (Wikipedia a). Spines are absent on the
propodeum (Abbott et al. ). The head is oval, with large convex eyes and erect hairs. The
mandibles have eight ‘teeth’ each and the clypeus is produced medially with a convex anterior margin, without longitudinal carinae (narrow, raised ridges) (Abbott et al. ).
The ollowing species might be conused with the yellow crazy ant:
• other genera o Formicinae in Australia that have antennae with segments, namely
Acropyga, Plagiolepis and Stigmacros. Yellow crazy ants can be distinguished rom these
genera by their larger size, longer legs and scapes and yellow colour (CSIRO )
• Wasmannia auropunctata, which also has antennae segments, but the last is enlarged
into a distinct club. It is smaller than the yellow crazy ant and has a painul sting—hence
its name ‘electric ant’ or ‘little re ant’ (Wikipedia a)
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• yellow tyrant ant ( Iridomyrmex pallidus ), which is native to open habitats in northern
Australia and very common and similar in size and colour to yellow crazy ants. The latter
can be distinguished by the length o the antennae, which extend ar above the head,
whereas the antennae o I. pallidus barely exceed the head. I. pallidus also has a larger
heart-shaped ace, bites when disturbed and exudes an extremely strong smell whencrushed, unlike yellow crazy ants (TERC )
• the genera Leptomyrmex and Oecophylla, which are both similar in size to the yellow
crazy ant and have similarly long legs. Yellow crazy ants can be distinguished by a circular
opening ( acidopore ) at the tip o the gaster, whereasLeptomyrmex has a slit-shaped
opening (CSIRO ; Sarnat ). Leptomyrmex rupes (red spider ant), ound in
Brisbane Forest Park, has an orange-black body with a black gaster and tends to orage
alone (Brisbane Insects and Spiders ). Yellow crazy ants can be distinguished rom
Oecophylla by their more compact petiole (Sarnat ). Oecophylla smaragdina (green
tree or weaver ant) is native to Australia and its body is elongate and pale yellow or green
in colour. Its nests are arboreal and made o leaves stitched together with silk produced bythe larvae (CSIRO )
• Paratrechina longicornis (crazy ant/black crazy ant/slender crazy ant/hairy ant), which is
known or its erratic behaviour, much like yellow crazy ants. It is also invasive and exists
in Australia. It is smaller (. mm) than yellow crazy ants and has numerous thick, paired
hairs over its entire body, an impressed mesosoma and is black (Sarnat )
• some species o Camponotus that are similar in overall size and shape to yellow crazy ants.
Camponotus maculatus has antennae segments, the mesosoma is not impressed and
there is a metapleural gland opening above its hind leg (CSIRO ). C. maculatus discors
is ound in Australia (CSIRO ).
There are a number o species with the common name ‘crazy ant’, including Paratrechina
longicornus (see above). The rasberry (sometimes spelt raspberry) crazy ant and Caribbean
crazy ant are both species o Nylanderia and are not ound in Australia.
Reproduction and dispersalMany ant species build colonies with a single queen. Yellow crazy ants, however, build super-
colonies with multiple queens (up to ) and multiple nests, some o which are the largest
o any ant species in the world, extending over hectares (Wikipedia a). Crazy ant
densities o million ants per hectare have been recorded on Christmas Island (Abbott
) and around million per hectare on the Seychelles (Haines & Haines ). Super-colonies rely on a lack o aggression and cooperation between nests.
Worker ants have a lie cycle o – days. Queens survive or several years (Walsh &
Walters ). Workers are produced throughout the year, but production uctuates.
Yellow crazy ants appear able to breed with siblings (internidal mating) without suering
inbreeding depression as high heterozygosity is maintained in workers (Drescher et al. ;
Thomas et al. ). Sexual ospring are produced at any time in the year but generally
– months prior to the rainy season (Abbott et al. ; GISD ). Brood production is
dependent on the onset o the rainy season. In the Seychelles and Papua New Guinea, two
brood production events per year have been recorded (Baker ; Haines & Haines ),
whereas on Christmas Island only one has been recorded (Abbott et al. ).
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Colonies reproduce using a process known as ‘budding’, where a queen (or queens) leave a
nest together with some workers to orm a new colony. Budding is a slower means o dispersal
than winged dispersal o alates (young queens and males); however, colonies have been
reported to spread – m per year on the Seychelles (Holway et al. ) and m
per year on Christmas Island (equivalent to average spread o m per day) (O’Dowd et al.). A. gracilipes relies on human-mediated dispersal to establish more distant colonies
(GISD ).
Winged dispersal is thought to be rare (GISD ), although mating ights o alates have
been observed on Christmas Island (Abbott et al. ). Mated queens may be capable o
starting new colonies, but there is no clear evidence o this. Workers alone are not capable o
establishing a new colony. Colonies migrate readily i disturbed (Abbott et al. ).
Yellow crazy ants are readily dispersed between countries as contaminants in a range o
cargo. They can be spread in soil and produce in the agricultural and horticultural industr y;
on contaminated military, mining and commercial road transport; and in sea and air reight
on timber, goods, packaging material and pallets. They have been deliberately dispersed as a
biological control agent in coconut, coee and cacao production (GISD ).
DietThe yellow crazy ant has been described as a ‘scavenging predator’ (Harris & Berry ).
It has a broad, opportunistic diet, a common trait shared by many invasive ant species (GISD
), utilising whatever ood resources are available (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ).
Hence, diet varies with location (K Abbott, Monash University, pers. comm. ), and
presumably with the seasons. Like all ants, protein-rich oods are required or brood production
(O’Dowd et al. ).
A high percentage o the diet is based on carbohydrate-rich oods such as plant nectar
and honeydew. Yellow crazy ants arm all sap-sucking bugs (Hemiptera) (B Homann,
CSIRO, pers. comm. ) or honeydew, in particular scale insects. For example, in cocoa
plantations in Papua New Guinea, Hemiptera populations are thought to be necessary to
support and sustain A. gracilipes colonies (Holway et al. ). The proportion o honeydew
in a worker ant on the Seychelles was calculated to be per cent o its body weight (Haines
et al. ).
Carbohydrate supply may play an important role in the success o crazy ant invasions
(O’Dowd et al. ; Savage et al. ; GISD ). Similarly, population development and
‘invasion success’ in the Arican big-headed ant ( Pheidole megacephala ) is also thought tobe limited by carbohydrate quality ( Pisonia grandis) on the coral cays o the Great Barrier
Ree (Homann & Kay ). It has been suggested that survival o A. gracilipes in harsh, dry
habitats in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, may be due to the presence o acacias and other
plants providing an adequate supply o extra-oral carbohydrates (B Homann, CSIRO, pers.
comm. ).
Vertebrates and invertebrates are regularly targeted as sources o protein-rich ood. Yellow
crazy ants can kill invertebrate prey, or small vertebrates, by spraying ormic acid. This
does not kill the target by itsel, but can cause blindness and lead to death by starvation
(Wikipedia a; GISD ). Like many other ant species (in particular Solenopsis invicta,
but also Solenopsis geminata, Pheidole megacephala and Wasmannia auropunctata ), yellow
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crazy ants debilitate larger animals such as land crabs, small reptiles, small mammals and
birds only i ant numbers are very high and i these animals are vulnerable (e.g. newly hatched
chicks) or are walking across super-colonies (as is the case with the Christmas Island red
crab) (TSSC ; K Abbott, Monash University, pers. comm. ; B Homann, CSIRO, pers.
comm. ).
Origin and distributionThe native range o the yellow crazy ant is unclear. Some authors suggest it is native to
either Arica or Asia (Holway et al. ; Abbott et al. ) as collection records or both
continents are pre- (Abbott et al. ). The Global Invasive Species Database (GISD
) lists the native range o the species as Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and
Vietnam. Wetterer () proposed that yellow crazy ants are native to Asia, possibly
including Christmas Island. Abbott et al. () suggested this was unlikely as the centreo diversity or the genus is Arica and A. gracilipes is the only species distributed beyond
Arica (GISD ). However, the records or Arica are restricted, possibly to north-eastern
Tanzania (Abbott et al. ). Recently, evidence rom climate modelling (Chen ) and
studies o ant populations in Indonesia, where A. gracilipes appears unable to dominate or
colonise undisturbed rainorest (Bos et al. ) or even mature cacao plantations (Wielgoss
et al. ), cannot rule out that A. gracilipes may be native to South-East Asia (Drescher et
al. ). Moreover, there is a growing body o evidence that A. gracilipes is native to this
region, i.e. Indonesia, Malaysia and Borneo (not India and denitely not Arica) (B Homann,
CSIRO, pers. comm. ). In addition, it appears likely that A. gracilipes may eventually be
split rom the genus Anoplolepis (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ).
The native range o the species has been obscured by a long history o human-assisted
dispersal, as yellow crazy ants are readily moved to new areas within sea cargo. To this day,
these ants are regularly detected in shipping containers and other reight. Currently, yellow
crazy ants have a pantropical distribution and continue to expand into additional countries
and islands (Figure ). Many o the countries in tropical Asia mentioned previously are also
listed by various authors as part o the introduced range o the species, including Brunei,
Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore,
Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam, as well as parts o Arica including South Arica and
Tanzania (Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar), Central and South America (Brazil, Panama, Mexico),
and Australia (GISD ; Wetterer ).
Yellow crazy ants have been introduced to numerous oceanic islands in the Caribbean
(McGlynn ), Indian Ocean (Agalega, Cocos Islands, Christmas Island, Madagascar,
Mauritius, Rodrigues, Réunion and Seychelles) and the Pacic, including Japan (Amami
Oshima, Bonin, Okinawa and Minami-Daito islands), Polynesia (Austral Islands, Cook Islands,
Gambier Islands, Hawaii, Line Islands, Marquesas Islands, Niue, Samoa, Society Islands,
Tokelau Islands, Tonga, Tuamotu Islands, Tuvalu, and Wallis and Futuna), Micronesia (Caroline
Islands, Gilbert Islands, Mariana Islands, Marshall Islands, Palau, Rotuma and Santa
Cruz Islands), Melanesia (Fiji, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Vanuatu and the
Galapagos archipelago) (Abbott et al. ; Haines & Haines ; Holway et al. ; Lewis
et al. ; Matsui et al. ; McGlynn ; O’Dowd et al. ; Veeresh & Gubbaiah ;
Wetterer ).
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Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
Figure 4. Global distribution o yellow crazy ants (Global Biodiversity Inormation Facility n.d.)
The yellow crazy ant is oten reerred to as a ‘tramp ant’, i.e. an ant ‘that is widely dispersed
(or reliant on dispersal) by commerce and other human-assisted activities’ (GISD ;
Passera ).
Preferred habitatPreerred climate is tropical, with some populations persisting in subtropical climates.
The species is abundant in the tropical lowlands o Asia, and islands o the Indian Ocean
and Pacic Ocean between the tropics o Cancer and Capricorn. Wetterer () reports
it occurring up to latitude –˚ N (northern India, southern China and southern islandso Japan) and ound ew records at higher latitudes, either north or south. The latter were
either conned to urban areas or were otherwise short-lived or ailed populations (Brisbane,
Australia; Auckland, New Zealand; Valparaiso, Chile; Durban, South Arica; and Zayul, Tibet).
Further verication is required or locations reported rom higher altitudes in Tibet and China
(Abbott et al. ). Global climate change is predicted to increase the range o avourable
environmental conditions or A. gracilipes at higher latitudes (Chen ).
A. gracilipes is reported rom low to mid elevations in Hawaii up to m (Holway et al.
; Mau & Kessing ). However, Homan and Kay () suggest it is unable to colonise
areas above m. Most collection records are rom elevations lower than m (Wetterer ; Abbott et al. ).
Preerred habitats include moist riverine and lowland tropical orest (Abbott et al. ; GISD
). For example, in India, it exists in moist habitats (Veeresh ) but is absent rom hot,
dry parts o the North-Western Provinces, the Punjab and Central India (Bingham ).
In northern Australia, yellow crazy ants were initially believed to preer rainorest, but recent
research conrms they can thrive in harsh, rocky, dry areas in Arnhem Land, Northern
Territory. The presence o acacias and other plants that supply extra-oral carbohydrates
appears to be a primary inuence on persistence. Some reerences state that the species can
survive in grasslands and savannah (GISD ).
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Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
Yellow crazy ants typically colonise moist, shady, disturbed habitats such as rainorest
margins/gaps and agricultural land, particularly agroorestry. Coee, cacao, coconut, citrus
and cinnamon plantations are all reported to be readily invaded (GISD ; Bos et al. ;
Young ). However, the species can colonise relatively undisturbed (i.e. uncleared)
habitats such as monsoon rainorest on islands (e.g. on Christmas Island) (GISD ). It canreadily invade urban areas, making it a troublesome household and building pest (GISD ).
Yellow crazy ants orage day and night, generally when temperatures are – ˚C (Haines &
Haines ; Abbott et al. ). However, in the Solomon Islands, oraging was observed
to be most intense at dusk, when humidity and temperature were relatively high (Greenslade
). Unlike some ant species, use o conspicuous oraging trails is not common (Fotso
Kuate et al. ). High midday temperatures o more than ˚C prevent workers oraging
and activity also declines below ˚C (Abbott et al. ). Rain and strong winds may also
limit oraging (Mau & Kessing ). Increased oraging activit y and nest building have been
observed in the dry season (GISD ). However, Vanderwoude and Abbott () ound
that during prolonged dry periods, workers remain in the nest where they either use storedood or cannibalise their brood and other workers to survive. Baiting during this time is
thereore ineective.
High rainall may be an important actor determining distribution, as events associated
with brood production depend on the onset o the rainy season in Papua New Guinea, the
Seychelles and Christmas Island (Baker ; Haines & Haines ; Abbott et al. ).
Nests are usually made in the soil, in cracks and crevices, under lea litter and in bamboo
sections on the orest oor (GISD ). On Christmas Island, the ants readily take over the
burrows o red land crabs and also nest in the hollow base o allen palm leaves, but they are
also arboreal, nesting in canopy tree hollows and epiphytes (O’Dowd et al. ). In coconut
plantations they nest at the base and crown o the tree (CSIRO ; Young ; Zipcode
Zoo ).
History as a pest elsewhereThe yellow crazy ant is listed by the International Union or the Conservation o Nature’s
Invasive Species Specialist Group (IUCN-ISSG) among examples o some o the ‘world’s
worst invasive species’ (GISD ; Lowe et al. ) and is considered to be one o the
most destructive invasive ant species (Wetterer et al. ). It has caused substantial
environmental harm on numerous islands in Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia, includingPapua New Guinea (Sarnat ; PAPP ), and has achieved a pantropical distribution.
The yellow crazy ant is a ‘quarantine pest’ in the United States (APHIS ) and the
Republic o Korea ( Country report: the Republic o Korea ), but is not listed as an invasive
species in North America (invasive.org ). It was rst recorded in Hawaii in where it
has since become one o the most dominant invasive ant species (Krushelnycky et al. ).
Invasive ants are considered the most signicant invertebrate predators on Hawaii (Gillespie
& Reimer ).
It has been reported as a pest in East Arica, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia
(Borneo), Japan, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Agalega and India (Drescher et al. ;
Way ; Young ; Matsui et al. ; Veeresh ; Bos et al. ; AntWeb ). Its
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impact in the Seychelles is well documented (Lewis et al. ; Haines & Haines ; Haines
et al. ; Feare ; Hill et al. ; Gerlach ). Gerlach () reported predation on
Hawksbill turtle hatchlings ( Eretmochelys imbricata ) on Bird Island, Seychelles.
Predation o invertebrates by yellow crazy ants is widely reported, including small isopods,
myriapods, molluscs, arachnids, land crabs and insects (O’Dowd et al. ; Vanderwoude
et al. ; Jeery ; Gerlach ; K Abbott, Monash University, pers. comm. ;
B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ). Gillespie and Reimer () reported predation and
displacement o endemic spiders in Hawaii. Gerlach () reported a signicant reduction
in native ant species and paussine beetles caused by yellow crazy ants, but no change to
other invertebrates. Hence, the general trend appears to be a decline in species diversity
and abundance; however, ew papers quantiy the impacts (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm.
; Abbott et al. ). Impact is probably dependent on super-colony density (Abbott et
al. ).
Invasive ants can aect native ant–plant mutualisms, such as seed dispersal and pollination,
and alter species composition (Drescher et al. ). Native ants are reported to be displaced
by yellow crazy ants in India (GISD ). Similarly, Abbott (, , ), Bos et al.
() and Savage et al. () ound that native ant diversity is reduced in the vicinity o
yellow crazy ant super-colonies—or example, by up to per cent on islands in the Tokelau
Archipelago. Species aected range in size rom the tiny Monomorium minutula to the larger
Anochetus grafaei (head width . mm) (Abbott et al. ). Only two o the resident
ant species were able to coexist with yellow crazy ants on Christmas Island ( Paratrechina
longicornis and Paratrechina minutum ) (Abbott et al. ). Two dominant predatory ants
Oecophylla smaragdina and Leptogenys processionalis were eliminated by yellow crazy ants
in India (Veeresh & Gubbaiah, ).
Populations o yellow crazy ants in Hawaii have been shown to actively deend owers rom
other nectivores (Lach ).
Gerlach () reported A. gracilipes preying on blind snakes ( Ramphotyphlops braminus)
on Bird Island, Seychelles. Endemic geckoes and skinks are at risk on Christmas Island
(Commonwealth o Australia ).
Haines et al. () reported yellow crazy ants preying on newborn domestic animals such as
pigs, chickens and rabbits.
There is evidence that yellow crazy ants can kill young birds (Matsui et al. ). However,
it is not known whether this is direct predation or deensive. On islands, where birds are
oten ground-nesting and there is a lack o predators, bird populations have been negatively
aected. For example, on Minami-daito Island, Japan, yellow crazy ants inicted atal injuries
on edglings o bull-headed shrike ( Lanius bucephalus ) and Daito white-eye ( Zosterops
japonicas daitoensis ) (Matsui et al. ). Reproductive success in the Daito scops owl
( Otus elegans interpositus ) was not aected, but nesting behaviour was altered with adults
interchanging nesting sites more requently in ant-inested sites (Matsui et al. ).
High densities o yellow crazy ants on Bird Island, Seychelles, are associated with high
densities o coccid scale insects on the native tree Pisonia grandis, causing some tree
mortality and a reduction in the number and density o invertebrate species on oliage and on
the ground (Hill et al. ).
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Yellow crazy ants can aect the health o coee, coconut and sugarcane crops by nesting at
the base o these plants, exposing the roots to disease and reducing yields (GISD ; Mau
& Kessing ; Feare ; Haines et al. ; Wood et al. ). They have been recorded
as a pest o mangoes in India (Srivastava, ). Coconut plantations inested by yellow crazy
ants experienced yield reductions o per cent in Papua New Guinea, due to inestation by thecoconut spathe moth ( Tirathaba ruvena ). Yellow crazy ants are believed to reduce populations
o various predators that normally control spathe moth (Young n.d.). Similarly, damage to
Hawaiian macadamia crops caused by Nezara viridula (green vegetable bug) is greater when
yellow crazy ants dominate, compared to areas patrolled by Pheidole megacephala (big-headed
or coastal brown ant) (Jones et al. ).
On Mahé, Seychelles, the abundance o the sap-sucking insect Ceraplastes rubens,
associated with sooty mould on citrus and cinnamon, sometimes increased a hundredold
in the presence o yellow crazy ants (up to per cent o leaves were inected) (Haines &
Haines ).
A. gracilipes has traditionally been used as a biological control agent in Papua New Guinea
against pod weevil in cacao crops as well as in coconut and coee agroorestr y systems (see
ollowing section). However, the negative impacts o yellow crazy ants would ar outweigh any
potential benet rom biocontrol, even within horticultural systems. The act that this ant will
tend all sap-sucking bugs makes it a pest in horticultural set tings (B Homann, CSIRO, pers.
comm. ).
Although yellow crazy ants do not bite, ormic acid sprayed when they are disturbed can
cause skin burns and eye irritation to arm workers (GISD ; Haines & Haines ;
Haines et al. ; K Abbott, Monash University, pers. comm. ).
Yellow crazy ants are considered troublesome household, building and village pests in someplaces (GISD ; Lewis et al. ; Vanderwoude et al. ; Walsh & Walters ).
Use Yellow crazy ants have been used successully as a biological control agent. A. gracilipes
limits pod weevil ( Pantorhytes szentivanyi , Crematogaster sp., Pheidole spp. and Camponotus
spp.) in cacao crops in Papua New Guinea (McGregor & Moxon ). It is also used as a
biocontrol agent in coconut and coee plantations (GISD ).
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Pest potential in Queensland
Current impact in Australian territory
Christmas Island
The impact o yellow crazy ants on the biodiversity o Christmas Island has been proound.
Originally introduced some years ago, the ant population has increased dramatically in
recent years (CBD ). The Australian Government has spent $. million controlling crazy
ants over hectares o orest between and (Department o Environment and
Heritage a). Between million and million o the island’s iconic red land crabs have
been killed by crazy ants (Wikipedia b). This has caused ‘a rapid and catastrophic’
change within the rainorest ecosystem, as land crabs are a ‘keystone’ species within the
island’s ecosystem (O’Dowd et al. ).
The extinction o the Christmas Island pipistrelle ( Pipistrellus murrayi ) was reported thisyear (IUCN SSC, March ) and is attr ibuted to an increase in crazy ant abundance, which
reduced red crab numbers, causing an increase in the abundance o giant millipedes, which
prey on roosting pipistrelles.
The red crab also provides biotic resistance to other invaders such as the giant Arican
snail ( Achatina ulica ) and some weed species. Thus, a reduction in red crab numbers has
acilitated secondary invasions (Wikipedia b).
Since the crabs are the island’s primary detritus (lea litter etc.) consumers, a reduction in
their numbers has caused signicant changes to orest structure, increasing tree seedling
survival rates and reducing the breakdown o lea litter. This has had ow-on eects on other
species such as the Christmas Island thrush ( Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus ), altering
its oraging success (Davis et al. ; Department o Environment and Heritage ).
The broadscale arming o scale insects by yellow crazy ants has caused an increase in sooty
mould inections, severely reducing canopy health and resulting in tree mortality (O’Dowd et
al. ). The Tahitian chestnut ( Ingocarpus agier ) in particular has been adversely aected
and may become eligible or listing as a ‘vulnerable’ species (Commonwealth o Australia
). Changes to the island’s orests have caused loss o essential breeding habitat or the
endangered Abbott’s booby ( Papasula abbotti ) (Department o Environment and Heritage
b) as well as signicant declines in populations o various skinks, blind snakes, geckos
and bats. Endemic snails and a number o insects appear to have become extinct.
Once yellow crazy ants attained super-colony status on Christmas Island, there was noticeable
predation on turtle hatchlings and coconut crabs (Jeery ).
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Yellow crazy ants have been on North Keeling or a number o years but, as yet, have not
ormed destructive super-colonies (Reid & Hill ). The species is a potential threat to the
endangered endemic bu-banded rail ( Gallirallus philippensis andrewsi ) (Department o
the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts ). I super-colonies develop, the island’s
pisonia orest may be at risk, together with dependent auna (Commonwealth Attorney-
General’s Department ).
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Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
Northern Territory
In Arnhem Land, crazy ants occupy km² (Young et al. ) and are considered a serious
threat to invertebrate auna o the monsoon rainorests (Young et al. ). Invertebrates at
risk include the endangered Gove crow buttery ( Euploea alchathoe enastri ) (Braby & Wilson
). However, this study was unable to nd detailed inormation on their impact.
New South Wales
Forty percent o crazy ant quarantine interceptions in Australia to date occurred in New
South Wales ports. Only one naturalised population has been detected in New South
Wales, at Yamba in , and this was eradicated by (New South Wales Department o
Environment and Conservation ).
Western Australia
Yellow crazy ants have been intercepted in shipping reight arriving at Freemantle
(GISD ).
Current distribution and impact in Queensland Yellow crazy ants were rst detected in in Cairns. Since then, more than additional
sites have been ound, in and around Cairns, Townsville, Hervey Bay, Caboolture and
Brisbane (Table ). The total area o inestation involves at least hectares. Populations at
some o these sites have been eliminated, whereas others are subject to ongoing control.
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Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
Table 1. Locations where yellow crazy ants have been ound in Queensland (current at March )
LocationDetection
date
Infestation
area (ha)Site description
Cairns –
Portsmith
Apr
Apr Industrial
Hamilton Nov n/a Port area
Port o Brisbane Nov n/a Port area
Edmonton –
CreekMay Residential and orest
Caboolture Dec . Timber yard and industrial
Urangan (Hervey
Bay)Mar Timber roo truss actory and industrial
Slacks Creek Mar . Timber yard
Wacol Mar n/a Correctional centre
Banyo Jul . Timber importer
Gordonvale Jul n/a Rural residential
Townsville Jul n/a Port area
Hamilton Aug n/a Timber yard
Cairns –
PortsmithDec n/a Industrial
Cairns –
PortsmithFeb . Port area
Cairns – Worree Mar Industrial – transport company
Tingalpa Apr . Timber staircase actory
Kedron Oct . Industrial
Chermside Feb Timber joinery
Arundel Mar . Timber yard – vacated
Woodridge Mar . Timber roo truss actory
Eagle Farm Mar . Timber joinery
Pinkenba Mar Industrial – transport company
Bentley Park May . New housing development and orest
Townsville –
Mount Saint John Jun Industrial – timber yard and vacant land
Edmonton Aug . Cane paddock, school, roadside
Acacia Ridge Aug Timber yard
Eagle Farm Apr Industrial – transport company
Townsville –
DouglasApr .
Hospital/university housing
accommodation
RockleaApr
May .
Industrial – transport company and old
container park
Townsville –
GarbuttMar . Industrial – timber truss plant
n/a = not availableSource: Department o Employment, Economic Development and Innovation ().
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Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
The total area o land with populations o yellow crazy ants in Queensland is relatively small.
As such, the species is in its very early stages o population development, with minimal
impacts. To date, Biosecurity Queensland has spent more than $ on control. The
species was declared a Class pest in .
O the total number o quarantine border detections in Australia prior to , Brisbane
accounted or per cent (Scanlan & Davis ).
Potential distribution and impact in QueenslandClimate-modelling sotware called Climatch (Bureau o Rural Sciences ) was used to
predict areas o Queensland where climate appears similar to that experienced within the
native range o the species (assumed to be Indonesia, Malaysia/Borneo). Coastal Queensland
appears most suitable (Figure ). The detection o a number o small populations o yellow
crazy ants along the Queensland coast (and in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory) is consistent
with this prediction.
Figure 5. Area o Australia where climate appears suitable or survival o yellow crazy ants. Red andorange are highly suitable, yellow is marginally suitable, and green and blue are unsuitable. Map
produced using Climatch computer sotware (Bureau o Rural Sciences )
Little is known about actors that inuence the success o yellow crazy ant colonies on
the Australian mainland (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ). Research suggests that
the availability o plant-based carbohydrates may play an important role in population
development (Holway et al. ; O’Dowd et al. ). While the impacts o the species
overseas may provide useul insights into its potential impact in Australia, most signicant
impacts are associated with relatively small islands. These islands oten have depauperate
ecosystems (simple ecosystems characterised by relatively low biodiversity). For example,
the impacts o crazy ants on Christmas Island may be somewhat unique, due to unusually
high ant numbers and the presence o a very inuential ‘keystone’ species, the Christmas
Island red crab (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ). Mainland ecosystems are ar morecomplex than on islands and ecologists oten argue that complexity coners resilience to
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Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
invasion. However, Homann and Saul () suggest biotic resistance may not be sufcient
to mediate the spread o yellow crazy ants in northern Australia, despite the presence o
highly competitive native ant communities. Hence, the potential impact o crazy ants on
mainland Australian ecosystems is difcult to predict.
Since yellow crazy ants have well-documented negative impacts on tropical islands around
the world, they can be expected to have a signicant impact on Queensland’s oshore
islands. Other invasive ant species such as Pheidole megacephala, Tetramorium sp. and
Monomorium sp. have already caused widespread mortality o Pisonia grandis populations
on the Capricornia Cays and in the Coral Sea Cays by arming Pulvinaria urbicola (Olds
). These islands host breeding populations o globally threatened sea turtle species
(loggerhead, hawksbill, green and leatherback).
The yellow crazy ant is one o six national priority species o invasive tramp ants likely to
threaten the biodiversity o Australia or its territories (Commonwealth o Australia ). It is
also listed as a ‘key threatening process’ on Christmas Island and in New South Wales.
In New South Wales, the ollowing species may become ‘threatened’ as a result o yellow
crazy ant invasions (New South Wales Department o Environment and Conservation ):
• ants such as Rhytidoponera spp., Pheidole spp. and Paratrechina spp.
• eastern sedgerog Litoria allax
• eastern grass skink Lampropholis delicata
• a burrowing skink Ophioscincus truncates
• a range o other ground-dwelling invertebrates and vertebrates.
In addition to potential impacts on a number o rare and threatened species, yellow crazy ants
are perhaps most likely to cause a general decline in abundance, and perhaps diversity, o a
range o other invertebrates. The degree to which this may happen is difcult to predict and
may be heavily inuenced by competing native ant species.
Considering the impact o yellow crazy ants on various crops overseas, they can be expected
to have some impact on similar crops in Queensland. Perhaps their most signicant impact
will be their eects on the abundance o various sap-sucking insects (e.g. scale insects).
Major eects on human health are not expected, unlike re ants.
Yellow crazy ants could become troublesome pests in towns and cities. While their bites
are not dangerous, they can spray ormic acid, which can irritate people’s skin and eyes
(Figure ).
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Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es
Figure 6. Skin irritation (‘burn’) caused by ormic acid sprayed by yellow crazy ants
A number o Pacic Islands have produced risk assessments or yellow crazy ants, e.g.
Samoa (Nuulua Island) (Vanderwoude et al. ) and Tokelau (PAPP ). A detailedand comprehensive pest risk assessment is available or New Zealand (Abbott et al. ).
Guidelines produced by the IUCN-ISSG recommended the production o a Pacic Ant Prevention
Plan (PAPP) to guide quarantine activities in the region (PAPP ).
Likelihood o additional incursions
Additional incursions o yellow crazy ants into Queensland are inevitable, considering the
previous history o incursions here and elsewhere.
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