YEAR 10 HISTORY SC EXAM PREPARATION

Exam format

Part A – 20 multiple choice(questions will only come from the

compulsory topics)

20 mins MAX

Part B – 30 marks for short answer and extended response

Roughly 1 min per mark

5marks = 5mins15marks = 20 mins

How to prepare?

1 – Create a chronology of events for each of the topics below (from what you were taught in class).

2 – Write answers to the inquiry questions for each topic (see below).

3 – Complete past SC exam questions.

Topic 5 Australia in the Vietnam War Era

Inquiry questionsHow did the Australian government respond to the threat of communism after WWII?Why did Australia become involved in the Vietnam War?How did various groups respond to Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War?What was the impact of the war on Australia and/or neighbouring countries?

Topic 6 Changing Rights and Freedoms

Inquiry questionHow have the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal peoples and other groups in Australia changed during the post-war period?

Topic 7 People Power and Politics in the Post-war Period

Inquiry questionsWhat role has Australia played in international affairs in the post-war period?What have been some important political developments in post-war Australian history?How have significant individuals and groups exercised their democratic rights in the postwar period?

Topic 8: Australia’s Social and Cultural History in the Post-War Period

Inquiry questionWhat have been the major social and cultural features of a post-war decade?

NOTE: Past SC exam papers can be found on Moodle - HHB Fight For Rights

AUSTRALIA IN THE VIETNAM WAR ERA – Compulsory Topic

Outline the key developments in the response to the threat of communism within Australia including the referendum to ban the Communist Party and the Petrov affair.

Foreign policy from 1949 was based on four important beliefs:1 Communism in Asia was a threat to Australia.

2 Australia could not stand alone. It needed strong friends (Britain and the United States).

3 Australia had to show it was a loyal ally by committing itself to Britain’s and America’s fights in Malaya and Vietnam.

4  It was in Australia’s best interests to keep any threats as far away as possible. This was called ‘forward defence’.

Australia joined the Korean War in 1950 in response to 2, 3 and 4 above. Australia signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951 in response to 2 and 4 above. Australia signed the SEATO Alliance in 1954 in response to 2 and 4 above. Australia sent troops to Malaya in 1955 in response to 2, 3 and 4 above. Prime Minister Menzies attempted to have the Australian Communist Party

dissolved, citing responsibility for industrial unrest, strikes, and misuse and negative control of unions.

The Bill was passed in Parliament in April 1950 but was declared unconstitutional by the High Court in March 1951 and so declared null and void.

Menzies then introduced a referendum in September 1951 to change the Constitution to allow the government to make laws in respect of communists and the Communist Party. It was denied by the people.

In the lead-up to the 1954 election Menzies used the Petrov Affair to mobilise voters against the Labor Party and, in particular, its leader Dr H. V. Evatt, thus helping the Liberal-Country Party coalition to be re-elected.

In April 1954 Menzies announced to parliament that an official of the Soviet Embassy in Canberra, Vladimir Petrov, had asked for political asylum and had provided details of a Soviet spy ring operating in Australia. When Soviet officials tried to get his wife, Evdokia, out of the country, they were stopped at Darwin and she, too, was given political asylum. It was enough for the people of Australia to believe that communism was in their midst and Menzies was re-elected on a platform of continuing to fight communism.

The Labor Party split and was not to be a political force again for many years. In July 1962 the first Australians were committed to Vietnam in response to foreign

policy ideals. Conscription for service overseas was introduced in November 1964, when all

young men had to register for military service as they turned 20 years of age. This was an attempt to increase the size of the army. Two years later the first nashos (national servicemen) were sent to Vietnam. Labor opposed sending any soldiers whether they were regulars or conscripts.

In response to growing anti-Vietnam War feelings in Australia, all troops were withdrawn by December 1972.

Australia’s foreign policy demanded Australia become involved because: Communism in Asia was a threat to Australia. Australia could not stand alone. It needed strong friends (Britain and the United

States). Australia had to show it was a loyal ally by committing itself to Britain’s and

America’s fights in Malaya and Vietnam. It was in Australia’s best interests to keep any threats as far away as possible. This

was called ‘forward defence’. Fear of the domino theory being a reality with one country falling to communism,

then the next one and then the next one until Australia too falls.

Supporters of the war

Supported the ideas and ideals of Australia’s foreign policy

Conscientious objectors

Objected to the concept of war itself as many were pacifists Objected to the idea of conscription as it denied the rights of Australian citizens Objected to the idea of national servicemen serving overseas, believing that it was

not Australia’s war and if there were to be conscripts they should only be asked to fight within Australia to defend Australia

The moratorium movement

People wanted a ceasing of Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War as it was ‘not our war’, it was ‘an unwinnable war’ and enough men had been injured or killed.

Many wanted an end to National Service. The establishment of the Save Our Sons movement began a protest campaign against conscription which spread to all states and eventually developed into the moratorium movement as more and more people became involved.

In 1970 two anti-war marches, well organised and peaceful, one in Melbourne and one in Sydney, were called the Vietnam Moratorium marches and focused all the anti-war sentiment. They demonstrated how widespread the anti-war feeling was by then.

The government responded and began to withdraw Australian soldiers from Vietnam.

Assess the impact of the war on the Vietnam veterans and families, the Indochinese refugees, Australian culture or Australia’s relations with Asia.

Vietnam veterans and families

Jungle fighting against irregular guerilla forces using non-standard techniques including mines and chemicals left many soldiers bitter and angry, particularly when they came home not to glory but an anti-war attitude.

The war was lost. No honour was given to the veterans who were left with a feeling of guilt, rejection

and abandonment. There was no official recognition for the returning soldiers. There was no compensation for the physical and mental damage caused by the

war. Many found it hard to return to normal life. Many suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder and turned to violence and

alcohol to solve their problems. Many suffered illnesses such as cancer from the chemicals used as defoliants.

Agent Orange was one such chemical.

Section A: Aboriginal peoples –

Compulsory TopicChange over time: account for continuity and/or change in government policies towards

Aboriginal peoples.

Protection This was government policy during the second half of the 1800s and into the early

1900s. Aboriginal people were removed from their traditional lands and placed on

reserves (government-run) or missions (church-run). The government argument was that this was done ‘for their own protection’, as

they were a ‘dying race’. It was really a policy of segregation where Aboriginal culture could be replaced by

white culture under the control of the authorities and they could be ‘civilised’ and ‘christianised’.

It also allowed land previously occupied by Aborigines to become pastoral land. Aborigines had to seek permission to marry, to work or to move somewhere else to

live. ‘Mixed blood’ or ‘mixed race’ children were removed from their families, the Stolen

Children, and brought up with white families and taught ‘useful’ skills such as domestic work and simple trades. They were labelled as neglected and destitute and Australian governments had had a long policy of removing children ‘at risk’ from their families. It happened on a large scale with Aboriginal children.

Assimilation This was a change in policy but not necessarily a change in reality. This government policy was introduced in 1951 by Paul Hasluck, Federal Minister

for Territories. Aborigines were encouraged to ‘think white, act white, be white’ with the intent

that they would eventually live like white Australians. It forced Aborigines to totally abandon their traditional way of life if they wanted to

gain access to what was offered such as a degree of freedom from the intrusions of the government in their lives on the reserves and missions.

However, discrimination continued in all areas including housing, education, health and employment.

Racism and intolerance continued, and many Aborigines were forced to live on the fringes of towns and were prevented from using public facilities such as town baths.

Even returned Aboriginal soldiers were denied the same rights as their fellow, white, soldiers.

In 1962 all Aborigines were given the right to vote in federal elections, which consolidated their voting rights in the states which had been given to them at various times between 1949 and 1961 and had made them citizens of Australia.

They were still not counted as Australians in the census.

Integration

This was a change in wording and a relaxing of the harsher aspects of the government’s policies but most of the controlling aspects of assimilation remained.

The words defining ‘assimilation’ were changed in 1965 which seemed to allow Aborigines to retain some of their cultural ideas, beliefs and customs, and implied a greater acceptance of their culture and relationship with the land.

This change was soon called ‘integration’. It was not a very long-lasting policy. The 1967 referendum, which gave the federal government power over Aboriginal

affairs (instead of the states), was passed with a massive majority. The referendum also contained a question asking that the constitution be changed

to allow all Aborigines to be counted in the census. This, too, was passed with a massive majority.

Self-determination This was a major change of policy and a major change in reality. It was introduced during the first Whitlam government in 1972. Aborigines were to have full control over all aspects of their lives. They were no longer seen as a dying race. They no longer had to be protected. They were no longer expected to assimilate or integrate. They were now full and equal citizens in the eyes of the law. Land rights and native title to traditional lands now became the major issues.

Group: Examine the experiences of the Stolen Generations through sources. The Stolen Children were the mixed-race children living with their Aboriginal

parent in an Aboriginal setting. Mixed-race children living with their white parent were rarely removed.

They were taken away from their parent/s forcibly. Over a 60-year period more than 100 000 children were removed. It was part of the government’s policy of ‘protecting’ destitute and ‘at risk’

children. Some children were put into foster homes. Many were sent to government and church run institutions where they received

little education and their living conditions hardly improved. Many were forced to leave the institutions when they turned 14, and were

expected to find work as domestic servants or in pastoral work. Some returned to their traditional families but were culturally ignorant. Many were given new, ‘appropriate’ names and often new birth dates. Often they were not told they were Aboriginal. Often they had no idea that they had siblings or other relatives. Many never saw their Aboriginal relatives again. Many were prevented, often physically, from speaking their own language. They were often treated very badly and lived as virtual slave labour in their

adopted families. Some were treated very well and settled into white Australia and took advantage

of what was offered to them. Many suffered confusion and could not settle in either white or black society but

were somewhere in between. As part of the reconciliation process of the 1990s, the plight of the Stolen

Generations was brought to the attention of the Australian public for the first time.

People reacted to reconciliation and the Stolen Generations with the idea of a Sorry Day.

The government refused to say ‘Sorry’ or to offer the Stolen Generations compensation, instead noting with regret the past attitudes and behaviour towards the Aborigines.

Outline and explain the significance and the role of the 1967 Referendum, land rights and native title in the struggle of Aboriginal peoples for rights and freedoms.An outline of the 1967 ReferendumThere were two parts to the referendum: to change the constitution so that Aboriginal people could be counted as part of the population, and to change the constitution to allow the Commonwealth to make laws to help improve conditions for Aboriginal people, no matter where they lived in Australia. The significance of the 1967 ReferendumFor Aboriginal people

It shows a major change in government attitudes and Australian citizens’ attitudes towards Aborigines and their rights.

It meant uniformity of laws for Aborigines as they were no longer under the individual states’ laws which were very different on some issues.

Having been recognised as citizens over the previous five or so years, and being counted in the census, confirmed their status as Australian citizens.

There was an expectation that Aborigines would get equal rights and opportunities as a result of the passing of this referendum. It did not happen but it was a beginning.

It opened the door for other advances. It brought representation in parliament. It brought membership of parliament. It brought better employment. It brought better education. It opened up the possibility of land rights and native title. It opened up the possibility for less discrimination. It brought equal opportunity. It recognised Aboriginal law.

For Australia It was a major change in attitude and approach to Aboriginal affairs from both

government and the people. It opened the door to multiculturalism through the acceptance and tolerance of the

rights of Aborigines to retain and practise their culture being carried over into acceptance and tolerance of other races.

An outline of land rights and native title ‘Terra nullius’, which denied the Aborigines land rights and native title, had been in

existence since white settlement when Australia was deemed to be a ‘land belonging to no-one’.

Over the first 150 years of white settlement successive governments and pastoralists had forced the Aborigines off their land.

In 1938 on Australia Day, some Aborigines held a Day of Mourning to mourn the loss of their land and their rights. Although they received sympathy and some understanding, nothing changed.

In the early 1960s Aborigines were granted voting rights which seemed to give them equality as citizens.

The first attempt to assert native title was in 1963 when the Yirrkala people requested the federal government to prevent bauxite mining on their land. The petition was refused and the appeal to the High Court was also rejected. The concept of terra nullius was confirmed.

In 1972 a Tent Embassy was established on the grounds in front of Parliament House (now Old Parliament House).

In 1973 the Woodward Royal Commission investigated ways for the government to return land to the Aborigines without affecting ownership by other Australians.

The 1976 Aboriginal Land Rights Bill (C’wealth) was passed to implement some of the Woodward Royal Commission’s recommendation in the Northern Territory.

In 1982 Eddie Mabo began his case for Native Title on Mer (Murray) Island in the Queensland courts.

1985 Uluru and Katajuta returned to their traditional owners. 1992 A decision confirming Eddie Mabo’s and others’ ownership of the land on Mer

Island overturned the concept of terra nullius. A second case, the Wik case, confirmed in Queensland that pastoralists and miners

were to negotiate with the traditional owners of the land to allow access.

The significance of land rights and native title The end of terra nullius granted Aborigines the right to claim ownership of their

traditional lands ‘as long as they could prove continuous occupation’ and meet certain other criteria.

The end of terra nullius recognised that the Aborigines had ‘owned’ the land before the arrival of the white settlers.

Many people in Australia remain confused about whether the land they ‘own’ can be re-claimed by the local Aboriginal group and, in response to the Wik decision, the laws were, once again, tightened making it harder for Aborigines to claim land.

Australia as a global citizen – Compulsory TopicOutline key developments, assess an achievement and explain the purposes of the regional agreements.

Outline key developments of Australia’s role within the UN In 1945 Australia joined the United Nations as one of the founding nations and

since then has adopted many of the UN conventions ranging from anti-discrimination and women’s rights to control of trade in endangered species (CITES) and the protection of the natural environment.

In 1947 Australia sent observers with the UN Commission supervising Indonesia’s move to independence from Holland.

In 1948 Dr H V Evatt was elected President of the General Assembly. He also chaired the United Nations Special Commission on Palestine in 1947 and was involved in the drafting of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

In 1950 Australia sent troops to assist the United Nations in Korea. In 1956 Australia sent troops to assist the United Nations with the Suez Crisis. In 1991 Australia sent troops to assist the United Nations with the Gulf War. In 1999 INTERFET was sent to East Timor to assist the United Nations in the

transition of East Timor to independence. Australia is involved in, among many other organisations, the World Health

Organisation, the United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency.

Australia provides peacekeeping and humanitarian aid in many countries, ranging from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe.

Assess an achievementSpecial note: When asked to ‘assess’ anything you are being asked to ‘make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes’ (Board of Studies Key Words definitions). Whichever achievement you choose to look at, and that could range from Australia’s involvement in the Korean War and INTERFET to UNESCO and our response to the tsunami disaster, you must judge whether what happened was done well or badly, properly or improperly, with great effect or with little effect, appropriately or inappropriately. It is not good enough only to discuss or explain what happened.Do not be afraid to use phrases such as

‘Australia’s contribution cannot be under-rated because . . .’ ‘The value of Australia’s contribution cannot be ignored despite . . .’ ‘The quality of the contribution Australia made had a profound affect on the overall

outcome because it . . .’ ‘The outcome of Australia’s involvement in the war was profound as it . . .’ ‘Australia’s contribution was extremely important because . . .’

Explain the purposes of Australia’s regional agreements, including the Colombo Plan and APEC

MilitaryANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, the United States)

Established 1951 Implied mutual defence if one country should be attacked but not really binding

Main purpose was to strengthen Australia’s alliance with the United States No longer exists since New Zealand refused to allow US ships to enter its harbours

in 1986 as they were suspected of being nuclear-powered and carrying nuclear weapons

SEATO (South-East Asia Treaty Organisation) Established 1954 An anti-communist arrangement of countries united for mutual support against the

spread of communism A formal expression of Australia’s four-step foreign policy of the period

EconomicColombo Plan

Established 1950 To assist economic and social development of less-developed countries in South

East Asia Origins in a meeting of the British Commonwealth countries’ foreign ministers in

Colombo Its purpose was that, by assisting these countries, they would be less likely to fall

to communism The Plan, which has been revised several times over the past 50 plus years, helps

in areas as diverse as drug control and business administration

APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation) Established 1983 Its 21 ‘member economies’ make up more than a third of the world’s population

and conduct almost half the world’s trade Australia conducts more than 75% of its exports through APEC countries Its purpose was ‘to promote economic development, trade and investment among

its member nations’ Recently APEC’s role is changing to include issues such as terrorism, SARS and the

bird flu (avian influenza)

South Pacific Forum established 1993

to assist in economic arrangements, both trade and support, for countries of the South Pacific area

Women - Option StudyWomen’s liberationists after World War II

Their main aim was to re-educate men and women into a different way of perceiving women’s place and role in society.

They aimed to promote better educational opportunities for women. They wanted an end to discrimination. They wanted an end to sexism and the exploitation of women. They wanted equality for women in the workplace, in society generally and at

home. They took part in lobbying, protests, sit-ins, read-ins and what was called ‘direct

action’. Germaine Greer became an outspoken member of this movement and published a

book called The Female Eunuch in which she challenged the traditional views of women’s role in society and demanded greater equality. She was as critical of the women who accepted the traditionally passive role and equally critical of the men who allowed it to happen.

Eventually the women’s liberationists forced through a policy of affirmative action in which women’s rights were enforced through the introduction of specific laws such as controlling the type of language used, opening up educational opportunities specifically for women, the provision of refuges for women who were subjected to physical violence in the home, providing maternity leave so that women did not have to resign when they became pregnant, and the Equal Opportunity Act 1986.

Women’s liberationThis was a movement of the 1960s and 1970s designed to raise awareness of the inequality of women in the home and in the workplace. Women’s libbers aimed to change the thinking of both men and women about the role of women in society.

Germaine GreerAuthor of The Female Eunuch, a major book of the women’s movement of the 1960s and 1970s, she exposed the inequalities of men and women in society. She remained an activist for women’s issues for many years.

Equal pay for women The United Nations drew attention to the problems of equal pay for equal work for

women in its 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In 1958 the government of NSW introduced equal pay for women in its employ as

long as they were doing the same work as men, but not for women whose work was usually carried out by women. It was not automatic and women had to wait for the law to be phased in over the next five years and then apply to the Industrial Commission to have their work verified as equal in value to that of men.

Equal pay was granted to women in education in 1959. In 1969 the Federal Equal Pay Case was introduced, but again it was qualified. The basic wage remained differentiated. In 1972 the Equal Pay Case advocated the Equal Pay Principle pointing out that

jobs essentially worth the same should be paid the same. In 1974 a minimum adult wage was established.

None of these laws were fully implemented and in the year 2006 the average weekly wage for women remains less than the average weekly wage for men—see the website http://www.abs.gov.au

PEOPLE POWER AND POLITICS IN THE POSTWAR PERIOD – Option Study

Gough Whitlam (Labor) 1972–75

1 The great reformer, he introduced a huge range of reforms, from free university education, the establishment of Medicare, anti-discrimination laws, the removal of race as an issue for immigration and the establishment of the Heritage Commission to a wide range of women’s issues and changes to foreign affairs (took Australia out of the Vietnam War). *Incredibly important issues for both short- and long-term effects.

2  Problems within government as they were inexperienced, corrupt and scandalous. *Massive impact on the lives of Australians because the government’s eventual dismissal caused deep divisions within Australia which are still not fully resolved.

Whitlam dismissal Whitlam was dismissed on 11 November 1975 and became the only Prime Minister to have been dismissed from office. It occurred because Whitlam had a hostile Senate controlled by the opposition, who used its power to delay the passage of the Supply Bills.It also occurred because two Labor/pro-Labor senators had been replaced by two Liberal/pro-Liberal senators creating an even more hostile Senate. Whitlam believed he had time to try to force the Bills through the Senate so he refused to resign. There had been a series of scandals involving government ministers. Although Whitlam had been elected in 1972 and should not have needed to go to the people with another election until 1975, he did not control the Senate and, to try to gain control of the Senate, he had called for a double dissolution election in 1974 when it should have been only a half-Senate election to try to gain a majority. The dismissal caused a huge controversy which continues to this day.

Sir John Kerr The governor general appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of Gough Whitlam, then prime minister. After receiving advice from various people, he resolved to solve the impasse created by Whitlam’s refusal to resign by dismissing him. He used the ‘reserve powers’ of the governor-general, as written in the Constitution, under which he had the power to dismiss a prime minister if that person could no longer govern. In the opinion of Kerr, Whitlam could no longer exercise his role as prime minister because he could not guarantee supply and therefore he should resign. When he did not, Kerr exercised his reserve powers. Many believed that Kerr did not have the power to dismiss the prime minister and that Whitlam should have been given the opportunity to go to the people for another election. Others believed that Whitlam should have done the ‘right thing’ and resigned before Kerr was forced to act, as other prime ministers had done in the past and that Kerr, indeed, had the power to do what he did.

Decade Study: Postwar Australia (Option Study)

The impact of changing technology on everyday life in postwar Australia The social and cultural features of one postwar decade

1950sTechnologyHousing

It was period of a rapid housing boom and increasing spread of suburbia. Owning your own home on the quarter-acre block became the ideal and was

usually met with plenty of low cost land and low interest rates available for loans. The advent of the (reasonably) cheap car made living in the suburbs possible.

Land was totally cleared of all trees and shrubs which led to suburbs of houses in bare streets.

New building products such as concrete, fibro, masonite and gyprock meant faster building.

Prefabricated homes for self-builders were also developed. Very few of the new suburbs had the necessary infrastructure such as sewerage,

schools and transport, though electricity and water supplies and sometimes gas were installed.

Houses became simplified, functional and boring. It was cheaper. Lino (an early vinyl) and laminex dominated the kitchen and bathroom. It was

utilitarian, hardwearing, durable and available. Lino was water-proof, stain-proof and colourful and it did not matter how bad the

wood was underneath or whether it was laid on concrete. It worked. However, stiletto heels could make a mess of it as they punched holes in the floor.

Laminex meant a durable surface on a cheaply made box-frame underneath using composite woods which could not take being wet. It was used in kitchens, bathrooms and laundries.

The house on its block was fenced in, usually with a paling fence separating neighbours and a low brick wall or brick and wire wall facing the road.

The toilet moved inside and was a separate room from the bathroom. There was a separate garage at the end of a long drive from the front to the back

of the block usually with a ‘workshop’ in the back half.

Home appliances New electrical whitegoods, generally meant to be labour saving, were becoming

cheaper and more affordable. Electric and gas ovens replaced wood-burning stoves. Refrigerators replaced the icebox which meant that shopping no longer had to be

done daily. Freezers were incorporated into the fridge and led to an expanding supply of

frozen goods. Electric and gas hot water systems meant hot water at the turn of a tap and not

having to wait for the water to boil on the stove. The Mixmaster by Sunbeam made home cooking easier. Electric kettles, pop-up toasters and electric irons appeared which was just as well

because the wood-fired stove top which used to do these jobs had disappeared.

Table-top electric sewing machines with all sorts of add-ons became available, sending mothers back to producing clothes for the family.

The electric washing machine replaced the copper boiler and wringer and this, in turn, meant more synthetics were used, particularly for bed linen.

Entertainment Radio and the picture theatres remained the most common forms of entertainment

through the early 1950s. Towards the end of the decade FM radio was introduced and ‘pirate’ radio stations

began to broadcast pop music for younger people. Many of these stations became formal stations later and remain youth focused-today.

Talkback radio began but was limited by the technology. Public sporting events drew big crowds particularly to the various codes of local

football which were considered ‘common’ and ‘lowbrow’ entertainments by those not involved.

Opera, plays and concerts remained the entertainment of the elite of society and was consider ‘highbrow’ and ‘cultured’ by those involved.

In 1956 television was introduced to Australia but was still extremely expensive and you had to buy a licence to own a set.

In 1956 the first television broadcast was from TCN-9 Sydney, followed by GTV-9 Melbourne, HSV7 Melbourne and, eventually, ABC-TV Sydney just in time for the Melbourne Olympic Games.

Graham Kennedy began In Melbourne Tonight. Open air film theatres of the 1920s and 30s, which had transformed into drive-in

theatres, remained important venues but were in decline. ‘Going for a drive’ became a favourite outing for families. It was cheap, easy to

organise and flexible.

Transport Because of its distances, Australia has always relied on the railway and the motor

car and for many years we had the highest per capita ownership of private vehicles.

Railways stagnated from the 1880s with steam remaining the most common form of propulsion but the arrival of diesel technology in the mid to late 1950s changed travel by train to a more pleasant event.

Holden produced its first vehicle designed specifically for Australian conditions in 1953, the FJ Holden, which became an icon of the period and demand always exceeded supply.

In the post-war years heavy trucks, which had been left here by the US Army and were no longer being used by the Australian army, were sold-off and pushed into service to establish long-haul cartage and carrying companies to compete against the unreliable sea-going coastal shipping companies.

Similarly, troop transports formed the foundation for bus companies, which developed to service the growing suburbs and break the isolation of those suburbs where no transport infrastructure had been built.

Aeroplanes, which had proven their worth during the war, were now pressed into service as commercial transport, and returning pilots found work in these industries flying DC3s as passenger transports.

Qantas began its first international service in 1958. In 1956 the Circular Quay underground railway loop was opened in Sydney.

Communications Distances made fast communication difficult, hence the development of the postal

air service and the telegraph line by the turn of the 20th century. Postwar, using the telephone to ring a distant telephone number meant going

through an operator using a hand-linked machine called a Sylvester Board. Depending on the distance involved this could require several operators to complete the connection. Telephone users in the country also often shared ‘party’ lines where the operator/s and anybody on the same line, could hear the conversations.

The telegram was used if there was a special message or an emergency, as it was sent by overland telegraph cable in code and translated at the other end. It was delivered by hand by a telegram boy.

The first Xerox photocopier was invented in 1958 and its use spread quickly across the world from the United States.

Social and cultural featuresFashion

‘Elegant’, ‘conservative’ and ‘stylish’ are the words synonymous with 1950s clothing for both men and women.

Women usually wore a hat and gloves when they went out. Men usually wore a suit, even if they worked at a manual job, with a white shirt,

short back and sides haircut and a hat. Towards the end of the 1950s, as the austerity of the war receded and rationing

ended, clothes became brighter influenced more by the changing fashions of the United States rather than the conservative fashions of Britain.

In the late 1950s ‘bodgies’ and ‘widgies’ appeared, influenced by the leather bikie fashions of the ultimate rebel, James Dean, in Rebel Without a Cause, East of Eden and Giant. These fashions were to be revived in the musical stage show Grease in 1972 and later the film.

Music In 1950 Joan Sutherland won the Mobil Quest, after winning the Sydney Sun Aria in

1949 and headed off to Europe to begin an illustrious career in opera. The early 1950s were characterised by the crooners and bobby-soxers of the Frank

Sinatra era, with Bing Crosby and Rosemary Clooney still favourites of the older generations.

The era of rock and roll began in the mid-1950s influenced by American movies and music, with ‘Rock Around the Clock’ from the film Blackboard Jungle really taking off in Australia, particularly when sung on TV by Johnny O’Keefe.

Elvis Presley became a world-wide phenomenon and younger people flocked to his films and looked for films of his performances wherever they could. The older audiences thought his performances ‘obscene’ because his swinging hips were too suggestive and many of his films were censored.

In 1958 a Sydney radio station published the first Australian Top 40 chart following a common practice in the United States.

Entertainment

In 1955 Barry Humphries’ alter-ego Edna Everage made her first appearance on stage in Melbourne.

Radio was king. Children listened to radio serials in the afternoon or the very popular ABC radio programs in the 5 to 6 pm evening timeslot and Mum and Dad listened to more adult soap opera sagas in the evening.

The radiogram was developed further and became cheaper, and with the advent of the 33 rpm long playing record, it became another important feature of home entertainment.

As the availability of television expanded so did the influence of the United States which flooded the market with sitcoms such as I Love Lucy, game shows and music shows.

British television countered with long dramas and soap operas. Australian content remained important. Bob Dyer’s Pick-a-box, which had been a

travelling theatre show, transferred over to television. Popular music shows also transferred to television and again brought the American

influence to the fore with filmed performances of popular groups and visiting artists appearing on live television.

Bandstand on commercial television and Six O’Clock Rock on the ABC became the icons of the late 1950s rock music scene in Australia and were, for their time, very advanced.

In ‘pubs’ men drank in the public bar and women only entered the ‘Lounge’.

Sport In 1956 the Melbourne Olympics brought international sport to Australia and

created some icons. In the 1500 metres foot race in the National Championships just before the

Olympics, John Landy was running well when his friend, Ron Clarke, was tripped and fell. Landy stopped, went back, helped Clarke to his feet and both resumed the race. Despite the distance lost and with only two laps to make up the distance, Landy went on to win the race—and the hearts and minds of all Australians. He later won the Bronze in the Olympics in the same event.

Ron Clarke set 17 world records in long-distance running. Betty Cuthbert won three gold medals in the sprinting. Murray Rose (3 gold) and Dawn Fraser (2 gold, 1 silver) dominated the swimming

for Australia. Ken Rosewall won a series of major titles in tennis in the latter half of the 1950s

becoming one of the most enduring tennis players Australia had ever produced.

Art, literature and science A Town Like Alice by Neville Shute was published in 1950. In 1951 myxomatosis was developed to combat the rabbit plagues. In 1953 Britain exploded the first in a series of trial atomic bombs at Woomera and

Maralinga in South Australia. In 1954 Mawson Base was established on Antarctica and became the most

southerly human habitation. The first mass use of the Salk vaccine against polio occurred in 1956.

British or American influences on popular culture British influence remained dominant with the older generations but was

challenged during the 1950s by the United States and, more importantly, the arrival in Australia of more and more non-British migrants.

American films, comic books, fiction, music, fashion and dance all brought increasing influences from the United States building on the changes brought during World War II. The influences were new, energetic, challenging and, above all, different from those of previous generations.