Xword Grammar Exercises for Students of English as a...

Xword Grammar Exercises for Students

of English as a Second Language

Jim Lydon

Revised April 1993 by Judith Coppock Gex Revised 2004 by Bonny Hart

Xword Grammar for Students of English as a Second Language [

Lesson 1: Xwords...........................................................................................................page 1

Lesson 2: Verbs and Verb Forms................................................................................ page 3

Lesson 3: The Relationship between xwords and Verbs......................................... page 5

Lesson 4: What is the difference between Vb and Vns? / Infinitives ................ page 7

Lesson 5: How to find the subject of a sentence in sentences with xwords...... page 9

Lesson 6: Negative Statements................................................................................. page 11

Lesson 7: Yes/No Questions ..................................................................................... page 15

Lesson 8: Information Questions............................................................................. page 17

Lesson 9: Do, Does, Did.............................................................................................. page 19

Lesson 9 ½: Do as a principal verb............................................................................page 25

Lesson 10: Have, Has, and Had .................................................................................page 27

Lesson 11: Have to.......................................................................................................page 29

Lesson 12: Used to...................................................................................................... page 31

Lesson 13: The Future................................................................................................page 33

Lesson 14: The main word of the subject ...............................................................page 37

Lesson 15: Equal words...............................................................................................page 39

Lesson 16: Describers and Numbers........................................................................ page 41

Lesson 17: Determiners..............................................................................................page 43

Lesson 18: Prepositional phrases ..............................................................................page 45

Lesson 19: Gerunds: Introduction/Gerunds as Subjects .....................................page 49

Lesson 20: Gerunds in prepositional phrases.......................................................... page 51

Lesson 21: Using gerunds after verbs .....................................................................page 53

Lesson 22: Infinitives ................................................................................................page 55

Lesson 23: Predicates ................................................................................................page 59

Lesson 24: Introduction to Clauses .........................................................................page 63

Lesson 25: Shifter Clauses .......................................................................................page 67

Lesson 26: Describer Clauses ...................................................................................page 73

Lesson 27: The Completer Clause.............................................................................page 77

Xword Grammar Exercises for Students of ESL ©Lydon&Gex

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Lesson 1: Xwords There is a group of very important words in English. They are called xwords. They are important in the language because they do so much work. Here are the things that xwords are used for:

Xwords are also called auxiliary words or helping verbs

1) they are used to ask questions, 2) they are used to make negative statements 3) they are used to find the subject of a sentence 4) they are used to change tense 5) they are used to add meaning

Here are the 21 xwords: The “have” group The “do” group The “be” group The “pairs” group “ought to”

and the “m” group

have has had

do does did

am is are was were

can shall will

could should would

ought to must might may

We can arrange the xwords any way we wish. I have put them this way because I think it is easier to remember them if I put them in groups.

• The first group I call the “have” group. • I call the next group the “do” group because it contains the words do, does,

and did. • Then we have the “be” group (am, is, are, was, were). • I remember the next six xwords by thinking of them as pairs. • Last there is “ought to” and the three xwords that begin with the letter “m”

You can remember the xwords by singing them to the tune of Jingle Bells. Try it. Later on, we will study more about the different things that xwords do in English, but for now, let’s just practice identifying them in sentences.


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Lesson 1: Exercise Directions: Read the sentences below. There is at least one xword in each sentence. Some sentences have two xwords. Find the xword and place an X over it. X

1. Most of the students in this class are from South America.

2. Community colleges have helped many students become successful.

3. Students at this college can take a variety of different courses.

4. He does not want to go to the movies with us.

5. Be sure to take your umbrella. It may rain later.

6. You should talk to the teacher if you are having trouble.

7. I have never met your parents.

8. If I had stayed in my country, I would probably be married now.

9. We were just leaving when you called.

10. Every student in the college must take English and mathematics.

11. She has finished all of her homework.

12. We do not plan to go to Europe this summer.

13. If you give me the money, I will buy the book for you.

14. When I was a child, I spoke Spanish, French, and German.

15. They did not want a child until they felt they could afford one.

16. I am afraid that he might not pass the course.

Practice: Write the 21 xwords here:

Practice: Find the xwords in a newspaper or magazine article.


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Lesson 2: Verbs and Verb forms Verbs are words that express the action in a sentence. They are also the words that carry time meaning.

Example: Joe runs every day. The verb, runs, expresses the action. Joe ran yesterday. The verb, ran, tells us the action was in the past.

In English, every verb has six forms. Here are the six forms with examples.

Base form

no” s” form

“s” form

-ing form

past form

past participle form

go go goes going went gone

take take takes taking took taken

eat eat eats eating ate eaten

clean clean cleans cleaning cleaned cleaned

dance dance dances dancing danced danced

Have you noticed that the base form and the no “s” form are the same? They look the same, but they are really very different. I will explain this more later. We will use these abbreviations to help us talk about the verb forms more easily.

Vb � Base form VnoS � no “s” form VS � “s” form Ving � -ing form Vp � Past form Vpp � Past participle form

Regular and irregular verbs.

Look again at the verbs above. Clean and dance are regular verbs. Study the endings of clean and dance. What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs?

irregular means not regular

�Rule: A regular verb adds –ed to the Vp and the Vpp does not change the spelling of the base


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Lesson 2 Exercise: Directions: Here are some regular verbs. Write the 6 verb forms of each. I have done the first one for you.

Vb VnoS Vs Ving Vp Vpp help help helps helping helped helped

live * * *

repeat

listen

study * * * *Spelling note: 1) when a verb ends in silent e, drop the e before you add ing or ed; 2) when a verb ends in a consonant + y, change the y to i, when you add es or ed Exercise 3: Directions: Here are some irregular verbs that you should know. Write as many of the verb forms as you can.

Vb VnoS Vs Ving Vp Vpp bring

make

get

have

ride

A good English dictionary will help you with the forms of irregular verbs. Remember: always look up the Vb form. Dictionaries usually provide the Vp and Vpp. The Vp is listed first. A dictionary might also spell the Ving form. Here is an example: come v. came, come, coming

Review: Write the Rule: A regular verb ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


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Lesson 3 The Relationship between xwords and verb forms In Lessons 1 and 2 we learned the 21 xwords and the 6 forms of every English verb. Now we will look at the VERY IMPORTANT relationship that exists between xwords and verb forms. That is:

• Certain verb forms must always appear with certain xwords • Certain verb forms must never appear with an xword.

It is necessary to understand these relationships. This chart shows which xwords and verb forms go together.

have has had

Vpp

do does did

Vb

am is are was were

Ving, Vpp, or

no verb

can / could will / would shall/should

Vb

ought to must might may

Vb

�Notice: 13 of the 21 xwords go only with Vb. Lesson 3 Exercise 1 Practice: The chart above is organized by xwords. Now write the same information organized by the six forms of the verb.

Vb goes with these xwords:

VnoS goes with these xwords:

Vs goes with these xwords:

Ving goes with these xwords:

Vp goes with these xwords:

Vpp goes with these xwords:

1 ______ 2 ______ 3 ______ 4 ______ 5 ______ 6 ______ 7 ______ 8 ______ 9 ______ 10 ______ 11 ______ 12 ______ 13 ______

1 ______ 2______ 3______ 4______ 5______

1______ 2______ 3______ 4______ 5______ 6______ 7______ 8______

These charts tell us that Vs, VnoS, and Vp never appear with xwords.


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Good news! The six forms of the verb and the 21 xwords together, make all of the verb tenses in English.

Lesson 3 Exercise 2 Directions: In each of the sentences below, the verb is in italics. Identify the form of each verb by placing the abbreviation of the form above it and place an X over the xword in each sentence.

X Vpp Example 1: The children have returned home from school. X Ving Example 2: I am leaving for California on Saturday.

1. I can work overtime tonight and tomorrow night

2. I have never seen the movie Titanic

3. We could not find the store you told us about.

4. White wine is usually served with poultry and fish

5. They are eating in the cafeteria

6. I had already gone to bed when you called.

7. You must never speak to your parents like that again.

8. He does not understand this lesson very well.

9. I would like you to meet my girlfriend.

10. My car was stolen last night.

Lesson 3 Exercise 3 In these sentences the verbs are in italic print again, but notice that in these sentences, there are no xwords. That means that the verb forms are either VnoS, Vs, or Vp. Identify the verb forms.

1. I ate in a nice Italian restaurant last Saturday night.

2. We like to go to Manhattan when we have time.

3. He only visits us when he needs something.

4. They arrived from Germany last night at about 10:30 pm.

5. I often think of you when I am lonely.

6. She speaks English and Chinese fluently.

7. You always say the right thing at the right time.

8. He read the whole book last night.


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Lesson 4 What is the difference between Vb and VnoS? Infinitives VnoS and Vb look exactly the same, but they are used very differently in a sentence.

Remember: VnoS and Vs make the simple present tense. The simple present talks about habits and truths.

We take the subway to work. He takes the subway to work. The sun rises in the east.

Learn: Vb is used after most xwords.

Note to Spanish-speakers: Never use the infinitive after an xword. Wrong: I can to dance. Right: I can dance.

Lesson 4 Exercise 1

Directions: In each of the sentences below, the verb form is either Vb or VnoS. If you think the verb form in the sentence is the BASE FORM, put a circle around Vb. If you think the verb form is the no-s form of the simple present, put a circle around the VnoS.

Vb always appears with an xword. VnoS never appears with an xword.

1. Vb VnoS My brother and his wife live in Brooklyn.

2. Vb VnoS My father may live to be 100 years old.

3. Vb VnoS I may take a trip to Hawaii in June

4. Vb VnoS I usually take the subway to work in bad weather.

5. Vb VnoS Bob and Sal play baseball for the team.

6. Vb VnoS We don’t play cards as much as we used to.

7. Vb VnoS You should try to eat more fresh vegetables.

8. Vb VnoS Do you eat cereal in the morning?

9. Vb VnoS They can’t seem to understand math.

10. Vb VnoS Children today eat too many sweets.


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Lesson 4 Exercise 2

Directions: Use these verbs to write 8 sentences: 4 sentences with the verb form VnoS and 4 sentences with Vb.

Remember: • Use VnoS with I, We, You, or

They to talk about truths or habits in the “present tense”. I usually drink coffee.

• Vb must always appear with one of its 13 xwords. I might drink tea today.

Verb Form Sentence:

1. sleep Vb _______________________________________________

2. sleep VnoS _______________________________________________

3. go Vb _______________________________________________

4. go VnoS _______________________________________________

5. eat Vb _______________________________________________

6. eat VnoS _______________________________________________

7. take Vb _______________________________________________

8. take VnoS _______________________________________________

A little bit about infinitives

• The infinitive in English is the “to VB” form: to go, to feel, to eat • Infinitives are abbreviated Vinf • Infinitives can follow certain verbs, such as want, like, and need.

She wants to go to college. We like to watch TV. I need to buy eggs at the store.

Remember: An infinitive never follows an xword.


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Lesson 5 How to find the subject of a sentence in sentences with xwords In lesson 1, we said that xwords were important for five reasons


Let’s look at number 3. In this lesson, you will learn how to use xwords to find the subject of a sentence. It’s really easy to find the of the sentence if you know the xwords. If you want to find the subject of any sentence, all you have to do is to find the xword. Everything in between the beginning of the sentence and the X is the subject.

English is a word order language.

Example 1:

� --------------------------X

X The president’s office is located on the fifth floor of the E Building.

The president’s office is the subject of the sentence.

Example 2 � ------------------X

X ESL students should try to find opportunities to practice English.

ESL students is the subject of the sentence because it comes between the two positions of the X.

We can show the subject of the sentence by placing a box around it and by putting the letter S for subject over it. S

ESL students should try to find opportunities to practice English.


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Lesson 5 Exercise 1 Directions: Find the xword in each of the following sentences and place an X over it. Then place a box around the subject and put an S over the box. Try to mark the forms of the verbs, too. I have done the first one for you. S X Ving

1. My wife and I are thinking about going to Ecuador to visit.

2. We have been in New York for ten years.

3. Our children have never met their grandparents.

4. They would like an opportunity to become acquainted.

5. Many of our cousins are strangers to us.

6. That must be Juan at the door.

7. My boyfriend and I are checking out the job opportunities.

8. The fastest way to learn accurate English is to read.

9. Her father, her son, and her two brothers have begun a business.

10. The apartments in the new building on the corner are said to be expensive.

11. The presidential elections in the United States are held every four years.

12. My brother and his wife were mugged on the subway last night.

Lesson 5 Exercise 2 Write three sentences with xwords. Mark the subjects, xwords and verbs. 1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 6: Negative Statements In lesson 1, we said that xwords were important for five reasons


Let’s look at number 2. You have learned that some sentences have xwords and some (VnoS, Vs, Vp) do not. In this lesson you will learn how to make negative statements in sentences that have an xword. The rule is simple.

Rule: to change an affirmative sentence to a negative sentence, just add the word “not” or it’s contraction “n’t” to the xword.

xword + not = negative.

Here are two examples: X X

It’s raining outside. � It’s not raining outside. X X

The doctor can see you now. � The doctor can not see you now.

Contractions of not. In everyday speech, we usually contract not . Here is a guide.

haven’t hasn’t hadn’t

don’t doesn’t didn’t

*am not isn’t aren’t wasn’t weren’t *am not doesn’t contract.

*can’t shall� shan’t will� won’t *can’t, cannot, and can not are all OK

couldn’t shouldn’t wouldn’t

*ought not to *must not *might not *may not *contractions are OK but not common in American English.


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“N” words We have been talking about not. There are other words used to make negatives in English, but they are much less common. Most of the time, we use not.

“N” words not never no none

Rule: Never use more than one “N” word in a sentence. This is called a “double negative” .

Not so simple I said that the rule for making negatives in sentences with xwords is simple. It is. Correcting bad habits with not and other “N” words is not simple. Here are some examples of common mistakes: Incorrect: Correct: I no can come to class next Wednesday. I can’t come to class next Wednesday. He can’t never get it right. He can’t ever get it right. You should no eat that. You should not eat that. He doesn’t live here no more. He doesn’t live here anymore. I can’t find my pen nowhere. I can’t find my pen anywhere.

Learn these pairs. We will practice with them in Exercise 2. no � any none � any never � ever no more � anymore nowhere � anywhere no place � anyplace no one � anyone nobody � anybody nothing � anything

Lesson 6 Exercise 1 Directions: Place an x over the xword in each sentence. Then, rewrite each sentence as a negative sentence.

1. We will be able to come to the party.

2. Now is the time to discuss your personal problems.

3. Shakespeare was considered the greatest playwright in the French language.


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4. John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Washington, D.C.

5. Peter can lift 200 pounds.

6. We can get HBO on our TV.

7. She has always liked tea better than coffee.

8. You must take the elevator in case of a fire.

9. You should take the #5 train to go to Times Square.

10. They have lived in New York for 25 years.

11. You ought to smoke Camel cigarettes.

12. He might go to college next fall.

13. Her English has improved.

14. She is cooking dinner for 25 people on Thursday.

15. Weather prediction is becoming more accurate.

16. It will rain this afternoon.

17. Mary will let her 11-year-old daughter wear makeup and go on dates.

18. Peter’s son has gotten good grades in school.

19. The economy will recover very rapidly.

20. Most of the students at that language school are from China.

Lesson 6 Exercise 2

Replace the underlined word in each of these double negatives.

He doesn’t like nobody.

I can’t do nothing right today.

We can’t go nowhere this summer.


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She won’t eat nothing.

She shouldn’t see him no more.

I haven’t got no money.

We won’t never go to that restaurant again.

I couldn’t see no movies this weekend.

Lesson 6 Exercise 3

Directions: Review the rules and correct these sentences.

1. The school no is closed on Monday.

2. I no come to class tomorrow, teacher.

3. I have no received my check.

Lesson 6 Exercise 4

Write the rules:

1. Rule: to make a negative statement

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

2. Rule for “n” words:

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Exercise 5: Contractions. Circle the correct answer:

Never use the contraction “n’t” with (is / can / am / do).


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Lesson 7 Yes/No questions In lesson 1, we said that xwords were important for five reasons


Let’s look at number 1. You have learned that some sentences have xwords and some (VnoS, Vs, Vp) do not. In this lesson you will learn how to make yes/no questions in sentences that have an xword. Do you remember how to find the subject of a sentence? Just find the X. Everything between the beginning of the sentence and the X is the subject. To make a yes/no question, actually move the xword to the beginning of the sentence.

� ------------------ X Ving

Maria and John are getting married.

X Ving

Are Maria and John getting married?

Rule: to make a yes/no question in a sentence with an xword, 1) move the xword to the front of the sentence and 2) change the period to a question mark.

Remember: English questions begin with an xword.

Lesson 7 Exercise 1 Find the xword in each of the following statements and place an X over it. Then, change each statement to a yes/no question by moving the xword to the front of the sentence. 1. He would like something to drink. ________________________________________________________ 2. She will be able to come to the party on Saturday. ________________________________________________________ 3. There is enough time to play one more game. ________________________________________________________ 4. All of the students in this class are from South America. ________________________________________________________ 5. All English questions should start with an xword. ________________________________________________________


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Lesson 7 Exercise 2 Directions: Here are five more sentences. They are already yes/no questions. Change them back to affirmative statements. 1 Will he be leaving for the West Coast in the morning? ________________________________________________________ 2 Have they finished eating their dinner? ________________________________________________________ 3 Should we rehearse the song one more time? ________________________________________________________ 4 Can Mary and Tom come with us to the beach? ________________________________________________________ 5 Is your brother going to graduate in June? ________________________________________________________ Lesson 7 Exercise 3 Below, there are six affirmative statements. On the line under each statement, change the statement to either a negative (NEG) statement or a yes/no question (Y/N) 1 The subway system in New York City is over 100 years old. (Y/N) ________________________________________________________ 2 I am going to the dance with Tony. (NEG) ________________________________________________________ 3 The store will give me back my money. (NEG) ________________________________________________________ 4 They can help us to paint the apartment on Friday night. (Y/N) ________________________________________________________ 5 Body builders should lift weights every day. (NEG) ________________________________________________________ 6 We can go to dinner after the movie. (Y/N) ________________________________________________________ Lesson 7 Exercise 4 Now write your own affirmative (AFF) sentence, then write it again as negative (NEG) sentence and as a yes/no (Y/N) question. (AFF) __________________________________________________________ (NEG) __________________________________________________________ (Y/N) __________________________________________________________


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Lesson 8: Information questions Review: Yes/No questions A yes/no question can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no.”

Write the rule for forming Yes/No questions in English. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Information questions Where do you live? The answer to this question cannot be answered with a simple “yes” or “no.” It must contain some information. For example: I live in the Bronx.

Now we need the rule for asking information questions in English. If we want to ask an information question in English, we must first state the question word (also called information word) before the xword Here are some examples:

Who will you ask to the party?

When is your next class?

How long have you lived in New York?

Common question words: who what when where why how how much how many what time how long

As you can see, the word order is:

Question word xword subject verb information ?

�Rule: to make an information question,

move the xword in front of the subject, write the question word in front of the xword, and add a “?”


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Lesson 8 Exercise 1: Directions: draw a line between the question word and the type of information you want.

who yesterday what George when the Bronx where 115 why an aardvark How many Because

Lesson 8 Exercise 2: Directions: Mark the question words, xwords, subjects, and verb forms in these questions.

Who is your favorite singer?

What will you do after class?

Why did you quit class?

Where are you going?

When will you go on vacation?

Note: Sometimes am, is, are, was, and were are used without a main verb with a question word. ? w X ? w X ? w X

Example: Who are you? What time is it? Where is the class?

Lesson 8 Exercise 3: Directions: Write five information questions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.


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Lesson 9 Do, does, did (sentences without xwords) Review: In the last three lessons, we’ve learned how to make negatives, yes/no questions, and information questions in sentences with xwords. Do you remember the rules?

�Rule: In sentences with xwords, to make a negative ___________________________ ______________________________________________________________ �Rule: In sentences with xwords, to make a yes/no question ______________________ ______________________________________________________________ �Rule: In sentences with xwords, to make an information question, ___________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Do you remember the six forms of a verb? Here are the six forms of “to remember.” Write the appropriate label above each form. ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ remember remember remembers remembering remembered remembered Three of these forms never take an xword. Which three? 1) _____ 2) _____ 3) _____ Sentences without xwords: In Lessons 6, 7, and 8, we learned that we need an xword to make questions and negatives. So what happens if there isn’t any xword in the affirmative sentence? Look at this Vs sentence, for example:

Maria takes the #5 train to school. Where is the xword? I see only the Vs, takes. So, how can we make the statement negative or ask a question? In sentences without xwords, we must get help from do, does, or did. Some people call do, does, and did “hidden” xwords. They imagine them “hiding” behind the verb until they are needed. In this sentence, does is hiding behind takes. It is well-hidden. We can only see the “s” of does.

Affirmative: Maria takes the #5 train to school Negative: Maria doesn’t take the #5 train to school. Question: Does Maria take the #5 train to school?


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Changing the verb to Vb Did you notice that does takes the “s” along with it when it comes out of hiding? The third-person “s” moves to the xword, and the main verb changes to the base form.

Yes. With do, does, and did there is an additional step.

�Rule: when you add do, does, or did to make a question or negative, you must change the form of the main verb to Vb.

NOTE: It doesn’t matter if main verb is VnoS, Vs, or Vp. When we use do, does, or did the main verb always changes to Vb.

Which one to use, part 1: do and does

V

D no

s

V

D o e s

Remember that VnoS and Vs are the two forms of the simple present tense. The Vs form is the famous “3rd person singular.” Here’s a review. I’ll use the verb “to learn.”

Simple present tense (VnoS and Vs)

Singular Plural 1st person I learn We learn

2nd person You learn You learn

3rd person He learns She learns It learns

They learn

So, here’s the rule: �Rule: If the verb in the affirmative statement is VnoS, use do. If the verb in the affirmative statement is Vs, use does.

Here is the same chart in the negative (remember: learn here is Vb)

Negatives from the Simple present tense (VnoS and Vs)

Singular Plural 1st person I don’t learn We don’t learn

2nd person You don’t learn You don’t learn

3rd person He doesn’t learn She doesn’t learn It doesn’t learn

They don’t learn


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…and for questions:

Questions Simple present tense (VnoS and Vs)

Singular Plural 1st person Do I learn? Do we learn?

2nd person Do you learn? Do you learn?

3rd person Does he learn? Does she learn? Does it learn?

Do they learn?

Note: remember when you were confused about the difference between VnoS and Vb? Now you can see why we make a distinction.

VnoS X Vb We learn English easily. � We don’t learn English easily.

Vs X Vb She learns English easily. � She doesn’t learn English easily.

Which one to use, part 2: did

Vp is the past tense in English. It only has one form. Whoopee!

Past tense (Vp)

Singular Plural 1st person I learned. We learned.

2nd person You learned. You learned.

3rd person He learned. She learned. It learned.

They learned.

Here is the same chart for past questions

Questions from Past tense (Vp) sentences Singular Plural 1st person Did I learn? Did we learn?

2nd person Did you learn? Did you learn?

3rd person Did he learn? Did she learn? Did it learn?

Did they learn?


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... and for past negatives.

Negatives in Past tense (Vp) sentences

Singular Plural 1st person I didn’t learn. We didn’t learn.

2nd person You didn’t learn. You didn’t learn.

3rd person He didn’t learn. She didn’t learn. It didn’t learn.

They didn’t learn.

So, here’s the rule:

�Rule: If the verb in the affirmative statement is Vp use did to make negatives and questions. (Move the “d” to the xword) The xword makes the sentence past.

Here are the complete rules:

�Rule: In sentences without xwords, to make a question, 1) add do, does, or did before the subject. 2) change the main verb to Vb 3) change the period to a question mark.

�Rule: In sentences without xwords, to make a negative statement, 1) add don’t, doesn’t, or didn’t before the main verb 2) change the main verb to Vb.

If the main verb is VnoS, add do If the main verb is Vs, add does If the main verb is Vp, add did

�In other words, if you see an “s” at the end of

the verb, add the form of do with an s � does

�In other words, if you see a “d” at the end of

the verb, add the form of do with a d � did


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Lesson 9 Exercise 1 Let’s do some exercises for practice. Look at the pairs of sentences below. The first sentence is affirmative. The second sentence is a question or negative. In column A, write the xword used. In Column B, write the verb forms of the first and second sentences.

Column A

Column B

add this xword

change main verb from _______ to _______

1 We eat dinner at 6:30. We don’t eat dinner at 6:30.

don’t

VnoS � Vb

2 She works in a supermarket. She doesn’t work in a supermarket.

_______

_______� ______

3 They slept until 10 o’clock. Did they sleep until 10 o’clock?

_______

_______� ______

4 They like to go to the park on Sunday. They don’t like to go to the park on Sunday.

_______

_______� ______

5 It rains a lot in New York in June. Does it rain a lot in New York in June?

_______

_______� ______

6 I went to California last summer. I didn’t go to California last summer.

_______

_______� ______

Lesson 9 Exercise 2 Which xword should you use? Mark the verb of each sentence with VnoS, Vs, or Vp. Then circle the xword that you need to change the sentence to a question or negative. 1 do does did He eats too much red meat.

2 do does did I like living in New York.

3 do does did We heard about the death of your father.

4 do does did I took a taxi, because I was late for school.

5 do does did She works in a factory in Queens.


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Lesson 9 Exercise 3 Change these sentences to negatives (Neg) or yes/no questions (Y/N). 1. My son sleeps in his own room. (Neg) _________________________________________________________ 2 They live in Paris. (Y/N) _________________________________________________________ 3 The Hudson River separates New York from New Jersey. (Neg) _________________________________________________________ 4 She enjoyed the movie very much. (Y/N) _________________________________________________________ 5 Blanca went on vacation last week. (Y/N) _________________________________________________________ Lesson 9 Exercise 4 Mixed sentences Here are sentences with and without xwords. Change them to questions or negatives as indicated. 1. Her cat drinks chocolate milk. (Neg) _________________________________________________________ 2 Joanna lives on 245th Street. (Y/N) _________________________________________________________ 3 She is driving to New Jersey tomorrow. (Neg) _________________________________________________________ 4 Kenneth wants to go to college. (Y/N) _________________________________________________________ 5 Her mother has opened a store. (Neg) _________________________________________________________ 6 It is going to rain tomorrow. (Y/N) _________________________________________________________ 7 My husband picked up the kids after school. (Neg) _________________________________________________________ 8 I can help you with your homework tonight. (Neg) _________________________________________________________ 9 Jack helped her make dinner. (Y/N) _________________________________________________________ 10 The picture on the wall is an original. (Y/N) _________________________________________________________


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Lesson 9 ½ Do as a main verb In Lesson 9, you learned that we need the xwords do, does, and did to make questions and negatives in sentences without xwords ( VnoS, Vs, or Vp sentences). Write the rules here: To make a negative in a sentence without an xword

1) ________________________________________________

2) ________________________________________________

To make a question in a sentence without an xword 1) ________________________________________________

2) ________________________________________________

3) ________________________________________________

1) Do as a main verb:

So we know that do, does, and did are xwords and that they always appear with Vb.

In addition, to do is a main verb. It has 6 forms just like any other verb:

Vb VnoS Vs Ving Vp Vpp

do do does doing did done

Do (not make) is used in these sentences. • I do my homework. • I do the laundry. • I do my exercises. • I do the grocery shopping.

2) Do as a “general” verb:

Do is also used when asking a very general question: • What do you do? I’m a teacher. • What did you do last night? I slept. • What will you do this summer? Work.


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3) Occasionally, we add do to emphasize something:

• Why don’t you like me? I do like you!

This can result in sentences with more than one use of “to do”

Example: Teacher: You didn’t do your homework.

Student: I did do it!

Lesson 9 ½ Exercise Mark the verbs and the xwords in these sentences.

1. Did you do anything last night?

2. I did some housework, then I watched a video.

3. What do you usually do on Mondays?

4. I do my laundry.

5. Did you do your homework last night?

6. No, I didn’t. Did you do yours?

7. I did it, but I didn’t do it very well.

8. How do you do? Nice to meet you.

9. How are you doing? Fine, thanks. You?

10. Do you do your exercises in the morning or at night?


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Lesson 10 Have, has, and had Like do, does, and did, the words have, has, and had are used in different ways. They are used

1. as xwords to make the present perfect and past perfect tenses (I have lived here for 2 years.)

2. as main verbs meaning to possess, to eat or drink (She has two children. Did you have breakfast?)

3. to express obligation: (I have to go) We will learn more about “have to” for obligation in Lesson 11.

�Reminder: As xwords, have, has, and had

always go with V ___.

Note: sometimes you might hear

subject have/has got… Has got just means has (possesses) He’s got a new car. I’ve got a headache.

Lesson 10 Exercise 1 In these exercises, is have, has, had an xword or a verb?

1. x-word verb We only have enough time to go to one more store.

2. x-word verb They have left for vacation.

3. x-word verb Her child has a bad cold.

4. x-word verb The month of February has 29 days in leap year.

5. x-word verb She has worked in Bloomingdales for 12 years.

6. x-word verb I had already eaten when he asked me out to dinner.

7. x-word verb The population of the United States has grown.

8. x-word verb I have never been to South America.

9. x-word verb Mariana has a new dress for the party.

10. x-word verb He had been in the hospital for three weeks.


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Lesson 10 Exercise 2 Do you remember the rules for making negatives and questions in sentences with xwords?

Write these sentences as negatives, then as Y/N questions. 1 He has been in college for three years. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________ 2 Sandra has been to France and England. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________ 3 They had seen the movie already. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________ 4 We have spoken to our son’s teacher about the problem. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________ 5 They have stolen all of my jewelry. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________

Lesson 10 Exercise 3 Do you remember how to make questions and negatives in questions without xwords? Mark any xwords and verbs in these sentences. Write each sentence as a negative and a yes/no question. 1 My sister and her husband have three children. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________ 2 His grandfather had a heart attack last week. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________ 3 She has enough money to pay for everyone. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________ 4 He had toast for breakfast. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________ 5 They had a good time at the party last night. (NEG) ________________________________________________ (Y/N) ________________________________________________


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Lesson 11 Have to

Do you remember the 5 things that xwords do? 1) they are used to ask questions, 2) they are used to make negative statements 3) they are used to find the subject of a sentence 4) they are used to change tense 5) they are used to add meaning

In this lesson we will look at number 5. We will look at a “modal” xword (must) and it’s sister (have to). Modal xwords modify the meaning of the main verbs that follow them.

About “have to” …

Meaning: have to means must. Must is an xword that adds meaning to the main verb that follows it. Both add the meaning of obligation.

Examples: You must breathe. You have to breathe. You must pay taxes. You have to pay taxes.

Form: have to is like an xword because it, too, adds the meaning of obligation to

the verb (always VB) that follows it. I learn English. � I have to learn English, or I won’t get a good job.

But have to is not like an xword because you need to add do, does, or did for negatives and questions.

Use Have to is used much more than must.

Have to has a past tense (must does not have a past tense) Have to has a future tense (must doesn’t) Have to has a negative form that means no obligation.

Examples: must not means prohibition� You must not touch the stove, Junior! don’t have to means no obligation to ��We don’t have to take a test now.

Variation In the present tense only, sometimes we add “got”. Example: I have got to make dinner now.

Pronunciation I have to go. � “I hafta go” I have got to go. � “I’ve gotta go.”


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Lesson 11 Exercise 1 Directions: Mark the verbs and xwords. Underline have to and have got to

X Vb

Example: I don’t have to go to school today.

1 You have to have more fun.

2 She has to get a job.

3 I’ve got to go to the doctor.

4 Do we have to take a quiz today?

5 She will have to buy new clothes for her son if he keeps growing.

6 Yesterday, I had to go to Immigration.

7 Julio had to take care of his father last week.

8 We don’t have to pay for this class.

9 Did you have to pay sales tax on that coat?

10 You have to understand the vocabulary.

True or false 1 _____ Have to means “can”

2 _____ Have to has a future tense.

3 _____ Must has a future tense.

4 _____ Have to has a past tense.

5 _____ Must has a past tense.

6 _____ “You must not speak Spanish in class,” means that speaking Spanish in class is not an obligation.

Lesson 11 Exercise 3 Directions: Write three things that you have to do tomorrow. 1 ___________________________________________________________

2 ___________________________________________________________

3 ___________________________________________________________


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Lesson 12 Used to

About used to… Meaning Used to means you did something in the past, but not now.

Juana used to live in Santo Domingo. Does Juana live in Santo Domingo now? ______ John used to be in the army. Is John in the army now? _____

Good news!! Form used to is like an xword because it adds meaning to the verb (always Vb) that follows it… and because it give us a different feeling of time. It gives us a feeling of past vs. present. used to is like a Vp because you need did to make questions and negatives.

Did you use to live in Brooklyn? She didn’t use to smoke.

I We You He She It They

}}}}

used to

Vb

Use

Used to has the sense “not anymore” There is often a but or but now attached.

I used to smoke, but I quit. My grandmother used to have red hair, but now her hair is gray.

NOTE used to is completely different from the verb to use.

Lesson 12 Exercise 1 Complete these sentences:

1. I used to be thin, but now I’m _________________.

2. She used to be poor, but now she’s ________________.

3. We used to drink coffee, but now we drink ________________.

4. They used to live in Florida, but now they live in ________________.


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Lesson 12 Exercise 2 Answer these questions.

1. Did you use to live in Peru?

2. Did you use to be thinner than you are now?

3. Did you use to sleep late?

4. Where did you use to go to school? Lesson 12 Exercise 3 Write 5 things that you used to do. Example: I used to visit my grandmother often. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.


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Lesson 13 The future OK, it’s time to talk about THE FUTURE. There are 3 main ways to talk about the future in English. 1. will + Vb 2. be going to + Vb

3. be going (to a place)

1. The future with will will + Vb is the simplest. Use Will is used especially for prediction. It’s often used with “probably”

Example: Will it rain tomorrow? It will not rain tomorrow. It will probably rain tomorrow.

Form will is an xword.

Let’s review: • Will always occurs with the verb form _______ • To make it negative, add _____ or use the contraction,

______ after it. • To make it a question, move the xword in __________of

the subject and change the period to a ______________ ______________.

2. The be going to +Vb future Use It is used for things that you know are going to occur. This form is the most

common. Form You have to use the correct form of be (am, is, are, was, were)

Complete these sentences with the correct form of be: • I _____ going to eat lunch at 12:30. • You/We/They _____ going to eat lunch at 12:30. • He/She/It _____going to eat lunch at 12:30. • We/You/They __________ going to eat lunch yesterday, but there wasn’t

enough time. • I/He/She/It__________ going to eat lunch yesterday, but there wasn’t

enough time.


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The be going to +Vb future, form, continued

am, is, are, was, and were are xwords Complete these rules

• For negatives add ___________ or a contraction after the xword. • For questions move the xword in front of the _____________ and

change the _____________ to a ____________ _________. Examples:

She isn’t going to pass this class if she keeps goofing off in class. Are you going to buy coffee at the break?

Pronunciation In spoken English, we usually use contractions with am, is, are, was, and were

(I’m, You’re, We’re, They’re, He’s, She’s, It’s) going to sounds like “gonna” Examples:

I’m gonna go. He’s gonna stay. We’re gonna succeed.

Common mistakes • Don’t write “gonna” It is only spoken.

• “gonna” includes “to” Don’t add “to” to the verb. Correct: I’m gonna be a millionaire. Incorrect: I’m gonna to be a millionaire.

3. be going to (a place) Use it is used for certain plans (you’re absolutely sure, you have proof)

Example: I’m going to Florida tomorrow. (I have my ticket. My bags are packed)

Form be going (to a place) is the present progressive (be + Ving)

You may hear verbs other than “going” used this way, but going (to a place)is the most common. Other verbs are still used for future plans that are certain. Example:

We’re having dinner at 8 o’clock. Don’t be late.


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Lesson 13 Exercise 1 Write these sentences as negatives and questions. 1 They’ll have a baby soon after they get good jobs. (neg) (Y/N) 2 She will be late again. (neg) (Y/N) 3 You’ll gain weight if you eat apples. (neg) (Y/N) Lesson 13 Exercise 2 Write 3 sentences with will 1.

2.

3.

Lesson 13 Exercise 3 Write these sentences as instructed. 1 Laura isn’t going to run the marathon.

(Aff)

(Y/N)

2 Those cars are going to crash.

(Neg)

(Y/N)

3 Are you going to see a movie tonight?

(Neg)

(Aff)

Lesson 13 Exercise 4 Write 3 sentences with be going to Vb 1.

2.

3.


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Lesson 13 Exercise 5 True or false? ________ The be going to future uses Ving

________ the future with will uses Vb

________ be going is really the present continuous

________ for predictions use will

________ If you are absolutely certain about a future plan, use will

________ always use an infinitive after “gonna”

Lesson 13 Exercise 6

Correct these sentences

1. I going California next week.

2. He are going to visit relatives.

3. You are going to eat now?

4. I no coming to class tomorrow.

5. It will be warm this weekend?

6. It wont rain on her wedding day.

7. He going be a doctor.

8. You “gonna” to go to shopping?


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Lesson 14 The main word of the subject In Lesson 5, we learned how to find the subject of a sentence. Do you remember? Write the rule here: Everything in between the ___________ of the sentence and the _____________ is the subject. Now it is time to look more closely at the subject. Specifically, we want to know what we can find when we look inside the subject box. When we look inside the subject box, there are lots of things we can find, but the most important thing is the main word of the subject. We will often find lots of words in the subject box, but every subject must have at least one main word. Of course, there are times when the subject will contain only one word.

• The main word of the subject is the word that the subject is actually about. We identify the main word of the subject by placing an asterisk (*) over it.

• It is possible to have more than one main word in the subject box, but if we do, we must have the word and to connect them.

The main word of the subject is the word that the subject is actually about.

Here are some examples:

* X

The dog who is barking at the door is my Chihuahua, Arnold.

* VnoS I have a very large cat named Xena, too.

* * VnoS Arnold and Xena protect me from intruders.


Directions: Identify the subject in each of the sentences below by drawing a box around it. Then, identify the main word in each subject by placing the main word symbol (*) over it.

1. The people in the living room are my relatives from Boston.

2. I have not finished my composition.

3. A computer can be a very useful tool for a student.

4. LaGuardia and Hostos are popular community colleges in the CUNY system.

5. The two cars in the garage are for sale.


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Lesson 14 (cont.)

6. Drunk drivers should be arrested and placed in jail for at least one year.

7. I don’t like the cold weather in the northeastern United States.

8. The beautiful old house on the corner burned to the ground in less than three

hours.

9. This class is very easy for me.

10. Tom, Ken, and Ralph are my three best friends.

Note: A subject is always a noun. Sometimes we also use nouns as adjectives. Don’t be confused. The subject will come last.

Example:

noun � noun � * The program is on television. The television program was interesting. Television describes the type of program. Program is the main word.


Directions: Identify the subject in each of the sentences below by drawing a box around it. Then, identify the main word in each subject by placing the main word symbol (*) over it.

1. English class is easy for me.

2. The subway train was late.

3. Your water bottle is under your desk.

4. The nearest movie theater is 8 blocks from here.

5. This soup spoon isn’t clean.


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Lesson 15 Equal words In Lesson 14 we learned that some subject boxes have more than one main word. We also learned that two main words are connected by the word and.

* * X Vpp

Coffee and tea were served at the luncheon. And is called an equal word. There are a few equal words in English. The most common are the following:

and nor but so or yet

Some people call these words “joiners.” Others call them “conjunctions.” I like to call them equal words. In mathematics, the equal sign ( = ) indicates that two values are the same or that everything on the left of the equal sign in an equation is the same value as everything on the right side.

2 + 2 = 4 10 – 5 x 10 = 45 + 5

In grammar, equal words tell us that the words on the left of the equal

word are the same grammatically as the words on the right.

Equal words are also called joiners or conjunctions.

�Rule: equal words tell us that the words on the left of the equal word are the same grammatically as the words on the right.

Here are some examples:

* = * Her sister and her brother have both moved to Montana. main word = main word Vp = Vp The happy partygoers sang and danced all night long. Verb (past) = Verb (past)


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More about equal words… Equal words are often used to combine two sentences. Here again are the most common equal words and what they express.

and --

nor --negative choice

but --contrast

or --choice

yet --contrast

so --result

� Remember: The equal word shows that the two sentences are the same grammatically, not the same in meaning.

Look at this sentence, for example.

Jessica loves ice cream, but she hates cake.

Subject Vs info , but (for contrast) subject Vs info. Lesson 15 Exercise 1 Directions: Which equal word would you use? Circle the equal word that makes sense.

1. He ate too much last night, (but, so) he had a stomachache this morning.

2. She isn’t pretty, (yet, or) she has many admirers.

3. He made me angry, (or, so) I left the room.

4. Did she call, (but, or) did she write a letter?

5. I can’t come on Tuesday, (but, or) I can come on Wednesday.

Lesson 15 Exercise 2 Directions: Try to combine these sentences.

1. It rained hard. The picnic was cancelled.

2. She wanted to eat cake. She wanted to lose weight.

3. She woke up late. She had to hurry.

4. We could take a test. We could relax and have a party. 5. She was tired. She wanted to go to bed.


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Lesson 16 Describers and Numbers

What else is in the subject box? In Lesson 15 we saw that there is at least one main word in very sentence. In some of the sentences, we saw that there was only a main word in the subject and nothing more. In other sentences, we saw that a subject can have many words in addition to the main word. What are these other words? We will explore the answer to this question in the next 3 lessons. In addition to main words, we can also find

• describers, • numbers, • determiners, and • prepositional phrases.

Describers

Describers are words that describe or give more information about main words. Another word for describer is adjective. I use the abbreviation Ds to identify describers.

Note: describers are also called adjectives.

Look at the following examples:

Ds Example 1: The cold weather has made him ill.

Ds Ds Example 2: The large old chair in the living room is my favorite.

Ds Example 3: The swimming pool is closed because it is too cold to swim.

Lesson 16 Exercise 1 Directions: In the following sentences, find the xwords and mark the verbs. Place a box

around the subject of each sentence. Next, identify the main word of the subject by

placing a * over it. Finally, every subject has one or more describers. Write Ds over each describer. Ds * X Vpp

1. The young children have already gone to bed.

2. His beautiful new car was stolen last night.


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Lesson 16, cont.

3. The Spanish-speaking students in this class are mainly from the Dominican Republic.

4. My electronic calculator needs a new battery.

5. Our new 19” color television is not working properly.

6. The recent rent increase has made it impossible for me to continue living here.

Numbers

Numbers are words that tell us how many of something there is (one, ten, forty-two, 115, etc.) I use the sign # to identify numbers in a subject. Look at these examples:

�Rule: Numbers are the words we use to count things (one, two three…) Words like first, second, third, 149th, etc. are not numbers. They are describers.

# Example 1: The two books on the table are Sonia’s. # Example 2: Her four children were all born in the Bronx. # Example 3: Over 2,000 people were killed in the earthquake.


Directions: In each of the sentences below, mark the xword, verb, subject, main word, describers, and numbers.

1. My three brothers are all older than I am.

2. Those six men are my uncles.

3. The first three lessons were easy.

4. The three classrooms on the fifth floor are closed for renovation.

5. The three yellow taxis went right by us.

�Remember, English is a word order language. Look at sentence 5. What is the order of the words in the subject box? (*, Ds, #)

The _________ ___________ __________ went right by us.


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Lesson 17 Determiners One way to define determiners is to say that determiners are everything in the subject that is not a number, a describer, or a main word. This definition is pretty close, but not completely true. Actually determiners are words that tell us that a main word is coming. They may signal whether the main word is familiar to us. They may demonstrate which one, tell us about “possession” , or tell us in general about the quantity. Look at these examples: I have marked each determiner Dt. What do the determiners signal?

How many? Are we familiar? Whose? (possession) Which one?

_____________________

Dt Dt A man ran out of the store. The man wore a red jacket.

_____________________

Dt Dt This coffee is good. That coffee is terrible.

_____________________

Dt

His brother is a teacher.

_____________________

Dt Some students always come to class on time.

Here is a list of common determiners and what they are called in many grammar classes.

Common Determiners Articles Demonstrative

pronouns Possessives Quantity words.

a an the

this that these those

my your his her its our their Maria’s

many some each every a few all a lot of lots of

Note: you will see that determiners, like describers and numbers, appear in places other than the subject box. However, I am only going to identify determiners in the subject box in this lesson.


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Lesson 17 Exercise 1 Directions: In the sentences below, identify the xwords and verbs and everything in the subject box.

Dt # Ds * Vp 1. The five best teachers received huge raises.

2. Our party was a great success.

3. Maria’s three children are all sick.

4. A good education is a very valuable asset.

5. The cat and the dog were fighting.

6. He smokes three packs of cigarettes a day.

7. John’s oldest brother was injured in a car accident.

8. I have a headache.

9. Sally’s three favorite desserts are chocolate cake, vanilla ice cream, and

strawberry shortcake.

10. The IRT local subway train was stuck in the tunnel for three hours.

Word order – again. Have you noticed that determiners usually come first in the subject box? Circle the correct answer below.

The correct order of words in the subject box is usually…. a. # * Ds Dt

b. Dt # Ds *

c. Dt * Ds #

Lesson 17 Exercise 2 Directions: Scrambled subjects. You’ve heard of scrambled eggs. Here are some scrambled subjects. Write these sentence again, putting the words in the subject box in the correct order.

1. movie that terrible should not have cost $10.50!

2. the students new six must work very hard.

3. best his subjects two are music and biology.

4. glasses the wine smashed onto the floor.

5. flowers spring some make me sneeze.


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Lesson 18

Prepositional phrases There is one more thing in the subject box, the prepositional phrase.

• describers, • numbers, • determiners, and • prepositional phrases.

First, let’s review. We have seen that every subject must have a ______________. In addition, a subject box may have a ________________, a _______________, and/or one or more _________________________. Do you remember the correct word order in a subject box? Write these abbreviations in order.

( * # Ds Dt )

_____ _____ _____ _____

Lesson 18 Exercise 1 Directions: Let’s review by writing some subjects of our own. For each subject, I have given you one or two words. Complete the subjects. Write nothing in the darkened spaces.

Determiner Number Describer Main word

1. The

2. Those

3. pretty

4. Maria’s older

5. mother

6. My

7. two

Prepositional phrases

A prepositional phrase, just like a subject, must have a main word. In addition, a prepositional phrase may have a determiner, a number, and/or one or more describers. And, of course, a prepositional phrase must begin with a preposition! Here is an example.

Dt # * Pr Dt Ds * X The three girls <in | the red dresses > are triplets.

�Rule: a prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a main word.


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Lesson 18, cont. I use the following signs to identify prepositional phrases: < | > The brackets ( < > ) identify the phrase itself, and the straight line ( | ) separates the preposition from the main word and any other words in the phrase. Here are some more examples:

<on | the table> < until |September> <in front of | the main building> <with | my three good friends>

Did you notice that the word order is the same as in the subject box? Let’s look at another example:

The books on the table in the kitchen are his. The subject of the sentence is The books on the table in the kitchen We know this because it is everything in front of the xword. Now we look at the subject more carefully. The first step is to identify any prepositional phrases. We see that there are two:

Pr Dt * Pr Dt * The books <on | the table> <in | the kitchen>

And finally, we can show the complete subject of the sentence:

Dt * Pr Dt * Pr Dt * X The books <on | the table> <in | the kitchen> are his.

�Remember: It is the main word of the subject that is the important main word of any sentence. Therefore, you must first identify the prepositional phrases and get them out of the way. The main word that remains will be the main word of the subject.


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Lesson 18, cont. What is a preposition?

A preposition is a word followed by a noun or a pronoun to show place, time, direction, etc.

Below is a list of common prepositions.

at about above across after among away because

before behind below beneath beside between by down

during from in in front of into near of off

on out of over towards under until up with

Note: some of these words can also be used as adverbs or equal words. It is probably easier to learn prepositions by their function. For example:

Place: above, across from, at, behind, in, next to, on, between, near Time: after, at, before, during, in, on, until Direction: at, from, to, towards

Lesson 18 Exercise 2 Directions: In the following sentences, identify the xwords, verbs, and everything in the subject box.

1. The students in this class study English at home as well as in the classroom.

2. The three old men on the park bench are talking about old times.

3. The milk in the refrigerator has turned sour.

4. The old brown dresser in the master bedroom belonged to my grandmother.

5. The three girls with the funny hats are in a play tonight.


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Lesson 18, cont.

6. The flower vase on the table in the middle of the room is a nineteenth century antique.

7. The man in the picture on my desk is my husband.

8. Is the building across from the school the post office?

9. The woman next to James is Gloria.

10. The new student from Ecuador is very smart.

Lesson 18 Exercise 3 Directions: In the spaces below, write the main word of the subject of each of the 10 sentences in Exercise 2. 1 _________ 3 _________ 5 _________ 7 _________ 9 _________ 2 _________ 4 _________ 6 _________ 8 _________ 10 __________ Lesson 18 Exercise 4 Directions: Write ten sentences. Be sure that each sentence begins with a determiner and that each subject contains at least one prepositional phrase. After you have written the sentences, identify the subject of each sentence and identify everything inside of the subject box.

1. _______________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________________________

5. _______________________________________________________________

6. _______________________________________________________________

7. _______________________________________________________________

8. _______________________________________________________________

9. _______________________________________________________________

10._______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 19: Gerunds: Introduction/Gerunds as Subjects

In the next 4 lessons we will learn about gerunds and infinitives. Introduction to gerunds and infinitives

• An infinitive (Vinf) is the “to Vb” form • A gerund (ger) is an –ing word that does not have an xword (am is are was were)

Examples: Infinitive �

Vinf I want to be a movie star.

Ving�

X Ving

He is smoking a cigarette.

Gerund �

ger He should stop smoking.

Gerund �

ger Smoking can kill you.

What is a gerund?

If you remember from lesson 3, we learned about the special relationships that exist between xwords and verb forms. In that lesson, we saw that Ving always appears with an xword from the be family (am, is, are, was, were). But you have probably seen in your reading and elsewhere that sometimes the Ving appears alone.

• Form: A Gerund is the Ving without an xword. • Use: Gerunds can be used any way that main words (nouns) are used. A

gerund can be a subject, a describer, or the main word in a preposition. They can also be used after some verbs.

• Feel: Gerunds have a verb-like quality. They look and “feel” like verbs, but they are not.

Here are four examples of gerunds along with their use in the sentence:

Subject� 1. Jogging is good exercise. After a preposition� 2. He grew stronger by lifting weights every day.

After a verb� 3. We enjoy relaxing on the weekends.

As a describer� 4. We spent the hot afternoon in the swimming pool.


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Gerund phrases In English, a gerund may be alone or it may accompany a word or a group of words to form a gerund phrase. Example:

Gerund: Studying takes up most of my time. Gerund phrase: Eating good food is a great pleasure of mine.

Don’t confuse a gerund phrase with a gerund + prepositional phrase: Gerund + prepositional phrase: Traveling by train is a good way to tour. We’ll learn more about these in the next lesson.

Exercise: Directions: fill in the blank spaces below with a gerund or gerund phrase to correctly complete the idea of the sentence.

1. _____________ is against the law. 2. _____________ too much alcohol can kill you. 3. _____________ in the presidential election is every citizen’s responsibility. 4. _____________ a new language takes a lot of patience. 5. ______________ annoys me. 6. ______________ is embarrassing. 7. ______________ takes a lot of money.

Gerunds as the main word of the subject.

Both gerunds and gerund phrases may be the main word of the subject of a sentence. Examples of gerunds as subjects:

1. Smoking is bad for your health.

2. Cheating on exams may be punished by expulsion from college.

When a gerund phrase appears in the subject, the entire gerund phrase is considered the main word. Examples of gerund phrases as subjects:

3. Riding horses is her favorite hobby.

4. Studying English is a lot of fun!

Exercise: Write two sentences using a gerund or gerund phrase as the subject. 1. ___________________________________________________________

2. ___________________________________________________________


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Lesson 20: Gerunds in prepositional phrases In the last lesson we were introduced to gerunds, and we learned that a gerund can be the main word in the subject of a sentence. In this lesson we’ll see that gerunds can also be the main word in a prepositional phrase.

Do you remember the definition of a prepositional phrase? A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a main word. Gerunds are often used as the main word of a prepositional phrase.

Gerunds are often used as the main word of a prepositional phrase.

Look at the gerunds (fighting and going) in these examples: Pr *

I am tired <of | fighting> with her. Pr *

We are thinking <about | going> to Atlantic City.

� NEVER use an infinitive after a preposition.

Lesson 20 Exercise 1 Directions: In each of the sentences below, change the word in parentheses into its gerund form and place it in the main word position of the prepositional phrase.

1. You should wait an hour <before |__________ > the hospital <after| _______> blood. (leave) (give)

2. Please turn off the lights <after| _______> the room. leave

3. She asked for information <about| ___________> for the next semester. (register)

4. The boy’s mother tried to prevent him <from| _________> himself. (hurt)

5. The priest talked the man <into| ___________> his crime to the police. (confess)

6. I would like to thank you <for| _________> me. (help)

7. He is in danger <of| _________>the course. (fail)

8. We were planning <on| _________> home tonight. (stay)

9. His illness prevented us <from| _________> on vacation. (go)

10. I would like to apologize <for| _________> late. (arrive)


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Lesson 20 Exercise 2 Try to fill in the blanks with gerunds on your own.

1. You should wash your hands <before| _________________>.

2. I am trying to decide <between| _________________> or

_________________ to the party.

3. They were exhausted <after| _________________> all night.

4. As a child, I was afraid <of| _________________> in a totally dark room.

5. He reminded me of the law <about| _________________> in elevators.

Lesson 20 Exercise 3 Directions: Decide how the –ing word is used in these sentences: as a verb (Ving), as the main word of the subject, or as the main word of the prepositional phrase. Circle the correct choice.

1. Ving Gerund-subject

Gerund-preposition

She was trying to get his attention.

2. Ving Gerund-

subject Gerund-

preposition Studying a language takes a lot of time.

3. Ving Gerund-

subject Gerund-

preposition After 6 miles, John was tired of walking.


Gerund-preposition

He is hoping to leave work early today.


Gerund-preposition

Seeing movies is one of my favorite pastimes.

Lesson 20 Exercise 4 Write three sentences as indicated. 1. (Use a gerund as main word in subject)

______________________________________________________________

2. (Use a gerund as main word in a prepositional phrase)

______________________________________________________________

3. (Use a Ving)

______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 21 Using gerunds after verbs After some verbs in English we can place an infinitive or a gerund when we want a “verb-like-act-word.” Most of these verbs are about emotions, feelings, or communication. Some of these verbs take a gerund, some take an infinitive, and some take either a gerund or infinitive. Here are some examples:

Verb Gerund or infinitive? Examples:

like

either

Vs ger She likes eating chocolate. Vs Vinf__ She likes to eat chocolate.

quit gerund Vp ger He quit talking when the boss came into the room.

want infinitive Vs Vinf Paul wants to get a better job.

Note: • Any verb can be used as a gerund, it is the choice of verbs before the gerund that

is limited.

• The form of the verb (VnoS, Vs, X+Vb, etc. ) does not matter.

Verbs that take gerunds: admit appreciate avoid can’t help complete consider

defer delay deny dread endure enjoy

escape favor fear finish imagine keep

mind miss postpone practice put off quit

recall recommend regret resent resist risk suggest


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Lesson 21 Exercise 1 Directions: These sentences with the verb “like” are followed by infinitives. Write the sentences again, changing the infinitive to a gerund. 1. Dogs like to chase squirrels. ________________________________________

2. Squirrels like to eat nuts. ________________________________________

Now change the gerunds in these sentences to infinitives. 1. Cats like chasing mice. ________________________________________

2. Mice like eating cheese. ________________________________________

Lesson 21 Exercise 2 Directions: Write answers to the following questions using gerunds or gerund phrases. 1. What do you enjoy doing on weekends? ______________________________________________________________ 2. What do you avoid? ______________________________________________________________ 3. What do you suggest doing on a nice day? ______________________________________________________________ 4. What do you fear? ______________________________________________________________ 5. What do you dislike most about school. ______________________________________________________________ 6. What can’t you help doing when you are studying? ______________________________________________________________ Lesson 21 Exercise 3 Write four sentences with gerunds using verbs from the list. 1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 22 Infinitives In the last three lessons we looked at gerunds. In this lesson we will learn about infinitives.

Gerund Review We have seen that gerunds can go anywhere that a noun goes in a sentence. Do you remember their uses?

Subject� Jogging is good exercise. After a preposition� He grew stronger by lifting weights every day.

After a verb� We enjoy relaxing on the weekends.

As a describer� We spent the hot afternoon in the swimming pool.

�� What is an infinitive?

An infinitive (Vinf) is the to Vb form. Every verb has an infinitive form: to eat, to drink, to type, to sit, to have, to make, to be, etc. • Form: to Vb

• Use: You may see an infinitive as a subject in writing or poetry, but an infinitive usually comes after certain verbs.

• Feel: Like gerunds, infinitives have a verb-like quality. They look and “feel” like verbs, but they are not. Infinitives also have a “future” feeling.

The infinitive never changes form. The verb before the infinitive changes.

Subject� To be or not to be…That is the question….. Shakespeare

After a verb� She wants to be a movie star. I have always wanted to be a movie star, too.


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�� Verbs that can be followed by infinitives:

agree appear attempt begin can’t afford care

decide deserve endeavor expect fail forget

happen hesitate hope intend know how learn

manage need offer plan prepare pretend

promise refuse seem want would like

Examples:

• Do you know how to fix the TV? • We decided to postpone our vacation until next year. • She needs to see a doctor right away.

Remember: all verbs have an infinitive form, but only certain verbs can be followed by an infinitive.

Lesson 22 Exercise 1 Directions: Write five sentences using verbs from the above list followed by an infinitive. Use a variety of xwords and verb forms.

1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________

5. ______________________________________________________________


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�� Verbs that are followed by a main word then an infinitive

There is another group of verbs that are followed by a main word and then by the infinitive. The main word answers the question “Who?” Example: The teacher warned us to study for the exam.

Who did the teacher warn? _____________________ Example: We invited Thomas to come to the party.

Who did we invite? ________________

Verbs followed by a main word then an infinitive.

advise allow ask cause command

convince encourage force get

hire instruct invite oblige

order permit persuade remind

teach tell urge warn

Lesson 22 Exercise 2 Directions: Write five sentences using verbs from the above list followed by main word then an infinitive. Use a variety of xwords and verb forms.

1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________

5. ______________________________________________________________


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�� Verbs that can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive. You already know one: She likes eating chocolate. She likes to eat chocolate.

Verbs that can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive begin can’t stand continue

forget* hate intend

like love prefer

quit* regret* remember*

start stop* try*

* You can use either a gerund or an infinitive after these verbs, but the meaning changes. Example: I stopped to smoke. (I stopped my activity and smoked a cigarette.)

I stopped smoking. (I quit. I don’t smoke cigarettes anymore.)

Lesson 22 Exercise 3 Directions: Complete these sentences with the verbs or forms given.

1. She has never (like) ________________ (Ger) ____________________________.

2. Would you (continue) __________________ (Vinf) _________________________.

3. I am (begin) _________________ (Vinf)______________________________.

4. Did you (start) ________________________ (Ger) ____________________ yet?

�� One more thing…

�Infinitives (Vinf) are different from the base form (Vb).

�Never use an infinitive after an xword. �Never use an infinitive after a preposition.


Directions: All of these sentences have “infinitive mistakes”. Write each one correctly.

1. Can you to go on the trip?

2. I go to class for to speak English.

3. They want buy a new house.

4. Are you learning speak English?

5. She should to attend college.


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Lesson 23 Predicates In previous lessons we have been looking at the subject of the sentence. Now it is time to look at the second half of the sentence, the predicate. In this lesson we will look at:

• What is a predicate? • Verbs and xwords in Predicates • M words • Completers

What is a predicate?

The predicate is everything that is not the subject. This includes the verb and/or xword and any information that follows.

� A predicate is everything that is not the subject.

Here are two examples: ←-----------predicate------------------ Dt Ds Ds * Vp

The heavy snow storm forced the city to close the airport.

←-------predicate----- Dt * pr * X

The people <of| New York> are always in a hurry.


In the following sentences, identify all of the items of the subject and place a box around it. Then place an arrow over the predicate.

1. Very young people should not watch adult-rated films.

2. The work in this class is too difficult for me.

3. Several of the people at work are sick with the flu.

4. A thirty-minute helicopter trip around the island of Manhattan costs about $40.

5. Thirty students in one ESL class is too many.


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Lesson 23 (Cont.)

Verbs and xwords in predicates

So far, we have learned that the predicate is everything that is not the subject. We will now look more carefully and closely at the predicate to see what kinds of things appear under the predicate arrow.

The first thing I want you to know about the predicate is that it must always contain a verb, or an xword, or both a verb and an xword. You already know this, right?

� A predicate must have a verb, an xword, or both a verb and an xword.

Lesson 23 Exercise 2 Directions: Write three sentences. 1. Write a sentence with a verb, but no xword.

______________________________________________________________

2. Write a sentence with an xword, but no verb.

______________________________________________________________

3. Write a sentence with both an xword and a verb.

______________________________________________________________

M-words in predicates

So far, we know that a predicate is ______________that is not the ________________ and that a predicate must have a _________, an _________, or both. Now we will look at “M-words.” An m-word is a word that goes in the middle of an xword and a verb. Because it goes in the middle, we call it an M-word. “M” in this case means middle. Look at these examples. In each case the M-word is in italics. ←-------------predicate-------------- * X M Vpp Example 1: I have always wanted to visit Spain. ←-------------predicate---------------- * X M Ving Example 2: She is probably studying in the library. ←-------------predicate-------------------------------- * X M Vb Example 3: We must sometimes wait for 15 minutes for a train.


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Lesson 23 (Cont.)

Here is a list of common M-words. You should remember that it is better to know the rule than it is to try to memorize a list of words. And the rule is this: if a word comes between an x and a verb, call it an M-word. You should also remember that these words may appear in other places in a sentence in English. They are only M-words when they follow this rule.

�If a word comes between an x and a verb, call it an M-word.

Some words commonly used as M-words

not never always usually

often sometimes seldom

completely also just only

probably still hardly almost


• Write the sentence on the line provided.

• Put the word in parenthesis in the M position of the predicate.

• Then identify everything in the subject box, the xword, M-word, and verb of each sentence.

Note: the order is Xword/M-word/Verb

X M She is always nice.

M Vs He always walks.

X M Vpp We have always liked grammar.

1. (always) The little old lady has done things for herself.

←-------------predicate---------------- Dt Ds Ds * X M Vpp The little old lady has always done things for herself.

2. (often) I have thought about him.

__________________________________________________________________

3. (probably) The angry factory workers will go on strike at midnight.

__________________________________________________________________

4. (completely) The three teenage vandals destroyed the interior of the church.

__________________________________________________________________

5. (not) Many New Yorkers have been to the Statue of Liberty.

______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 23 Exercise 3 (cont.)

The completer

Now we will learn about the last position of the predicate, the completer. I call the position the completer because it completes the predicate. I label the completer with the letter c. You will see that almost anything can be in the completer except an xword, middle word or verb. You will also see that some sentences do not require a completer at all. Look at these examples and answer the questions that follow.

←--------predicate----- Ds * X Vpp ←---C---- Example 1: Tony’s bicycle was stolen last night.

←----------predicate--------------------- ←---C---------------------------------- * X Dt Ds * Pr Dt * Example 2: Central Park is a beautiful place <in | the spring.> ←-predicate-- * Vs Example 3: He smokes.

Look at Example 1. What is the completer? _________________ Is there an xword, a verb, or both? _________ Look at Example 2. What is the completer? __________________________________ Is there an xword, a verb, or both? ________________ What is the main word of the predicate? _______________. What is the prepositional phrase? __________________ Did you notice that a completer looks a lot like a subject? Finally, look at Example 3. Is there an xword, a verb, or both? ______________ Is there a completer? ____________ Lesson 23 Exercise 4 Mark everything in the following sentences. 1. Joe’s football team was playing in the park on Sunday.

2. Gloria and Steven always cook dinner and watch TV on weeknights.

3. The little lake sparkled with sunlight on the bright summer day.


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Lesson 24 Introduction to clauses In this lesson we will learn about

• trunks • combining sentences with equal words • clause words • Is it a trunk or a clause?

Trunks

In all of the past lessons, we have been learning about the different parts of subjects and predicates. When we put a subject and a predicate together, we get a trunk. If you are having problems writing in English, you should try writing more trunks. If you make your sentences simpler, you will make fewer errors

�A trunk is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate. A trunk is the simplest, most basic sentence you can write in English.

.

Writing Tip: When you write a sentence, try to make it a yes/no question. If you can make a yes/no question, you have a good trunk.

Of course, if you only use trunks in your writing, your writing will sound boring. That’s because interesting writing requires variety. In this lesson, we are going to study about the different ways we can make trunks more interesting. There are many ways to do this. One way is to combine sentences with an equal word.

Combining sentences with Equal words Do you remember the equal words from Lesson 15? Write them here.

1. ______ 4. ______

2. ______ 5. ______

3. ______ 6. ______

What is the rule for equal words? Write the rule here. Rule: equal words tell us that the words on the _________of the equal word are the same _______________as the words on the __________. * = * VnoS = VnoS Here is an example: Mary and Joanna sing and dance together.


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Lesson 24 (cont.) Remember that just as we can join two main words or two verbs with equal words, we can also join two trunks.

Example: * ←---predicate----- = Dt * ←---predicate--- Steve attends LaGuardia, but his sister goes to Hostos.

When we join two trunks (T) with an equal word (=) , I label the sentence T,=T. Notice the comma before the equal word and the period at the end. Lesson 24 Exercise 1 Combining trunks with equal words Directions: T,=T. is a very common sentence pattern in English. In the exercise below there are five pairs of trunks. Combine each pair of trunks into a T,=T. Use the equal word provided. 1 I prepared the dinner.

My sister made the dessert.

(and) __________________________________________________________

2 We invited them to the party.

They never showed up.

(but) __________________________________________________________

3 My wife had a bad cold.

We decided not to go to the party.

(so) __________________________________________________________

4 Put the ice cream in the freezer right away.

It will melt.

(or) __________________________________________________________

5 Please speak English in class.

You won’t make any progress.

(or) __________________________________________________________


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Lesson 24 (cont.)

Clauses

What is a clause?

Definition: A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate, but which also has a clause word. In this example, When is the clause word.

�A clause looks like a sentence but it has a clause word (CW) at the front.

Example: When I was a young girl, I went dancing every Saturday night. What is the purpose of a clause? The purpose of a clause is to add more information to a trunk. It can give additional information in three different ways. 1. Shifter clauses give more information about the entire trunk.

Example: When I was a young girl, I went dancing every Saturday night. 2. Describer clauses give information about one word in the trunk.

Example: The woman who is talking to my mother is a doctor. 3. Completer clauses complete the idea of the trunk.

Example: I hope that you’re feeling better soon.

Clause words Definition: A clause word is a word that introduces a clause. There are many clause words. Here is a list of common clause words. Notice that some are used especially for shifter clauses. Others are used especially for completer clauses and describer clauses.

Clause words used with Shifter Clauses

TIME CONDITION REASON OPPOSITE OF EXPECTATON

when while whenever before after since

if unless

because since

even though although

Clause words used with Describer Clauses

PEOPLE LOCATION THINGS POSSESSION who whom that

where which that

whose

Clause words used with Completer Clauses

that if why what where


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Lesson 24 (cont.)

We will study each type of clause in the next three lessons. You will find that you already know how to use most of them. But first, let’s do a little practice to make sure that you understand the difference between a trunk and a clause.

� Remember: a clause looks just like a sentence (a trunk) but it starts with a clause word. Trunk� I was a young girl. Clause� When I was a young girl,

Lesson 24 Exercise 2 Is it a trunk or a clause? Some of these are clauses and some are trunks. The clauses begin with a clause word (CW).

• Part 1: For each group of words, place a box around subject and an arrow over the predicate, and identify every item of both the subject and the predicate. Then write CW over the clause word if there is one.

• Part 2: If the group of words is a trunk, try to add a clause of some kind. If the group of words is a clause, try to add a trunk so that the new sentence makes sense. I have done the first one for you.

←---predicate------ 1 CW * X Dt Ds *

When I was a young girl.

When I was a young girl, I had lots of boyfriends. 2

We bought a new car. ______________________________________________________________

3 Although he saved his money for many years. ______________________________________________________________

4 If you give me the money. ______________________________________________________________

5 Their books are on the desk. ______________________________________________________________

7 Unless you leave immediately. ______________________________________________________________

8 Before I take a shower. ______________________________________________________________

9 Whose baby was born last weekend. ______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 25 Shifter Clauses In the next three lessons we are going to study three types of clauses: Shifter Clauses, Describer Clauses, and Completer Clauses. Do you remember what a clause is? Definition: A clause is a group of words that has a _____________ and a _______________, but which also has a ___________ word. What is a shifter clause?

One of the most common kinds of sentences in English is the kind with a shifter clause at the front or at the end of the trunk. We call it a shifter clause because it can shift or move from the front to the end without changing the meaning. In English, the word “shift” means to move from one place to another. Let’s look at some trunks and shifter clauses to see how they work. CW S ←-predicate-- ←--predicate----- Example: When my family left Ecuador, I was only eleven. CW

In this example, the clause is: When my family left Equador, In this example, the trunk is: I was only eleven.

Notice that the two groups of words look similar. They both have subjects and predicates. The only difference is that the clause also has a clause word, “when.”

�Remember: A clause must have a

subject.

When we put these sentences together, we get the sentence:

When my family left Ecuador, I was only eleven. Now we will see why this type of clause is called a shifter clause. We can write the sentences another way by placing the shifter clause at the end of the trunk.

I was only eleven when my family left Equador. Punctuation note: The front shifter is not a part of the subject. To show this, we put a comma between the shifter and the first word of the subject. An end shifter requires no special punctuation.


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What does a shifter clause do?

The purpose of a shifter clause is to give more information about the trunk. It gives information about time, reason, condition, and expectation. I will repeat the shifter clause words here for your convenience

Note: Some grammar books call shifter clauses adverb clauses.

.

Clause words used with Shifter Clauses

TIME CONDITION REASON OPPOSITE OF EXPECTATON

when while whenever before after since

if unless

because since

even though although

Here are some examples. Time shifter clauses: After the President left the city, the traffic returned to normal.

We left the bar before they arrived.

I waited for him until he arrived.

Shifter clauses that state a condition: I’ll get the book for you if you give me the money.

My son won’t go to sleep unless I read him a story.

If I won the lottery, I would quit my job and travel.

Shifter clauses that give reasons: I left the party early because I wasn’t having a good time.

Since I couldn’t find a job in my country, I came to the United States.

Shifter clauses that state the opposition of expectation: Although I studied hard for the exam, I failed it.

We were always a happy family even though we were very poor.


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Lesson 25 Exercise 1 A trunk is a complete sentence with a subject and a predicate (verb + information) A clause is a complete sentence with a subject and a predicate (verb + information), but it begins with a clause word (CW) In this exercise,

• put a box around each subject. Write CW over the clause word, and circle any commas.

• On the line, write TS if the trunk comes first. Write S, T if the shifter comes first.

1. ______ I studied Portuguese when I was in Brazil.

2. ______ If I knew her phone number, I would call her.

3. ______ Even though I worked two jobs, I could not earn enough.

4. ______ Whenever I think about my friends back home, I begin to cry.

5. ______ New York is a difficult place to live unless you have a lot of money.

Lesson 25 Exercise 2 Combine the trunks into one sentence that has a trunk and a shifter clause. Use the clause word that I have provided. 1. We left Korea. My youngest son was born. (after) ______________________________________________________________ 2. I had to quit my job. My husband didn’t want me to work. (because) ____________________________________________________________ 3. They loved each other. They couldn’t get married. (even though) _________________________________________________________


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Lesson 25 Exercise 3 Write 8 sentences with shifters. Use time, reason, expectation, and opposite of expectation clause words. 1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________

5. ______________________________________________________________

6. ______________________________________________________________

7. ______________________________________________________________

8. _____________________________________________________________

Other kinds of shifters.

You have learned how shifter clauses operate to add more information to trunks. In addition to clauses, prepositional phrases, noun clusters, and even single words can be shifters. Example: Trunk with shifter clause.

Whenever I have to speak English, I get nervous.

I get nervous whenever I have to speak English.

Example: Trunk with prepositional phrase as shifter.

On weekdays, I get up at 9:30.

I get up at 9:30 on weekdays.

Example: Trunk with noun cluster as shifter.

Last Saturday, my cousin José came over.

My cousin José came over last Saturday.

Example: Trunk with one word as shifter.

Yesterday, I took my last final exam.

I took my last final exam yesterday.


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Lesson 25 Exercise 4 Write sentences using different kinds of shifters. I will write the type of shifter to use. Write all of these sentences as FRONT shifters. Remember the comma after a front shifter. 1. (Shifter clause)

______________________________________________________________

2. (Prepositional phrase)

______________________________________________________________

3. (Noun Cluster)

______________________________________________________________

4. (One word)

______________________________________________________________

Now write the same sentences with the shifters at the END. Remember--no comma. 5. (Shifter clause)

______________________________________________________________

6. (Prepositional phrase)

______________________________________________________________

7. (Noun Cluster)

______________________________________________________________

8. (One word)

______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 26: Describer clauses As you recall from Lesson 24, there are three kinds of clauses: shifter clauses, describer clauses, and completer clauses. In the last lesson, we looked closely at shifter clauses. In this lesson, we will turn our attention to the describer clause, and in Lesson 27 (our final lesson), we will study completer clauses. Here are the clause words which introduce describer clauses.

*Clause words used with Describer Clauses

PEOPLE LOCATION THINGS POSSESSION who whom that

where which that

whose

*These words may also be used in other ways. They are clause words only when they begin a clause.

Describers vs. Describer Clauses

We have been working with describers for a long time. Our describers have been single words, and they come before the thing they describe. Ds *

The terrible movie went on for hours. A describer clause is a whole clause that describes a word in the trunk. Describer clauses come right after the thing they describe. For example, in this sentence old, red, and where I was born all tell us more about the house.

Dt Ds Ds * CW X M Ving Example: The old red house where I was born is still standing.

A describer clause always comes right after the word that it describes.


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Describer clauses A describer clause can go inside the trunk or at the end of it. It often describes the main word of the subject, or the main word of the predicate.

Let’s look first at describer clauses that go inside the trunk. Here are some examples. �--------------------------------------- X

Example: The woman who is sitting in the living room is my wife.

Where is the subject of this clause? The clause words who, that, and whose + noun sometimes act as subjects and clause words at the same time.

�----------------------------- X Example: The movie that we saw last night was extremely good. �------------------------------------------------- Vp Example: The man whose car is parked by the fire hydrant got a ticket. Did you notice that the describer clause comes right after the word that it describes? In these sentences we get more information about woman, movie, and man. The trunk “opens up” to let the describer clause fit in.

Describer clauses can also go at the end of the trunk if the word they are describing is in the predicate and not the subject. Look at these examples:

* X �

Example: This is the girl that I met at the party last night.

* X �

Example: Here is the hotel where we spent our honeymoon. * Vp �

Example: I returned the dress which you gave me for Christmas. Lesson 26 Exercise 1 In the following sentences, mark the clause word with CW and highlight the clause with a colored highlighter. Then mark the subjects and verbs of both the trunk and the clause. Finally draw a little arrow from the CW to the word that the clause is describing.

Dt * � CW * Vp X Example: The jacket that I bought last night is too small. 1. A man who speaks French will be visiting us next month.

2. The old building where the movie theater used to be is being destroyed.


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Lesson 26 cont.

3. The man whose son was killed in the car accident has never recovered from his loss.

4. Here is the CD that I bought last weekend.

5. Theresa is the woman that he will probably marry.

6. The thieves stole a painting which was worth thousands of dollars.

7. The woman whose son won the lottery won’t ever have to work again.

Lesson 26 Exercise 2 Write 10 sentences with describer clauses. Put some at the end and some next to a word in the subject. Use a variety of clause words. 1. ________________________________________________________________

2. ________________________________________________________________

3. ________________________________________________________________

4. ________________________________________________________________

5. ________________________________________________________________

6. ________________________________________________________________

7. ________________________________________________________________

8. ________________________________________________________________

9. ________________________________________________________________

10. ______________________________________________________________


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Lesson 27: The Completer Clause Review: � A clause is a group of words that has a subject, a predicate, and a _________word. � A shifter clause (adverb clause) gives information about time, reason, condition, or the

opposite of ____________. Shifter clauses can go in _______ of the trunk, or at the end of the trunk.

� A describer clause (adjective clause) gives more information about one word in the

trunk. Describer clauses go right _________ the word that they are describing.

In this lesson, let’s look at a third kind of clause, the completer clause. I call this kind of clause a completer clause because it always comes at the end of the trunk, and its purpose is to complete the idea of the trunk. That’s pretty easy to remember. A completer clause completes. Let’s look at some of these completer clauses. Notice where they are in the sentence and notice the job that they do.

Some books call completer clauses “noun clauses.”

Example 1: I think that you should study harder.

Example 2: I believe that it is time to go.

Example 3: She asked me if I knew her friend.

Example 4: They told me where I could find you.

You can see that completer clauses are actually part of the predicate of the trunk, because they help to complete the idea of the trunk. Look at the verbs in the different examples above. Have you noticed that the completer clauses usually come after verbs of the senses or thinking?

Examples of verbs of the senses or thinking: ask believe expect

feel hope imagine

pray recommend say

suggest tell think


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Clause words used with Completer Clauses

that if why what where

You can see that there are several different clause words that introduce completer clauses, but the most common one is that. In addition, the use of the word that is often optional. If you wish to delete the clause word that, your sentence will still be OK. Look at these examples:

��That is the most common clause word in completer clauses. ��That can be used for both people and things.

CW

Example: He said that he was sorry.

He said he was sorry.

CW

Example: I think that I’ll stay home tonight.

I think I’ll stay home tonight. All four sentences are correct. In the second sentence of each example, the word that has been omitted. I suggest that you always use the word that when you are writing completer clauses just for the practice. Please remember that when we omit the word that, it looks like we have two trunks. But if we want two trunks together we must have an equal word. This is not the case here. So we must remember that the clause word has been omitted.

The clause word that can be omitted, but don’t omit that for now. It’s confusing.

Lesson 27 Exercise 1 For each of the verbs of the senses or thinking, write a sentence with a completer clause at the end. Do not omit the clause word. 1. (ask)_____________________________________________________________

2. (believe)__________________________________________________________

3. (expect)__________________________________________________________

4. (feel)_____________________________________________________________

5. (hope)____________________________________________________________


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6. (imagine)__________________________________________________________

7. (pray)____________________________________________________________

8. (recommend)_______________________________________________________

9. (say)_____________________________________________________________

10. (suggest)__________________________________________________________

11. (tell) _____________________________________________________________

12. (think) ___________________________________________________________

Lesson 27 Exercise 2 Now go back to your 12 sentences. For both the trunk and the clause, put a box around the subject and an arrow over the predicate. Then place a CW over the clause word of your completer clause. Lesson 27 Exercise 3: Completer clause or Describer clause? You saw in Lesson 26 that Describer clauses sometimes come at the end of the trunk. Completer clauses also come at the end of a trunk. Look at the following sentences. Each trunk is followed by a clause.

• Place a CW over the clause word. • Circle TDsC if the clause is a Describer Clause. • Circle TCc if it is a Completer Clause.

1. TDsC TCc I think that it is time to go.

2. TDsC TCc I like the kind of food that your mother prepares.

3. TDsC TCc The teacher told him that he passed the examination.

4. TDsC TCc We can’t remember which train we should take.

5. TDsC TCc I didn’t like any of the people who were at the party.

6. TDsC TCc He said that he was going to get a divorce.

7. TDsC TCc She asked if you were feeling alright.

8. TDsC TCc Who’s that woman that’s talking to Raymond?


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