1

International Style

The Glass Palace, a celebration of transparency, in Heerlen, The Netherlands (1935)Main article: International style (architecture)

The International style was a major architectural trend of the 1920s and 1930s. The termusually refers to the buildings and architects of the formative decades of modernism, beforeWorld War II. The term had its origin from the name of a book by Henry-Russell Hitchcockand Philip Johnson which identified, categorised and expanded upon characteristicscommon to modernism across the world. As a result, the focus was more on the stylisticaspects of modernism. The basic design principles of the International Style thus constitutepart of modernism.

The ideas of Modernism were developed especially in what was taught at the GermanBauhaus School in Weimar (from 1919), Dessau (between 1926–32) and finally Berlinbetween 1932–33, under the leadership first of its founder Walter Gropius, then HannesMeyer, and finally Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Modernist theory in architecture resided inthe attempt to bypass the question of what style a building should be built in, a concern thathad overshadowed 19th-century architecture, and the wish to reduce form to its mostminimal expression of structure and function. In the USA, Philip Johnson and Henry-RussellHitchcock treated this new phenomenon in 1931 as if it represented a new style - theInternational Style, thereby misrepresenting its primary mission as merely a matter ofeliminating traditional ornament. The core effort to pursue Modern architecture as anabstract, scientific programme was more faithfully carried forward in Europe, but issues ofstyle always overshadowed its stricter and more puritan goals, not least in the work of LeCorbusier.

The International Style is a major architectural style that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s,the formative decades of Modern architecture.

The term originated from the name of a book by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and PhilipJohnson, The International Style, that identified, categorized and expanded uponcharacteristics common to Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. The authorsidentified three principles: the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis onbalance rather than preconceived symmetry, and the expulsion of applied ornament. Theaim of Hitchcock and Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modernarchitecture, doing this by the inclusion of specific architects.

1

International Style

The Glass Palace, a celebration of transparency, in Heerlen, The Netherlands (1935)Main article: International style (architecture)

The International style was a major architectural trend of the 1920s and 1930s. The termusually refers to the buildings and architects of the formative decades of modernism, beforeWorld War II. The term had its origin from the name of a book by Henry-Russell Hitchcockand Philip Johnson which identified, categorised and expanded upon characteristicscommon to modernism across the world. As a result, the focus was more on the stylisticaspects of modernism. The basic design principles of the International Style thus constitutepart of modernism.

The ideas of Modernism were developed especially in what was taught at the GermanBauhaus School in Weimar (from 1919), Dessau (between 1926–32) and finally Berlinbetween 1932–33, under the leadership first of its founder Walter Gropius, then HannesMeyer, and finally Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Modernist theory in architecture resided inthe attempt to bypass the question of what style a building should be built in, a concern thathad overshadowed 19th-century architecture, and the wish to reduce form to its mostminimal expression of structure and function. In the USA, Philip Johnson and Henry-RussellHitchcock treated this new phenomenon in 1931 as if it represented a new style - theInternational Style, thereby misrepresenting its primary mission as merely a matter ofeliminating traditional ornament. The core effort to pursue Modern architecture as anabstract, scientific programme was more faithfully carried forward in Europe, but issues ofstyle always overshadowed its stricter and more puritan goals, not least in the work of LeCorbusier.

The International Style is a major architectural style that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s,the formative decades of Modern architecture.

The term originated from the name of a book by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and PhilipJohnson, The International Style, that identified, categorized and expanded uponcharacteristics common to Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. The authorsidentified three principles: the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis onbalance rather than preconceived symmetry, and the expulsion of applied ornament. Theaim of Hitchcock and Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modernarchitecture, doing this by the inclusion of specific architects.

1

International Style

The Glass Palace, a celebration of transparency, in Heerlen, The Netherlands (1935)Main article: International style (architecture)

The International style was a major architectural trend of the 1920s and 1930s. The termusually refers to the buildings and architects of the formative decades of modernism, beforeWorld War II. The term had its origin from the name of a book by Henry-Russell Hitchcockand Philip Johnson which identified, categorised and expanded upon characteristicscommon to modernism across the world. As a result, the focus was more on the stylisticaspects of modernism. The basic design principles of the International Style thus constitutepart of modernism.

The ideas of Modernism were developed especially in what was taught at the GermanBauhaus School in Weimar (from 1919), Dessau (between 1926–32) and finally Berlinbetween 1932–33, under the leadership first of its founder Walter Gropius, then HannesMeyer, and finally Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Modernist theory in architecture resided inthe attempt to bypass the question of what style a building should be built in, a concern thathad overshadowed 19th-century architecture, and the wish to reduce form to its mostminimal expression of structure and function. In the USA, Philip Johnson and Henry-RussellHitchcock treated this new phenomenon in 1931 as if it represented a new style - theInternational Style, thereby misrepresenting its primary mission as merely a matter ofeliminating traditional ornament. The core effort to pursue Modern architecture as anabstract, scientific programme was more faithfully carried forward in Europe, but issues ofstyle always overshadowed its stricter and more puritan goals, not least in the work of LeCorbusier.

The International Style is a major architectural style that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s,the formative decades of Modern architecture.

The term originated from the name of a book by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and PhilipJohnson, The International Style, that identified, categorized and expanded uponcharacteristics common to Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. The authorsidentified three principles: the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis onbalance rather than preconceived symmetry, and the expulsion of applied ornament. Theaim of Hitchcock and Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modernarchitecture, doing this by the inclusion of specific architects.

2

The book was written to record the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture held atthe Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1932. All the works in the exhibition werecarefully selected, only displaying those that strictly followed these rules.[1] Previous uses ofthe term in the same context can be attributed to Walter Gropius in InternationaleArchitektur, and Ludwig Hilberseimer in Internationale neue Baukunst.[2]

Three of the Toronto-Dominion Centre's five towers (left to right): the Ernst & Young Tower,the Toronto-Dominion Bank Tower, and the Royal Trust Tower.

Regions

Europe

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(July 2008)

Around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architecturalsolutions to integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technologicalpossibilities. The work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde in Brussels, Antoni Gaudí inBarcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among manyothers, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.

The International Style as such blossomed in 1920s Western Europe. Researchers findsignificant contemporary common ground among the Dutch de Stijl movement, the work ofvisionary French/Swiss architect Le Corbusier and various German efforts to industrializecraft traditions, which resulted in the formation of the Deutscher Werkbund, large civicworker-housing projects in Frankfurt and Stuttgart, and, most famously, the Bauhaus. The

2

The book was written to record the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture held atthe Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1932. All the works in the exhibition werecarefully selected, only displaying those that strictly followed these rules.[1] Previous uses ofthe term in the same context can be attributed to Walter Gropius in InternationaleArchitektur, and Ludwig Hilberseimer in Internationale neue Baukunst.[2]

Three of the Toronto-Dominion Centre's five towers (left to right): the Ernst & Young Tower,the Toronto-Dominion Bank Tower, and the Royal Trust Tower.

Regions

Europe

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(July 2008)

Around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architecturalsolutions to integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technologicalpossibilities. The work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde in Brussels, Antoni Gaudí inBarcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among manyothers, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.

The International Style as such blossomed in 1920s Western Europe. Researchers findsignificant contemporary common ground among the Dutch de Stijl movement, the work ofvisionary French/Swiss architect Le Corbusier and various German efforts to industrializecraft traditions, which resulted in the formation of the Deutscher Werkbund, large civicworker-housing projects in Frankfurt and Stuttgart, and, most famously, the Bauhaus. The

2

The book was written to record the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture held atthe Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1932. All the works in the exhibition werecarefully selected, only displaying those that strictly followed these rules.[1] Previous uses ofthe term in the same context can be attributed to Walter Gropius in InternationaleArchitektur, and Ludwig Hilberseimer in Internationale neue Baukunst.[2]

Three of the Toronto-Dominion Centre's five towers (left to right): the Ernst & Young Tower,the Toronto-Dominion Bank Tower, and the Royal Trust Tower.

Regions

Europe

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(July 2008)

Around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architecturalsolutions to integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technologicalpossibilities. The work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde in Brussels, Antoni Gaudí inBarcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among manyothers, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.

The International Style as such blossomed in 1920s Western Europe. Researchers findsignificant contemporary common ground among the Dutch de Stijl movement, the work ofvisionary French/Swiss architect Le Corbusier and various German efforts to industrializecraft traditions, which resulted in the formation of the Deutscher Werkbund, large civicworker-housing projects in Frankfurt and Stuttgart, and, most famously, the Bauhaus. The

3

Bauhaus was one of a number of European schools and associations concerned withreconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.

Villa Savoye, by Le Corbusier

By the 1920s the most important figures in modern architecture had established theirreputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and LudwigMies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. The common characteristics of theInternational Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of ornament, andadoption of glass, steel and concrete as preferred materials. Further, the transparency ofbuildings, construction (called the honest expression of structure), and acceptance ofindustrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's designphilosophy. Finally, the machine aesthetic, and logical design decisions leading to supportbuilding function were used by the International architect to create buildings reachingbeyond historicism.

The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in three slogans: ornament is a crime,truth to materials, form follows function; and Le Corbusier's description of houses as"machines for living".

In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was theWeissenhof Estate in Stuttgart, built as a component of the exhibition "Die Wohnung",organized by the Deutscher Werkbund, and overseen by Mies van der Rohe. The fifteencontributing architects included Mies, and other names most associated with themovement: Peter Behrens, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, J.J.P. Oud, Mart Stam, and BrunoTaut. The exhibition was enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors.

3

Bauhaus was one of a number of European schools and associations concerned withreconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.

Villa Savoye, by Le Corbusier

By the 1920s the most important figures in modern architecture had established theirreputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and LudwigMies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. The common characteristics of theInternational Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of ornament, andadoption of glass, steel and concrete as preferred materials. Further, the transparency ofbuildings, construction (called the honest expression of structure), and acceptance ofindustrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's designphilosophy. Finally, the machine aesthetic, and logical design decisions leading to supportbuilding function were used by the International architect to create buildings reachingbeyond historicism.

The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in three slogans: ornament is a crime,truth to materials, form follows function; and Le Corbusier's description of houses as"machines for living".

In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was theWeissenhof Estate in Stuttgart, built as a component of the exhibition "Die Wohnung",organized by the Deutscher Werkbund, and overseen by Mies van der Rohe. The fifteencontributing architects included Mies, and other names most associated with themovement: Peter Behrens, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, J.J.P. Oud, Mart Stam, and BrunoTaut. The exhibition was enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors.

3

Bauhaus was one of a number of European schools and associations concerned withreconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.

Villa Savoye, by Le Corbusier

By the 1920s the most important figures in modern architecture had established theirreputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and LudwigMies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. The common characteristics of theInternational Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of ornament, andadoption of glass, steel and concrete as preferred materials. Further, the transparency ofbuildings, construction (called the honest expression of structure), and acceptance ofindustrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's designphilosophy. Finally, the machine aesthetic, and logical design decisions leading to supportbuilding function were used by the International architect to create buildings reachingbeyond historicism.

The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in three slogans: ornament is a crime,truth to materials, form follows function; and Le Corbusier's description of houses as"machines for living".

In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was theWeissenhof Estate in Stuttgart, built as a component of the exhibition "Die Wohnung",organized by the Deutscher Werkbund, and overseen by Mies van der Rohe. The fifteencontributing architects included Mies, and other names most associated with themovement: Peter Behrens, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, J.J.P. Oud, Mart Stam, and BrunoTaut. The exhibition was enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors.

4

The Glass Palace, a celebration of transparency, in Heerlen, Netherlands (1935)

The town of Portolago (now Lakki) in the Greek Dodecanese island of Leros represents someof the most interesting urban planning from the fascist regime in the Dodecanese; anextraordinary example of city takeover in the International Style known as ItalianRationalist. The symbolism of the shapes is reflected with exemplary effectiveness in thebuildings of Lakki: the administration building, the metaphysical tower of the market, thecinema-theatre, the Hotel Roma (now Hotel Leros), the church of San Francisco and thehospital are fine examples of the style. Many of its ideas and ideals were formalized by the1928 Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne.

The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm, Sweden, blended aninternational or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500buildings, it remains the largest coherent functionalistic villa area in Sweden and possiblythe world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction 1933–40 andprotected as a national cultural heritage.[3]

North America

4

The Glass Palace, a celebration of transparency, in Heerlen, Netherlands (1935)

The town of Portolago (now Lakki) in the Greek Dodecanese island of Leros represents someof the most interesting urban planning from the fascist regime in the Dodecanese; anextraordinary example of city takeover in the International Style known as ItalianRationalist. The symbolism of the shapes is reflected with exemplary effectiveness in thebuildings of Lakki: the administration building, the metaphysical tower of the market, thecinema-theatre, the Hotel Roma (now Hotel Leros), the church of San Francisco and thehospital are fine examples of the style. Many of its ideas and ideals were formalized by the1928 Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne.

The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm, Sweden, blended aninternational or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500buildings, it remains the largest coherent functionalistic villa area in Sweden and possiblythe world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction 1933–40 andprotected as a national cultural heritage.[3]

North America

4

The Glass Palace, a celebration of transparency, in Heerlen, Netherlands (1935)

The town of Portolago (now Lakki) in the Greek Dodecanese island of Leros represents someof the most interesting urban planning from the fascist regime in the Dodecanese; anextraordinary example of city takeover in the International Style known as ItalianRationalist. The symbolism of the shapes is reflected with exemplary effectiveness in thebuildings of Lakki: the administration building, the metaphysical tower of the market, thecinema-theatre, the Hotel Roma (now Hotel Leros), the church of San Francisco and thehospital are fine examples of the style. Many of its ideas and ideals were formalized by the1928 Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne.

The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm, Sweden, blended aninternational or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500buildings, it remains the largest coherent functionalistic villa area in Sweden and possiblythe world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction 1933–40 andprotected as a national cultural heritage.[3]

North America

5

The PSFS Building, now Loews Philadelphia Hotel

Prior to use of the term 'International Style', the same striving towards simplification,honesty and clarity are identifiable in US architects, notably in the work of Louis Sullivan andFrank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, as well as the west-coast residences of Irving Gill. Frank LloydWright's Wasmuth Portfolio influenced the work of European modernists, and his travelsthere probably influenced his own work, although he refused to be categorized with them.In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by ElielSaarinen gave a clear indication of what was to come.

The term International Style came from the 1932 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art,organized by Philip Johnson, and from the title of the exhibition catalog for that exhibit,written by Johnson and Henry Russell Hitchcock. It addressed building from 1922 through1932. Johnson named, codified, promoted and subtly re-defined the whole movement byhis inclusion of certain architects, and his description of their motives and values. ManyModernists disliked the term, believing that they had arrived at an approach to architecturethat transcended "style", along with any national or regional or continental identity. TheBritish architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner commented, "To me what had beenachieved in 1914 was the style of the century. It never occurred to me to look beyond. Herewas the one and only style which fitted all those aspects which mattered, aspects ofeconomics and sociology, of materials and function. It seems folly to think that anybodywould wish to abandon it."[4]

Johnson also defined the modern movement as an aesthetic style, rather than a matter ofpolitical statement. This was a departure from the functionalist principles of some of theoriginal Weissenhof architects, particularly the Dutch, and especially J.J.P. Oud, with whomJohnson maintained a prickly correspondence on the topic. The same year that Johnsoncoined the term International Style, saw the completion of the world's first InternationalStyle skyscraper, Philadelphia's PSFS Building. Designed by the truly "international" team ofarchitects, George Howe and William Lescaze, the PSFS Building has become an integralelement of the Philadelphia skyline.

Frank Lloyd Wright's work was considered a formative influence on the international style,but he was considered not to have kept up with more recent developments. His work wasincluded in the exhibition, but not the catalog. This provoked Wright to quip in response toHitchcock and Johnson "...having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatestarchitect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live".His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly changed his style as an architect, but in adifferent direction than the International Style.

The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis'rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of architects were forcedout of Europe. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany, they both arrived atthe Harvard Graduate School of Design, in an excellent position to extend their influenceand promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies

5

The PSFS Building, now Loews Philadelphia Hotel

Prior to use of the term 'International Style', the same striving towards simplification,honesty and clarity are identifiable in US architects, notably in the work of Louis Sullivan andFrank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, as well as the west-coast residences of Irving Gill. Frank LloydWright's Wasmuth Portfolio influenced the work of European modernists, and his travelsthere probably influenced his own work, although he refused to be categorized with them.In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by ElielSaarinen gave a clear indication of what was to come.

The term International Style came from the 1932 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art,organized by Philip Johnson, and from the title of the exhibition catalog for that exhibit,written by Johnson and Henry Russell Hitchcock. It addressed building from 1922 through1932. Johnson named, codified, promoted and subtly re-defined the whole movement byhis inclusion of certain architects, and his description of their motives and values. ManyModernists disliked the term, believing that they had arrived at an approach to architecturethat transcended "style", along with any national or regional or continental identity. TheBritish architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner commented, "To me what had beenachieved in 1914 was the style of the century. It never occurred to me to look beyond. Herewas the one and only style which fitted all those aspects which mattered, aspects ofeconomics and sociology, of materials and function. It seems folly to think that anybodywould wish to abandon it."[4]

Johnson also defined the modern movement as an aesthetic style, rather than a matter ofpolitical statement. This was a departure from the functionalist principles of some of theoriginal Weissenhof architects, particularly the Dutch, and especially J.J.P. Oud, with whomJohnson maintained a prickly correspondence on the topic. The same year that Johnsoncoined the term International Style, saw the completion of the world's first InternationalStyle skyscraper, Philadelphia's PSFS Building. Designed by the truly "international" team ofarchitects, George Howe and William Lescaze, the PSFS Building has become an integralelement of the Philadelphia skyline.

Frank Lloyd Wright's work was considered a formative influence on the international style,but he was considered not to have kept up with more recent developments. His work wasincluded in the exhibition, but not the catalog. This provoked Wright to quip in response toHitchcock and Johnson "...having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatestarchitect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live".His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly changed his style as an architect, but in adifferent direction than the International Style.

The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis'rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of architects were forcedout of Europe. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany, they both arrived atthe Harvard Graduate School of Design, in an excellent position to extend their influenceand promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies

5

The PSFS Building, now Loews Philadelphia Hotel

Prior to use of the term 'International Style', the same striving towards simplification,honesty and clarity are identifiable in US architects, notably in the work of Louis Sullivan andFrank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, as well as the west-coast residences of Irving Gill. Frank LloydWright's Wasmuth Portfolio influenced the work of European modernists, and his travelsthere probably influenced his own work, although he refused to be categorized with them.In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by ElielSaarinen gave a clear indication of what was to come.

The term International Style came from the 1932 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art,organized by Philip Johnson, and from the title of the exhibition catalog for that exhibit,written by Johnson and Henry Russell Hitchcock. It addressed building from 1922 through1932. Johnson named, codified, promoted and subtly re-defined the whole movement byhis inclusion of certain architects, and his description of their motives and values. ManyModernists disliked the term, believing that they had arrived at an approach to architecturethat transcended "style", along with any national or regional or continental identity. TheBritish architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner commented, "To me what had beenachieved in 1914 was the style of the century. It never occurred to me to look beyond. Herewas the one and only style which fitted all those aspects which mattered, aspects ofeconomics and sociology, of materials and function. It seems folly to think that anybodywould wish to abandon it."[4]

Johnson also defined the modern movement as an aesthetic style, rather than a matter ofpolitical statement. This was a departure from the functionalist principles of some of theoriginal Weissenhof architects, particularly the Dutch, and especially J.J.P. Oud, with whomJohnson maintained a prickly correspondence on the topic. The same year that Johnsoncoined the term International Style, saw the completion of the world's first InternationalStyle skyscraper, Philadelphia's PSFS Building. Designed by the truly "international" team ofarchitects, George Howe and William Lescaze, the PSFS Building has become an integralelement of the Philadelphia skyline.

Frank Lloyd Wright's work was considered a formative influence on the international style,but he was considered not to have kept up with more recent developments. His work wasincluded in the exhibition, but not the catalog. This provoked Wright to quip in response toHitchcock and Johnson "...having a good start, not only do I fully intend to be the greatestarchitect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live".His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly changed his style as an architect, but in adifferent direction than the International Style.

The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis'rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of architects were forcedout of Europe. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany, they both arrived atthe Harvard Graduate School of Design, in an excellent position to extend their influenceand promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies

6

fled in 1938, he came to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidifiedhis reputation as the prototypical modern architect.

Tower C of Place de Ville, the tallest building in Ottawa.

After World War II, the International Style matured, HOK and SOM perfected the corporatepractice, and it became the dominant approach for decades. Beginning with the initialtechnical and formal inventions of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago its mostfamous examples include the United Nations headquarters, the Lever House, the SeagramBuilding in New York, and the campus of the United States Air Force Academy in ColoradoSprings, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto. Further examples canbe found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and spread fromthere especially to Europe.

In Canada, this period coincided with a major building boom and few restrictions on massivebuilding projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's majorcities, especially Ottawa, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, and Toronto. Whilethese glass boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to thepoint of ubiquity. Architects attempted to put new twists into such towers, such as theToronto City Hall. By the 1970s a backlash was under way against modernism, and Canadawas one of its centres — prominent anti-modernists such as Jane Jacobs and George Bairdwere based in Toronto.

The typical International Style high-rise usually consists of the following:

1. Square or rectangular footprint2. Simple cubic "extruded rectangle" form

6

fled in 1938, he came to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidifiedhis reputation as the prototypical modern architect.

Tower C of Place de Ville, the tallest building in Ottawa.

After World War II, the International Style matured, HOK and SOM perfected the corporatepractice, and it became the dominant approach for decades. Beginning with the initialtechnical and formal inventions of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago its mostfamous examples include the United Nations headquarters, the Lever House, the SeagramBuilding in New York, and the campus of the United States Air Force Academy in ColoradoSprings, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto. Further examples canbe found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and spread fromthere especially to Europe.

In Canada, this period coincided with a major building boom and few restrictions on massivebuilding projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's majorcities, especially Ottawa, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, and Toronto. Whilethese glass boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to thepoint of ubiquity. Architects attempted to put new twists into such towers, such as theToronto City Hall. By the 1970s a backlash was under way against modernism, and Canadawas one of its centres — prominent anti-modernists such as Jane Jacobs and George Bairdwere based in Toronto.

The typical International Style high-rise usually consists of the following:

1. Square or rectangular footprint2. Simple cubic "extruded rectangle" form

6

fled in 1938, he came to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidifiedhis reputation as the prototypical modern architect.

Tower C of Place de Ville, the tallest building in Ottawa.

After World War II, the International Style matured, HOK and SOM perfected the corporatepractice, and it became the dominant approach for decades. Beginning with the initialtechnical and formal inventions of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago its mostfamous examples include the United Nations headquarters, the Lever House, the SeagramBuilding in New York, and the campus of the United States Air Force Academy in ColoradoSprings, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto. Further examples canbe found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and spread fromthere especially to Europe.

In Canada, this period coincided with a major building boom and few restrictions on massivebuilding projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's majorcities, especially Ottawa, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, and Toronto. Whilethese glass boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to thepoint of ubiquity. Architects attempted to put new twists into such towers, such as theToronto City Hall. By the 1970s a backlash was under way against modernism, and Canadawas one of its centres — prominent anti-modernists such as Jane Jacobs and George Bairdwere based in Toronto.

The typical International Style high-rise usually consists of the following:

1. Square or rectangular footprint2. Simple cubic "extruded rectangle" form

7

3. Windows running in broken horizontal rows forming a grid4. All facade angles are 90 degrees.

Tel Aviv

In July 2003, UNESCO proclaimed the White City of Tel Aviv a World Heritage Site, describingthe city as "a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the ModernMovement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century".[5]

Tel Aviv was founded in 1909 by European Jewish settlers, who erected the first buildings onsand dunes outside the inhabited ancient Arab town of Jaffa.[6] A large proportion of thebuildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick Geddes,north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center. Geddes laid out the streets anddecided on block size and utilization. His plan was to create a garden city.[7] He did notprescribe an architectural style for the buildings in the new city. The impetus for large-scaleconstruction in the new style came from the rapid influx of European Jewish immigrants(who grew in numbers from about 2,000 in 1914 to about 150,000 in 1937).[8] In the 1930s,new architects and architectural ideas were to converge on Tel Aviv to satisfy a burgeoning,relatively prosperous population with European tastes.

Esther Theater, now the Cinema Hotel, by architect Jehuda Magidovitch[9]

By 1933 many Jewish architects of the German Bauhaus school, which was closed down onthe orders of the Nazi Party, fled to the British Mandate of Palestine.[10] The residential andpublic buildings were designed by these architects, who took advantage of the absence ofestablished architectural conventions to put the principles of modern architecture intopractice. The Bauhaus principles, with their emphasis on functionality and inexpensivebuilding materials, were perceived as ideal in Tel Aviv. The architects fleeing Europecombined their Bauhaus ideas with the architectural ideals of Le Corbusier. Among notablearchitects were Erich Mendelsohn, who belonged to the Expressionist school and who wasactive in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem in the 1930s, Carl Rubin, an architect originally fromMendelsohn's office.,[11] and Arieh Sharon, who made important contributions in theInternational style.[12]

In 1984, in celebration of Tel Aviv's 75th year,[13] an exhibition was held at the Tel AvivMuseum of Art entitled White City, International Style Architecture in Israel, Portrait of an

7

3. Windows running in broken horizontal rows forming a grid4. All facade angles are 90 degrees.

Tel Aviv

In July 2003, UNESCO proclaimed the White City of Tel Aviv a World Heritage Site, describingthe city as "a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the ModernMovement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century".[5]

Tel Aviv was founded in 1909 by European Jewish settlers, who erected the first buildings onsand dunes outside the inhabited ancient Arab town of Jaffa.[6] A large proportion of thebuildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick Geddes,north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center. Geddes laid out the streets anddecided on block size and utilization. His plan was to create a garden city.[7] He did notprescribe an architectural style for the buildings in the new city. The impetus for large-scaleconstruction in the new style came from the rapid influx of European Jewish immigrants(who grew in numbers from about 2,000 in 1914 to about 150,000 in 1937).[8] In the 1930s,new architects and architectural ideas were to converge on Tel Aviv to satisfy a burgeoning,relatively prosperous population with European tastes.

Esther Theater, now the Cinema Hotel, by architect Jehuda Magidovitch[9]

By 1933 many Jewish architects of the German Bauhaus school, which was closed down onthe orders of the Nazi Party, fled to the British Mandate of Palestine.[10] The residential andpublic buildings were designed by these architects, who took advantage of the absence ofestablished architectural conventions to put the principles of modern architecture intopractice. The Bauhaus principles, with their emphasis on functionality and inexpensivebuilding materials, were perceived as ideal in Tel Aviv. The architects fleeing Europecombined their Bauhaus ideas with the architectural ideals of Le Corbusier. Among notablearchitects were Erich Mendelsohn, who belonged to the Expressionist school and who wasactive in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem in the 1930s, Carl Rubin, an architect originally fromMendelsohn's office.,[11] and Arieh Sharon, who made important contributions in theInternational style.[12]

In 1984, in celebration of Tel Aviv's 75th year,[13] an exhibition was held at the Tel AvivMuseum of Art entitled White City, International Style Architecture in Israel, Portrait of an

7

3. Windows running in broken horizontal rows forming a grid4. All facade angles are 90 degrees.

Tel Aviv

In July 2003, UNESCO proclaimed the White City of Tel Aviv a World Heritage Site, describingthe city as "a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the ModernMovement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century".[5]

Tel Aviv was founded in 1909 by European Jewish settlers, who erected the first buildings onsand dunes outside the inhabited ancient Arab town of Jaffa.[6] A large proportion of thebuildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick Geddes,north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center. Geddes laid out the streets anddecided on block size and utilization. His plan was to create a garden city.[7] He did notprescribe an architectural style for the buildings in the new city. The impetus for large-scaleconstruction in the new style came from the rapid influx of European Jewish immigrants(who grew in numbers from about 2,000 in 1914 to about 150,000 in 1937).[8] In the 1930s,new architects and architectural ideas were to converge on Tel Aviv to satisfy a burgeoning,relatively prosperous population with European tastes.

Esther Theater, now the Cinema Hotel, by architect Jehuda Magidovitch[9]

By 1933 many Jewish architects of the German Bauhaus school, which was closed down onthe orders of the Nazi Party, fled to the British Mandate of Palestine.[10] The residential andpublic buildings were designed by these architects, who took advantage of the absence ofestablished architectural conventions to put the principles of modern architecture intopractice. The Bauhaus principles, with their emphasis on functionality and inexpensivebuilding materials, were perceived as ideal in Tel Aviv. The architects fleeing Europecombined their Bauhaus ideas with the architectural ideals of Le Corbusier. Among notablearchitects were Erich Mendelsohn, who belonged to the Expressionist school and who wasactive in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem in the 1930s, Carl Rubin, an architect originally fromMendelsohn's office.,[11] and Arieh Sharon, who made important contributions in theInternational style.[12]

In 1984, in celebration of Tel Aviv's 75th year,[13] an exhibition was held at the Tel AvivMuseum of Art entitled White City, International Style Architecture in Israel, Portrait of an

8

Era. In 1994, a conference took place at the UNESCO headquarters, entitled WorldConference on the International Style in Architecture. In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City waslisted as a World Monuments Fund endangered site.[14] In 2003, UNESCO named Tel Aviv aWorld Heritage Site for its treasure of modern architecture.[5]

Other countries

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(February 2010)

One of the strengths of the International Style was that the design solutions wereindifferent to location, site, and climate. This was one of the reasons it was called'international'; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. (Laterthis was identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses.)

American anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection offunctionalism have tended to mask the fact that many of the important contributors to theoriginal Weissenhof project fled to the east. This group also tended to be far moreconcerned with functionalism. Bruno Taut, Mart Stam, the second Bauhaus director HannesMeyer, Ernst May and other important figures of the International Style went to the SovietUnion in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, buildingentire cities from scratch. This Soviet effort was doomed to failure, and these architectsbecame stateless persons in 1936 when Stalin ordered them out of the country and Hitlerwould not allow them back into Germany.

In the late 1930s this group and their students were dispersed to Turkey, France, Mexico,Venezuela, Kenya and India, adding up to a truly international influence. In India, GeocentricConstruction and Architect, an ISO firm, has played a vital role in different types ofarchitectural work.

In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas in Caracas, Venezuela, as aWorld Heritage Site, describing it as "a masterpiece of modern city planning, architectureand art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and a group ofdistinguished avant-garde artists".[citation needed] In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed CiudadUniversitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), in Mexico City, aWorld Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms of international stylemovement (as well as cultural - alma mater of 3 Nobel Prize winners and most Mexicanpresidents).[citation needed] It was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid 1950s basedupon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral. His original idea was enriched byother students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The universityhouses murals by Diego Rivera, Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also featuresOlympic Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexicanarchitect Luis Barragán designed buildings in international style; later he evolved to a moretraditional local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the international ormodern period are Carlos Obregón Santacilia, Augusto H. Alvarez, Mario Pani, Federico

8

Era. In 1994, a conference took place at the UNESCO headquarters, entitled WorldConference on the International Style in Architecture. In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City waslisted as a World Monuments Fund endangered site.[14] In 2003, UNESCO named Tel Aviv aWorld Heritage Site for its treasure of modern architecture.[5]

Other countries

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(February 2010)

One of the strengths of the International Style was that the design solutions wereindifferent to location, site, and climate. This was one of the reasons it was called'international'; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. (Laterthis was identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses.)

American anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection offunctionalism have tended to mask the fact that many of the important contributors to theoriginal Weissenhof project fled to the east. This group also tended to be far moreconcerned with functionalism. Bruno Taut, Mart Stam, the second Bauhaus director HannesMeyer, Ernst May and other important figures of the International Style went to the SovietUnion in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, buildingentire cities from scratch. This Soviet effort was doomed to failure, and these architectsbecame stateless persons in 1936 when Stalin ordered them out of the country and Hitlerwould not allow them back into Germany.

In the late 1930s this group and their students were dispersed to Turkey, France, Mexico,Venezuela, Kenya and India, adding up to a truly international influence. In India, GeocentricConstruction and Architect, an ISO firm, has played a vital role in different types ofarchitectural work.

In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas in Caracas, Venezuela, as aWorld Heritage Site, describing it as "a masterpiece of modern city planning, architectureand art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and a group ofdistinguished avant-garde artists".[citation needed] In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed CiudadUniversitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), in Mexico City, aWorld Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms of international stylemovement (as well as cultural - alma mater of 3 Nobel Prize winners and most Mexicanpresidents).[citation needed] It was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid 1950s basedupon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral. His original idea was enriched byother students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The universityhouses murals by Diego Rivera, Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also featuresOlympic Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexicanarchitect Luis Barragán designed buildings in international style; later he evolved to a moretraditional local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the international ormodern period are Carlos Obregón Santacilia, Augusto H. Alvarez, Mario Pani, Federico

8

Era. In 1994, a conference took place at the UNESCO headquarters, entitled WorldConference on the International Style in Architecture. In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City waslisted as a World Monuments Fund endangered site.[14] In 2003, UNESCO named Tel Aviv aWorld Heritage Site for its treasure of modern architecture.[5]

Other countries

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(February 2010)

One of the strengths of the International Style was that the design solutions wereindifferent to location, site, and climate. This was one of the reasons it was called'international'; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. (Laterthis was identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses.)

American anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection offunctionalism have tended to mask the fact that many of the important contributors to theoriginal Weissenhof project fled to the east. This group also tended to be far moreconcerned with functionalism. Bruno Taut, Mart Stam, the second Bauhaus director HannesMeyer, Ernst May and other important figures of the International Style went to the SovietUnion in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, buildingentire cities from scratch. This Soviet effort was doomed to failure, and these architectsbecame stateless persons in 1936 when Stalin ordered them out of the country and Hitlerwould not allow them back into Germany.

In the late 1930s this group and their students were dispersed to Turkey, France, Mexico,Venezuela, Kenya and India, adding up to a truly international influence. In India, GeocentricConstruction and Architect, an ISO firm, has played a vital role in different types ofarchitectural work.

In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas in Caracas, Venezuela, as aWorld Heritage Site, describing it as "a masterpiece of modern city planning, architectureand art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and a group ofdistinguished avant-garde artists".[citation needed] In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed CiudadUniversitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), in Mexico City, aWorld Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms of international stylemovement (as well as cultural - alma mater of 3 Nobel Prize winners and most Mexicanpresidents).[citation needed] It was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid 1950s basedupon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral. His original idea was enriched byother students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The universityhouses murals by Diego Rivera, Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also featuresOlympic Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexicanarchitect Luis Barragán designed buildings in international style; later he evolved to a moretraditional local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the international ormodern period are Carlos Obregón Santacilia, Augusto H. Alvarez, Mario Pani, Federico

9

Mariscal, Vladimir Kaspé, Enrique del Moral, Juan Sordo Madaleno, Max Cetto, among manyothers.

In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed a more organic and sensual[citation needed] InternationalStyle. He designed the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of thenew, planned capital Brasilia. The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lucio Costa.

Criticism of International style

The stark, unornamented appearance of the International style met with contemporaneouscriticism and is still criticized today by many. Especially in larger and more public buildings,the style is commonly subject to disparagement as ugly,[15] inhuman,[16] sterile,[17] andelitist.[18] Such criticism gained momentum in the latter half of the 20th Century, fromacademics such as Hugo Kükelhaus to best-selling American author Tom Wolfe's FromBauhaus to Our House, and contributed to the rise of such counter-movements aspostmodernism. The negative reaction to internationalist modernism has been linked topublic antipathy[where?] to development overall.[19][20]

International style today

Although it was conceived as a movement that transcended style, the International Stylewas largely superseded in the era of Postmodern architecture that started in the 1960s. In2006, Hugh Pearlman, the architectural critic of The Times, observed that those using thestyle today are simply "another species of revivalist", noting the irony.[

Examples

The 1932 MOMA exhibition

Buildings included by Hitchcock and Johnson in the 1932 International Exhibition of ModernArchitecture hosted by the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City.

Architect Building Location Date

Jacobus OudWorkers Houses,(Seidlung,Kiefhoek)

Hook of Holland1924–1927

Otto Eisler Double House Brno, Czechoslovakia 1926

Walter Gropius Bauhaus School Dessau, Germany 1926

City Employment Office Dessau, Germany 1928

Ludwig Mies van derRohe

Apartment House Weissenhof Estate,Stuttgart

1927

9

Mariscal, Vladimir Kaspé, Enrique del Moral, Juan Sordo Madaleno, Max Cetto, among manyothers.

In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed a more organic and sensual[citation needed] InternationalStyle. He designed the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of thenew, planned capital Brasilia. The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lucio Costa.

Criticism of International style

The stark, unornamented appearance of the International style met with contemporaneouscriticism and is still criticized today by many. Especially in larger and more public buildings,the style is commonly subject to disparagement as ugly,[15] inhuman,[16] sterile,[17] andelitist.[18] Such criticism gained momentum in the latter half of the 20th Century, fromacademics such as Hugo Kükelhaus to best-selling American author Tom Wolfe's FromBauhaus to Our House, and contributed to the rise of such counter-movements aspostmodernism. The negative reaction to internationalist modernism has been linked topublic antipathy[where?] to development overall.[19][20]

International style today

Although it was conceived as a movement that transcended style, the International Stylewas largely superseded in the era of Postmodern architecture that started in the 1960s. In2006, Hugh Pearlman, the architectural critic of The Times, observed that those using thestyle today are simply "another species of revivalist", noting the irony.[

Examples

The 1932 MOMA exhibition

Buildings included by Hitchcock and Johnson in the 1932 International Exhibition of ModernArchitecture hosted by the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City.

Architect Building Location Date

Jacobus OudWorkers Houses,(Seidlung,Kiefhoek)

Hook of Holland1924–1927

Otto Eisler Double House Brno, Czechoslovakia 1926

Walter Gropius Bauhaus School Dessau, Germany 1926

City Employment Office Dessau, Germany 1928

Ludwig Mies van derRohe

Apartment House Weissenhof Estate,Stuttgart

1927

9

Mariscal, Vladimir Kaspé, Enrique del Moral, Juan Sordo Madaleno, Max Cetto, among manyothers.

In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed a more organic and sensual[citation needed] InternationalStyle. He designed the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of thenew, planned capital Brasilia. The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lucio Costa.

Criticism of International style

The stark, unornamented appearance of the International style met with contemporaneouscriticism and is still criticized today by many. Especially in larger and more public buildings,the style is commonly subject to disparagement as ugly,[15] inhuman,[16] sterile,[17] andelitist.[18] Such criticism gained momentum in the latter half of the 20th Century, fromacademics such as Hugo Kükelhaus to best-selling American author Tom Wolfe's FromBauhaus to Our House, and contributed to the rise of such counter-movements aspostmodernism. The negative reaction to internationalist modernism has been linked topublic antipathy[where?] to development overall.[19][20]

International style today

Although it was conceived as a movement that transcended style, the International Stylewas largely superseded in the era of Postmodern architecture that started in the 1960s. In2006, Hugh Pearlman, the architectural critic of The Times, observed that those using thestyle today are simply "another species of revivalist", noting the irony.[

Examples

The 1932 MOMA exhibition

Buildings included by Hitchcock and Johnson in the 1932 International Exhibition of ModernArchitecture hosted by the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City.

Architect Building Location Date

Jacobus OudWorkers Houses,(Seidlung,Kiefhoek)

Hook of Holland1924–1927

Otto Eisler Double House Brno, Czechoslovakia 1926

Walter Gropius Bauhaus School Dessau, Germany 1926

City Employment Office Dessau, Germany 1928

Ludwig Mies van derRohe

Apartment House Weissenhof Estate,Stuttgart

1927

10

German pavilion at the BarcelonaExposition

Spain 1929

Tugendhat House Brno, Czechoslovakia 1930

Le Corbusier (PierreJeanneret)

Villa Stein Garches, France 1927

Villa Savoye Poissy-Sur-Seine 1930

Carlos de Beistegui Penthouse Champs-Élysées, Paris 1931

Erich Mendelsohn Schocken Department Store Chemnitz, Germany1928–1930

Frederick John Kiesler Film Guild Cinema New York City 1929

Richard Neutra Lovell HouseLos Angeles,

California1929

Alvar Aalto Turun Sanomat building Turku, Finland 1930

Karl Schneider Kunstverein Hamburg, Germany 1930

Other examples

Architect Building Location Date

Eileen Gray E-1027Cap Martin,

France1929

Joseph Emberton Royal Corinthian Yacht Club Essex 1931

Ove Arup Labworth Café Essex 1932–33

Frits Peutz Glaspaleis Heerlen 1933

Oscar Stonorov andAlfred Kastner

Carl Mackley Houses Philadelphia1933–1934

Södra ÄngbyStockholm,

Sweden1933–1939

Neil & Hurd Ravelston GardenEdinburgh,

Scotland1936

10

German pavilion at the BarcelonaExposition

Spain 1929

Tugendhat House Brno, Czechoslovakia 1930

Le Corbusier (PierreJeanneret)

Villa Stein Garches, France 1927

Villa Savoye Poissy-Sur-Seine 1930

Carlos de Beistegui Penthouse Champs-Élysées, Paris 1931

Erich Mendelsohn Schocken Department Store Chemnitz, Germany1928–1930

Frederick John Kiesler Film Guild Cinema New York City 1929

Richard Neutra Lovell HouseLos Angeles,

California1929

Alvar Aalto Turun Sanomat building Turku, Finland 1930

Karl Schneider Kunstverein Hamburg, Germany 1930

Other examples

Architect Building Location Date

Eileen Gray E-1027Cap Martin,

France1929

Joseph Emberton Royal Corinthian Yacht Club Essex 1931

Ove Arup Labworth Café Essex 1932–33

Frits Peutz Glaspaleis Heerlen 1933

Oscar Stonorov andAlfred Kastner

Carl Mackley Houses Philadelphia1933–1934

Södra ÄngbyStockholm,

Sweden1933–1939

Neil & Hurd Ravelston GardenEdinburgh,

Scotland1936

10

German pavilion at the BarcelonaExposition

Spain 1929

Tugendhat House Brno, Czechoslovakia 1930

Le Corbusier (PierreJeanneret)

Villa Stein Garches, France 1927

Villa Savoye Poissy-Sur-Seine 1930

Carlos de Beistegui Penthouse Champs-Élysées, Paris 1931

Erich Mendelsohn Schocken Department Store Chemnitz, Germany1928–1930

Frederick John Kiesler Film Guild Cinema New York City 1929

Richard Neutra Lovell HouseLos Angeles,

California1929

Alvar Aalto Turun Sanomat building Turku, Finland 1930

Karl Schneider Kunstverein Hamburg, Germany 1930

Other examples

Architect Building Location Date

Eileen Gray E-1027Cap Martin,

France1929

Joseph Emberton Royal Corinthian Yacht Club Essex 1931

Ove Arup Labworth Café Essex 1932–33

Frits Peutz Glaspaleis Heerlen 1933

Oscar Stonorov andAlfred Kastner

Carl Mackley Houses Philadelphia1933–1934

Södra ÄngbyStockholm,

Sweden1933–1939

Neil & Hurd Ravelston GardenEdinburgh,

Scotland1936

11

Ludwig Mies van derRohe

Farnsworth House Illinois 1945–1951

Illinois Institute of Technology campus(including S. R. Crown Hall)

Chicago1945–1960

Michael Scott Busaras Dublin, Ireland1945–1953

Ron Phillips and AlanFitch

City Hall, Hong KongVictoria City,

Hong Kong1956

John Bland Old City Hall Ottawa 1958

Emery Roth & Sons 10 Lafayette SquareBuffalo, New

York,1958-1959

Kelly & GruzenHigh School of Graphic CommunicationArts

Manhattan, NewYork City

1959

John Lautner Chemosphere Los Angeles 1960

I. M. Pei Place Ville-Marie Montreal 1962

Ludwig Mies van derRohe

Toronto-Dominion Centre Toronto 1967

Westmount Square Montreal 1967

Campeau Corporation Place de Ville Ottawa1967–1972

Crang & Boake Hudson's Bay Centre Toronto 1974

CNR Building (demolished 2007) London, Ontario 1975

Architects

Alvar Aalto Welton Becket Lawrence Allen Bernstein Geoffrey Bazeley Roberto Burle Marx Joseph Emberton Eileen Gray Walter Gropius

11

Ludwig Mies van derRohe

Farnsworth House Illinois 1945–1951

Illinois Institute of Technology campus(including S. R. Crown Hall)

Chicago1945–1960

Michael Scott Busaras Dublin, Ireland1945–1953

Ron Phillips and AlanFitch

City Hall, Hong KongVictoria City,

Hong Kong1956

John Bland Old City Hall Ottawa 1958

Emery Roth & Sons 10 Lafayette SquareBuffalo, New

York,1958-1959

Kelly & GruzenHigh School of Graphic CommunicationArts

Manhattan, NewYork City

1959

John Lautner Chemosphere Los Angeles 1960

I. M. Pei Place Ville-Marie Montreal 1962

Ludwig Mies van derRohe

Toronto-Dominion Centre Toronto 1967

Westmount Square Montreal 1967

Campeau Corporation Place de Ville Ottawa1967–1972

Crang & Boake Hudson's Bay Centre Toronto 1974

CNR Building (demolished 2007) London, Ontario 1975

Architects

Alvar Aalto Welton Becket Lawrence Allen Bernstein Geoffrey Bazeley Roberto Burle Marx Joseph Emberton Eileen Gray Walter Gropius

11

Ludwig Mies van derRohe

Farnsworth House Illinois 1945–1951

Illinois Institute of Technology campus(including S. R. Crown Hall)

Chicago1945–1960

Michael Scott Busaras Dublin, Ireland1945–1953

Ron Phillips and AlanFitch

City Hall, Hong KongVictoria City,

Hong Kong1956

John Bland Old City Hall Ottawa 1958

Emery Roth & Sons 10 Lafayette SquareBuffalo, New

York,1958-1959

Kelly & GruzenHigh School of Graphic CommunicationArts

Manhattan, NewYork City

1959

John Lautner Chemosphere Los Angeles 1960

I. M. Pei Place Ville-Marie Montreal 1962

Ludwig Mies van derRohe

Toronto-Dominion Centre Toronto 1967

Westmount Square Montreal 1967

Campeau Corporation Place de Ville Ottawa1967–1972

Crang & Boake Hudson's Bay Centre Toronto 1974

CNR Building (demolished 2007) London, Ontario 1975

Architects

Alvar Aalto Welton Becket Lawrence Allen Bernstein Geoffrey Bazeley Roberto Burle Marx Joseph Emberton Eileen Gray Walter Gropius

12

Mazharul Islam Arne Jacobsen Philip Johnson Louis Kahn Richard Kauffman Joseph Klarwein Le Corbusier William Lescaze Erich Mendelsohn Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Richard Neutra Oscar Niemeyer I.M. Pei Frits Peutz Ernst Plischke Ralph Rapson Gerrit Rietveld Arseniusz Romanowicz Rudolph Schindler Arieh Sharon Jerzy Sołtan Raphael Soriano Carlos Raul Villanueva Lloyd Wright The Architects' Collaborative