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Police–Community Relations and the Administration of Justice

Ninth Edition

Ronald D. Hunter

Thomas Barker

Melchor C. de Guzman

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco

Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto

Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

___________________________________________________________________________________________Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 330 Hudson Street, New York, NY 10013

Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

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ISBN-13: 978-0-13-454815-9 www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-10: 0-13-454815-9

Contents

Preface iv

Chapter 1 The Administration of Justice and the Police 1Chapter 2 Police Role Concept in a Changing Society 4Chapter 3 Police-Community Relations: An Overview 6Chapter 4 Public Relations and Community Relations: 8

A ContrastChapter 5 The Public and the Police: A Consortium 11 of Communities

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Chapter 6 Relations within the Police Organization 13Chapter 7 Coping with the Human Experience of Being a Cop 15Chapter 8 The Communication Process 17Chapter 9 Police Discretion and Community Relations 20Chapter 10Community Oriented Policing 23Chapter 11Police Community Relations and The Media Link 26Chapter 12Special Populations and the Police 29Chapter 13Community Relations in the Context of Culture 33Chapter 14Maintaining Order: Dissent and Conflict Management 36Chapter 15Community Participation in the New Millennium 41

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Preface

The ninth edition of Police-Community Relations and the Administration of Justice continues the theme set in the first edition: citizen participation is critical to the effectiveness of the criminal justice system. This is especially true for the police. The police have a unique responsibility to encourage and facilitate citizen participation. This book addresses the internal and external communities served by the police and discusses past, present, and future practices that can create and sustain meaningful and successful police-community relations. Fully updated and revised, this ninth edition features the following:

1. As with earlier revisions, the data and references for this edition have been updated to reflect the current state of policing and police-community relations issues. In addition, there are several new ideas that we have introduced in this edition. We have included these new sections mindful that we should keep the theme of the previous editions of the book of not only synthesizing current state of empirical knowledge but also at the same time enhancing the practicality of the textbooks to increase the tools that police and the community might have to improve on their relationships.

2. We have provided more insights for police to examine police organization’s fit with the communities they serve. The objectives in this first sets of revisions is to provide the readers on the wide arrays of choices that are available for providing police services depending on the community that they serve. In this regard, we have included two major perspectives. We introduced the different types of communities in Chapter 3. Having this foundational knowledge, we begin to present in Chapter 4 the different types of policing models that are available and have been used. Chapter 15 ties up all these concepts on arguing for the right policing models based on the communities and the need of the communities.

3. We have enhanced the information about the dynamics of policing realities and the problems they pose for police community relations. We have discussed the different paradoxes in the police use of their coercive powers and argued that such paradoxes and other challenges that they face are responsible for the quality of police-community relations that emerge. These were done in Chapter 5 where we talked about the dilemmas and grave implications of policing special populations.

4. We have identified the different levels of communications and provide recommendations on how to improve the communications among the police and its various clients. Chapter 8 provides an analysis of the different levels of communications. We have also noted how ineffective communication might bring about distrusts and scapegoating between the police and the public.

5. We have untangled the various relationships between the media and the police including the implications of these relationships in Chapter 11. We have also included a presentation of how the police department can use social media as a tool for police-community relationships. We have also discussed in Chapter 13 how the current assimilation process of immigrants is presenting a challenge in the conduct of policing.

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6. Lastly, we have merged Chapters 14 and 15 in order to capture both the problems of the police in enforcing order at the macro-level (i.e., the performance of police function as agents of the state) and at the micro-level where person to person conflicts might strain police community relations.

Supporting materials contained within the text in each chapter include:

● A listing of relevant police related Web sites● Key Concepts● Learning Objectives● Boxes containing supplementary information on relevant topics within the chapters in

addition to updated tables and figures● A concluding Reality Check section● Conclusions section● Student Checklist● Topics for Discussion

This Instructor’s Manual supplements the material contained in the text by providing:

● A replication of the Key Concepts from the text● Chapter Outline● Student Checklist different from that in the text● Discussion Topics different from that in the text● Essay Section

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Chapter 1 The Administration of Justice and the Police

Key Concepts

Civil Justice Distributive Justice Restorative JusticeCivil Liberties Equality Rule of LawCommon Law Federalism Social JusticeCommutative Justice Human Rights Social StabilityCriminal Justice Justice Symbolic Reassurance

Chapter Outline

1. Introduction2. The Idea of Justice

A. The Need for Justice(1) Human Rights(2) Civil Rights

3. Justice DefinedA. Types of Justice

(1) Social Justice(2) Civil Justice(3) Restorative Justice(4) Criminal Justice

4. The Mission of a Criminal Justice SystemA. The Rule of Law

(1) Vengeance/Retribution(2) Atonement(3) Deterrence/Prevention(4) Treatment(5) Incapacitation(6) Reparations

B. Social Stability(1) Maintenance of Order(2) Equitable Social Control(3) Symbolic Reassurance

5. The Challenges of Administering Justice in a Free SocietyA. Crime Control versus Due Process

(1) Rights of Society(2) Rights of Individuals

6. The Components of the U.S. Justice SystemA. The Federalist System

(1) Lawmaking(2) Law Enforcement

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(3) Prosecution(4) Adjudication(5) Corrections

7. The Structure of the Police System in America A. Federal Police Agencies

(1) Department of Treasury Agencies(2) Department of Justice Agencies(3) Department of Homeland Security Agencies(4) State Police Agencies

B. County Law Enforcement C. Municipal Police 8. Where the Police “Fit” Within the U.S. Justice System 9. Reality Check10. Conclusions

Summary

When examining the concept of justice, it is easy to understand why there is no “one” working definition for this word. Within this chapter, there are several different philosophies and written documents from which to draw a broad concept for the term justice. Even though it is nearly impossible to ascribe a single common agreement on this word, it is important to understand our country’s view of justice, as well as the rest of the world’s understanding of this virtue as well.Our country has a duty to understand, implement, and enforce laws through its various governmental agencies. Lawmakers are elected by a free citizenry, who in turn construct laws to represent our views on justice. These laws are then used to empower agencies on a federal and state level to enforce various statutes which are agreed upon in the legislative process.The U.S. justice system is a process that was formulated to ensure the rule of law, while protecting the rights of our citizens as defined in the Bill of Rights of the U.S. Constitution. This process may seem slow and ineffective at times to our citizens. However, the need for justice, as opposed to “speed” is crucial for upholding the democratic principles of this nation.The police structure in this country is broken into the familiar sections of federal and state law enforcement agencies. These organizations work to uphold the laws that were set in place on a federal or state level. Even though there are times when there is an overlap in authority and function of these law enforcement groups, for the most part they work well in carrying out their various mandates set forth by our lawmaking bodies.

Student Checklist

1. Why should the police be concerned about protecting the civil rights of American citizens?

2. Explain the impact of the Civil Rights Act of 1871 on the American police system.7

3. Describe how the police “fit” within the U.S. justice system.4. Give a brief overview of the American police system and how it is structured.

Discussion Topics

1. Discuss the impact of the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights on the nations of the world.

2. Why is it essential for students of American policing to clearly understand the importance of the Bill of Rights?

3. Should American police officers be held criminally liable for violations of citizen’s civil liberties?

Essay Section

1. In a brief essay, give your reasons for studying criminal justice/criminology.2. Explain some of the similarities found between the U.S. Bill of Rights and U.N.’s

Declaration of Human Rights. What are some differences?

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Chapter 2 Police Role Concept in a Changing Society

Key Concepts

Crime Control Role Generalization Role ConceptCrime-fighting Model Objectivity Role ConflictDeletion Order Maintenance Role Service RoleDistortion Perception Subjectivity

Chapter Outline

1. Great Expectations2. Perceptions A. Seeing and Perceiving B. Perception is Personal 3. Role Concept4. The Police Officer’s Roles

A. Crime ControlB. Order MaintenanceC. ServiceD. Other Roles

5. Police Role Concept6. Formation of Role Concepts A. The Sources of Role Concepts B. Lack of Information C. How Police Respond7. The Media and Role Concepts8. Factors and Conditions of Change

A. Reassessing the Dimensions B. A World of Infinite Choices

9. The Paradoxes of Police Practice A. Community Relations: Residue from the Past

10. Toward a Realistic Role Concept A. The Police Officer’s Working Personality and Reality B. Service versus Crime Fighting

11. Toward a Congruent Role12. Elements of Change13. Criteria for Change14. Policing in a Changing Society15. Reality Check16. Conclusions

Summary

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Law enforcement often becomes the object of animosity by the citizens against the establishment. The perform roles that are inconsistent with each other (ex. service vs. law enforcement) and at the same time are inconsistent with democratic values (ex. freedom vs. order). Because of these perceptions, police and community relations will continue to be of an adversarial nature in certain cultures within our society. Methods must be implemented to help alleviate tensions, and to increase cooperation between society and police.Police agencies generally reflect the community. If there are problems with the community, there will more than likely be problems within the agency. The reverse of this statement is true as well. Police agencies should continue to lead in areas such as relieving racial tensions between law enforcement and minority groups.The police should make every effort to understand the needs and goals of the community. There also needs to be an understanding as to what role the police officer should play within a community, and what role should not be carried out by law enforcement. Both police and society need to be aware of the dual role of the law enforcement officer: That of services provided by the officer and the enforcement of law for the protection of society.Progress is coming whether we want it to or not. How we face it as a community and as a law enforcement agency will be determined by our flexibility. We must remember that this progress is not a set and determined goal, but a process that will always continue. The media can mediate some of these societal changes that tend to reshape police roles and the changing nature of the communities the police serve.

Student Checklist

1. Define the terms perception and role concept.2. How does a citizen’s perception of police affect the way the citizen acts towards a police

officer?3. Describe the processes of generalization, distortion, and deletion.4. Name several factors and conditions of change in our society.5. Identify some of the paradoxes and dilemmas our changing society creates for the police

officer.

Discussion Topics

1. What is the perception of the police in your community?2. What life experiences or history have shaped that perception?3. If these perceptions are negative, what can you do to change them? If positive, what more

can be done on the part of the police to make circumstances even better?

Essay Section

1. In the Reality Check section of the chapter, explain how you would have handled the situation.

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2. Explain and describe a police agency that reflects a community in a negative way.3. Explain and describe a police agency that positively reflects its community.

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Chapter 3 Police-Community Relations: An Overview

Key Concepts

Community-Police Relations Overlapping Communities SocializationExternal Communities People’s Police Social ControlFeedback (information flow) Police-Community Relations Social ParticipationInternal Communities Production-distribution-consumption Mutual Support

Chapter Outline

1. Understanding Community Variations2. The Police Community Environment3. Defining Police-Community Relations4. Acceptance of the Concept of Police-Community Relations5. Acceptance as a Sign of Progress6. A Historical Perspective

A. Nineteenth-Century Origins7. Selling the Police to the People

A. The 1960s: From Public Relations to Community Relations B. The San Francisco Community Relations Unit

C. Police-Community Relations Since the 1960sD. The Police and Social WorkE. The Success of Police-Community Relations8. Internalizing Community Relations A. What “Community Relations” Does Not Mean B. What “Community Relations” Does Mean9. Systems and Communities A. Feedback/Input10. The Many Communities in Community Relations A. External Communities

(1) The Justice Community(2) The Political Community

(3) The Human Services Community(4) Citizens and the Police

B. Internal Communities(1) The Personal Support Community(2) The Police Community

11. Reality Check12. Conclusions

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Summary

Communities based on the systemic provisions of locality relevant functions. This variation on communities suggests that police departments must adapt to the needs of those communities. A harmonious relationship can only emerge with the police aligning the performance of their functions with the types of community that exists.

Police-community relations were built on the foundations of already-existing public relations programs, and like those programs, involved working with the community in ways that leave little or no room for recommending or effecting changes in departmental policies or procedures. In other words, there was no allowance for essential feedback.Police-community work concentrated precisely on the segments of the community (e.g., blacks, lower-class youth, and the poor) that were neglected by the earlier public-relations approach. Because of these previous failures, new attitudes and procedures needed to be implemented in order to correct past mistakes. If police wish to maintain ongoing dialogues with all members of society, community relations must be an ongoing and fundamental aspect of police work.A police agency is part of several systems and is also a system within a system. Each system in society must be engaged by the law enforcement agency to relate properly to it. The task of police-community relations appears increasingly complex as each community is considered. However, understanding the concept of police-community relations, the people who are involved in its process, the systems in which they function, the problems they encounter, and the successes they achieve provides a basis for improving police-community relationships in all communities.

Student Checklist

1. Identify the different communities and their characteristics.2. Describe the different views of communities utilized within “traditional” police-

community relations and “contemporary” police-community relations.3. What are police-community relations as described in this chapter?4. Describe briefly the evolution of police-community relations programs in the United

States.5. Describe the current status of and prospects for police-community programs in the United

States.

Discussion Topics

1. How do changing communities present challenges to the police?2. How can police, psychiatrists, social workers, and teachers be mutually helpful and yet

not intrude into each other’s professions?3. Demonstrate that police-community relations is a process, not a product.4. Discuss how overlapping memberships in various internal and external communities

could facilitate both conflict and cooperation.13

Essay Section

1. Describe different types of communities where the police operate.2. What does the term people’s police mean? Give a thorough explanation.3. Give a brief overview of American community policing from the 1960s to present day.

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Chapter 4 Public Relations and Community Relations: A Contrast

Key Concepts

AugmentationAuspicesCommodificationCommunity AdvisoryCouncils/CommitteesCitizens AcademiesCommunity Crime WatchCommunity RelationsCrime PreventionFoot Patrol ProgramsNeighborhood TeamPolicingNeighborhood WatchOperation IdentificationPolice Auxiliary VolunteersProblem-Oriented PolicingProvidersResponsibilizationRide-Along ProgramRumor ControlSpeakers’ BureauStorefront CentersTraditional

Chapter Outline

1. Public Relations and/or Community Relations?A. The RelationshipB. Defining Community RelationsC. Defining Public Relations

2. Common Framework for Analyzing Community and Public RelationsA. The Purpose of the ActivityB. Public Relations

(1) Public Information(2) Image Enhancement

C. Community Relations3. Processes Involved in the Activity

A. Public Relations(1) Standardization(2) Agency Oriented, Community Oriented, or Both

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(3) Information Flow(4) Hierarchical Level of Involvement(5) Breadth of Agency Involvement

B. Community Relations(1) Standardization(2) Agency Oriented, Community Oriented, or Both(3) Information Flow(4) Hierarchical Level of Involvement(5) Breadth of Agency Involvement

C. Community Relations(1) Standardization(2) Agency Oriented, Community Oriented, or Both(3) Information Flow(4) Hierarchical Level of Involvement(5) Breadth of Agency Involvement

4. Citizen InvolvementA. Emerging Models of Policing and Community Participation in Policing

B. Public RelationsC. Community Relations

(1) Why Public Relations Is Not EnoughC. How Public Relations Can Strengthen Community Relations

(1) Informing the Public About Crucial Issues(2) Developing Community Support(3) Supplementing Agency Operations and Programs(4) Presenting an Accurate Picture of the Agency and Its Functions(5) Enhancing the Agency’s Image

5. Program ExamplesA. Program Examples

(1) Public Relations Programs(2) Speakers’ Bureau(3) Ride-Along Program(4) Police Station Tours(5) Safety Lectures(6) Citizen Recognition(7) Citizen Academies

B. Programs with a Major Community Relations Focus(1) Rumor Control(2) Storefront Centers(3) Neighborhood Team Policing(4) Foot Patrol Programs(5) Physical Decentralization of Command(6) Problem-Oriented Policing

C. Crime Prevention: Another Name for Community Relations?D. Neighborhood Watch

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(1) Operation Identification(2) Police Auxiliary Volunteers(3) Community Crime Watch(4) Crime Stoppers


Summary

The difference between public relations and community relations is not always clear-cut. The guidelines presented in this chapter can help an observer to make informed judgments about the nature and purpose of police activities, but only if the activities are studied in the context in which they occur. To what extent do primarily self-serving principles and practices affect a police agency’s receptivity to community output? The answer to this question ultimately determines whether the agency is operating under a public relations or community relations philosophy.Every police agency must rely on public relations to some extent to help ensure its position in relation to other forces at work within the community. Public relation activities can play a valuable role in community relations programs provided they follow strict guidelines of honesty and integrity, and make a goal such as image enhancement subordinate to providing better service.Crime prevention has become a household phrase, although not necessarily a household effort. For crime prevention to be synonymous with police-community relations, crime prevention efforts will need to meet police-community relations goals, something that seldom occurs in practice.The current philosophy in policing maintains the active participation of the police in the provision of safety. Over the years different forms of policing models have emerged that are shaped by the degree of participation by the police in the determination of their safety needs and the provision of that desired safety level. Although government has been permissive in the participation of citizens in policing, the level of this citizen participation remains sporadic despite the prevailing concepts of community policing and policing by consent.

Student Checklist

1. Describe how police-community relations originated as a separate operational concept.2. Describe the difference between police-community relations and police-public relations.3. List three examples of programs with a major community relations focus.4. Describe the 4 models of policing based on the level of participation of citizens.5. Describe the characteristics of a crime prevention program that meets police-community

relations goals.

Discussion Topics

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1. Devise a community relations project in crime prevention that could be initiated in your community. What are the characteristics that make you project oriented toward community relations rather than toward public relations.

2. What are the disadvantages of community relations programs?3. Differentiate auspices from providers of policing.

Essay Section

1. How has the community relations developed from its inception in the 1960s to present day? Give a brief overview of how police-community relations functions today.

2. In the Reality Check section of the chapter, describe some of the issues that were overlooked in the ride-along program. What other issues might arise from lack of discretion or proper background checks from participants in this program? Give examples.

3. Describe the different models of police services delivery based on the participation of citizens.

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Chapter 5 The Public and the Police: A Consortium of Communities

Key Concepts

Civic Organizations Ethnic/Racial Minorities Labor UnionsCommunity Interest External Communities Political Organizations Organizations Government Agencies Public Service OrganizationsEconomic/Business Internal Communities Religious Organizations Organizations

Chapter Outline

1. External CommunitiesA. Ethnic/Racial MinoritiesB. WomenC. Gays and LesbiansD. YouthE. The ElderlyF. The PoorG. The Mentally IllH. The Addicted PopulationI. The MediaJ. Religious OrganizationsK. Civic OrganizationsL. Public Service OrganizationsM. Political OrganizationsN. Labor UnionsO. Economic/Business OrganizationsP. Community Interest OrganizationsQ. Clients

P. Government Agencies(1) For Better, for Worse2. Internal Communities

A. MinoritiesB. GenderC. Sexual PreferenceD. Police Unions


Summary

This chapter showed the intricate relationships that are intertwined with police agencies and

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other external organizations. These organizations are constantly affecting change in the other, as has been explored in this section. Some relationships between these various communities are usually competitive, often cooperative, and frequently in conflict.External communities include ethnic minorities, women, gays, youth, the elderly, the poor, religious organizations, civic organizations, labor unions, political organizations, other law enforcement agencies, the media, and a myriad of other community groupings.Internal police communities consist of the following: administrative personnel, support personnel, operational personnel management, civilians, minority groups, men, women, gays, religious groups, college graduates, union members, and other typologies by which individuals and groups may be categorized.To deal effectively with this complex hodgepodge of humanity, the police organization must be run in a fair and competent manner. This must be done in order to balance out all the competing internal interests that occur on a daily basis. Communication is not only the key to the police organization’s success in police-community relations, but to its own survival.

Student Checklist

1. Discuss how relations between the police and the public are in reality complex relations among many overlapping communities.

2. Identify and describe the internal communities that comprise the police.3. Describe how exchange relationships between various communities affect police-

community relations.

Discussion Topics

1. Identify and describe all the communities of which you are a member. Which could be considered a subsystem of others?

2. Identify and describe all the communities of which a police officer might be a part. Could these overlapping memberships result in conflict for the officers?

Essay Section

1. Describe a conflict resulting from the inevitable “mixing” of police agencies and politicians. Give a specific case in which this has occurred.

2. Give examples of discrimination that a police officer might face if he/she is gay, is a woman, or is an ethnic minority. Give actual cases of such occurrences.

3. How do the mentally-ill and addicted populations present challenges to the police in their delivery of services to these populations?

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Chapter 6 Relations within the Police Organization

Key Concepts

Auxiliary Service Formal Organization Police InsidersCivilian Personnel Informal Organization Staff PersonnelCommunications Line Personnel Sworn Personnel

Chapter Outline

1. Life Inside a Police Organization2. The Formal Organization

A. Communications and AccountabilityB. Structure

3. Organizational ComponentsA. OperationsB. AdministrationC. Auxiliary Services

4. The Informal OrganizationA. Activities and Effects

5. Police Organizational ConsiderationsA. Staff versus Line PersonnelB. Sworn versus Civilian PersonnelC. Interunit CompetitionD. Union IssuesE. Managing Change

6. Dealing with Other EmployeesA. Dealing with SuperiorsB. Immediate SuperiorsC. Distant Superiors

7. Dealing with SubordinatesA. Immediate SubordinatesB. Distant Subordinates

8. Dealing with PeersA. Interrelationships


Summary

Police “insiders” include all departmental members, regardless of the typologies by which individuals and groups are categorized. In order to accomplish the tasks relative to the

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agency’s mission, a successful police officer must understand not only their own agency’s mission, but how this agency is organized as well. Because there are so many groups contained within a police agency, there are many complex and constantly changing relationships to contend with as well. The different functions within the groups, such as operations, administration, and auxiliary services must also be considered when evaluating the police organization.There are a number of possible organizational conflicts to consider when examining the interrelation components of police work, such as staff versus line conflicts, sworn versus civilian conflicts, interunit competition and how to manage inevitable change within the department itself. The categories of insiders with whom the officer must deal (superiors, subordinates, and peers) must not be overlooked. Each category of individual may require different responses on behalf of the officer.To sum up the spoken message: To be successful, police officers (regardless of rank) must be thoughtful, caring individuals who both understand their place within the organization and effectively interact with other people within their particular agency. The effective combination of interaction and understanding are enhanced by an effective bureaucratic structure that is designed to facilitate communication, coordination, and control within the police organization.

Student Checklist

1. Describe the structure and organization of police agencies.2. Identify and describe the complex relationships between individuals and units that

determine the success of a police organization.3. Describe how the change process is influenced by good communication and coordination

efforts.4. Develop recommendations on how officers should deal with other police insiders.

Discussion Topics

1. Describe the organizational structure of your local police agency. How is it similar to those discussed within this chapter? How does it differ?

2. Identify whether your local police agency has a collective bargaining agreement with a police union. If so, discuss the effect of the union on the police organization. If not, discuss what effects, such as a collective bargaining agreement, would have upon the organization.

Essay Section

1. When dealing with a conflict within a police organization, what are some helpful steps to resolving them? Describe in detail a conflict you have encountered in your life (work) and what you did to bring about a satisfactory conclusion.

2. Describe an accomplishment where you gave proper recognition to those who helped you achieve this. Give an example of a time you, or when someone else, did not give a credit

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where credit was due when a goal was completed. What were the consequences?

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Chapter 7 Coping with the Human Experience of Being a Cop

Key Concepts

Emotional Distress Paradox of Danger SocializationFamily Programs Paradox of Excitement Wellness ProgramHealth Hazards Paradox of Force Working PersonalityMental Illness Physical WellnessParadox of Crime Social Hazards

Chapter Outline

1. The Paradoxes in Policing2. What Policing Does to the Police

A. The Working PersonalityB. Selection or Socialization

3. Social Hazards of PolicingA. Alienation from the PublicB. Police as a Minority GroupC. Isolation from the Family

4. Economic Hazards of PolicingA. Salary LimitationsB. Career LimitationsC. Liability Issues

5. Health Hazards A. ViolenceB. AccidentsC. Contagious DiseasesD. Emotional Distress Resulting from On-the-Job StressE. Mental IllnessF. SuicideG. Post-Traumatic Stress SyndromeH. Substance AbuseI. Physical Wellness Issues

6. Coping with Being a CopA. SelectionB. TrainingC. Family ProgramsD. Wellness ProgramsE. Community PolicingF. Nonprofit Police Assistance Groups

7. The Challenges of Being a Cop and Doing Community Relations8. Reality Check

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9. Conclusions

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Summary

All of the aforementioned programs and the other ones in developmental stages are designed to help cope with problems associated with being a police officer. Police work is filled with paradoxes (i.e. contradictions) that police officers have perceptions of cognitive dissonance. Likewise, traumas associated with police work are real, regardless of one’s background. Even though these issues do not affect a majority of law enforcement personnel in a debilitating way, there are those who have difficulty dealing with the stressful circumstances associated with this high-stress occupation. Individuals within the department need to be aware, through their superiors or human resources, what programs and assistance are available to help them overcome their problems before they become more difficult to handle. As a society we ask much from our officers, and they deserve any support we can give them through excellent training facilities, a competitive salary package, and certainly a comprehensive health benefits program that includes counseling. To give any less would be unacceptable; if we desire the services and protection provided by this organization, it needs to be supported in like.

Student Checklist

1. Identify and describe the paradoxes of police work?2. Describe the factors that make it difficult for police officers to cope with change.3. Describe some ways in which stress can be reduced.4. Describe some social and health hazards associated with police work.

Discussion Topics

1. Explain how the paradoxes of policing have the potential to alienate the police from the public?

2. How does the working personality contribute to community isolation?3. What is the primary cause of police officer death?4. What is the primary substance abused by police officers? Does gender play a role in its

abuse?5. How are police agencies dealing with the hazards of police work?

Essay Section

1. What are the different paradoxes of police work?2. What are some of the incentive packages offered to police officers while employed at

their department? Include in the list some other benefits that may attract and retain police employees.

3. In the Reality Check section of the chapter there are ways an officer could deal with stressful job-related issues, while becoming a force for good within the community. Describe in detail what programs you may wish to join, or perhaps develop.

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Chapter 8 The Communication Process

Key ConceptsArgumentation Empathy ProxemicsArticulation Jargon ScapegoatingDiscrimination Kinesics Skin-deep CommunicationDistortion Nonjudgmental Listening Symbolic CuesEffective Listening Personal Space Tabloid ThinkingEmpathy Prejudice Therapeutic Communication

Chapter Outline

1. Communication in ActionA. Levels of Communication

(1) Skin-deep Communication (No Communication)(2) Intellectual Level of Cognitive Communication (Argumentation)(3) Heart Level or Affective Communication (Therapeutic Communication)(4) Gut Level or Brutally Honest Communication (Emphatic Communication)

2. The Process of CommunicationA. The Elements of CommunicationB. Sources of DistortionC. A Continuing Process

3. Modes of Interpersonal Communication4. Verbal and Paralanguage Cues

A. ArticulationB. Volume and RateC. LanguageD. Tone of VoiceE. Telephone Cues

5. Kinesics and Proxemics CuesA. Body Language(1) The Meaning of the Message(2) The Officer’s Message

B. Personal Space(1) A Territorial Imperative(2) Identifying Territory

C. Interpersonal Space(1) The Message of Proxemics

6. Symbolic Cues7. Official Communication8. Effective Listening

A. Listening as a Mental ExerciseB. Nonjudgmental Listening

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C. Listening EfficiencyD. Some Effective Listening Facilitators

9. Empathy10. Blocks to Effective Communication

A. Community Distrust of PoliceB. Police Distrust of CommunityC. Poor TrainingD. Organizational StructureE. Scapegoating

(1) Simple Preferences(2) Active Biases(3) Prejudice(4) Discrimination(5) Full-Fledged Scapegoating

F. Why Scapegoating Occurs(1) Tabloid Thinking

(2) Self-Enhancement(3) Peer Pressure and Conformity

11. Communication in a Digital Age12. Strategies of Change

A. Achieving Mutual RespectB. Improving TrainingC. Rethinking Police OrganizationD. Preventing Scapegoating


Summary

The quality of police-community relations depends on the quality of police-community communications. Understanding the elements and the identifying the levels of communication will place participants in a realization about their ability to express their thoughts and aspirations. Ability to identify the level of communication that police and the community has will drive them to pattern their communication to the desired level. Likewise, the level of communication could be a pseudo-representation of the state of police-community relations in a certain jurisdiction.

This section reiterates this position: Communication is an ongoing process, it does not have an ending point and it can be improved on many levels and sectors. Communication occurs on many levels; such as: intrapersonal, interpersonal, person-to-group, organizational, and written. All communication includes the elements of sender, receiver, and message in a situational context.The three basic modes of interpersonal communication are: (1) verbal, (2) non-verbal (paralanguage, kinesics, or body language, and proxemics or communication through the use of personal or social space), and (3) symbolic (the messages conveyed by style of

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dress, personal appearance, one’s possessions, etc.). An officer must be able to implement these different modes of communication when dealing with citizens in order to fully carry out their duties of service and protection.An effective communicator is someone who not only sends, but receives as well. People hear words much faster than they can speak or listen to them; effective listeners are those who apply their spare thinking time to what is being said. Additionally, it is essential for the listener to “step into the other person’s shoes.” By attempting to empathize with the messenger, a good officer can develop good skills at not just communicating via words, but through listening and gaining some understanding into what the individual is attempting to convey.There are five common blocks to effective communication in police-community relations: community distrust of the police, police distrust of the community, poor training, police organizational issues, and scapegoating. There are also strategies for change that can eliminate or lessen these blocks to communication. Many of these strategies will be further explained in later chapters.

Student Checklist

1. Identify and describe 4 levels of communication2. What is effective listening?3. What is the role of empathy in communication?4. List the blocks to effective communication most frequently encountered in police-

community relations.

Discussion Topics

1. What is the value of being able to identify the level of communication between the police and the public as well as among individual members?

2. Why is nonjudgmental listening an important skill for police officers to possess?3. How can you be ensured of getting feedback in the communication process?4. Discuss the difference between active bias and simple preference.

Essay Section

1. A foreigner friend of mine once said, “Americans are poor listeners. As soon as I begin to talk, I can already see in their eyes that they are not even listening; they are anticipating a time when they can simply respond to what I am asking or talking about.” How true do you think this statement is for Americans in general? What about yourself?

2. In the Reality Check section of the chapter, what is usually our first response to what we have perceived concerning a certain individual? How can we, as officers, step back from a situation and be more objective in or judgments when certain situations arise?

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Chapter 9 Police Discretion and Community Relations

Key Concepts

Abuse of Power Internal Review Racially Biased PolicingCommunity Input Legal Authority “Rule of Silence”Discretion Legislative Review Selective EnforcementDiscriminatory Enforcement Personal Autonomy Situational FactorsEnvironmental Factors Professionalism

Chapter Outline

1. Discretion in the SystemA. Defining DiscretionB. The Elements of DiscretionC. Exercising Discretion in the System

2. Selective and Discriminatory EnforcementA. A Modern TightropeB. The Administrative ChoiceC. Operational-Level Choices

(1) The Police Officer as Legislator, Prosecutor, and JudgeD. The Invisibility of the Police Officer’s Choices

3. Decision Making at an Administrative LevelA. Finding the Optimum Law Enforcement LevelB. Community InputC. Bargaining and Law EnforcementD. The Rule of SilenceE. Exceptions to the Rule

4. Decision Making at an Operational LevelA. Community InputB. Situational FactorsC. Environmental FactorsD. Educational and Experiential FactorsE. Police Work Rules

5. Justifications for Selective EnforcementA. Justification by AdministrationB. Justification by Officers

(1) A Question of InjusticeC. Four Other Common Justifications

6. The Question of Professionalism7. Legal Authority for Selective Enforcement

A. What the Law SaysB. What the Courts Say

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8. Writs of Mandamus9. Selective Enforcement and Appropriate Guidelines

A. Abuse of Power(1) Racially Biased Policing

B. Lack of SupportC. Impact on Public Image

10. Structuring Police DiscretionA. Recognizing Discretion in Law EnforcementB. Enforcement Policy Boards

(1) Composition of the Board(2) Policy Implementation Units

C. The CourtsD. Review

(1) Internal Review(2) Legislative Review(3) The Community

11. Looking Toward TomorrowA. Some RecommendationsB. A Lesson from the Past


Summary

Police administrators will rarely admit that the law is selectively enforced by law enforcement officers. However, the very nature of law and our criminal justice system gives our officers wide discretion in deciding when and how our laws should be enforced. On the administrative and operating levels within the department, there are often very good reasons for selective law enforcement (e.g., budgetary constraints, outdated statutes) and on occasion, some very bad reasons (e.g., bias against a segment of the community).To prevent abuses, selective law enforcement policies should be formulated and implemented in an open, orderly manner. The means for accomplishing this exists. Such action would benefit both the police and the community and would increase the positive nature of their ongoing relationship.

Student Checklist

1. Describe the evolution of police service delivery styles in the United States.2. Discuss the differences between police-community relations and community policing.3. Contrast the differences between community-oriented policing and problem-oriented

policing.4. Describe the role that POP plays in community policing.

Discussion Topics34

1. Debate the use of selective law enforcement.2. What will happen if police agencies are open in regard to their use of selective and

discriminatory law enforcement?3. How do the police agencies in your community (1) define policy regarding discretionary

decision making and (2) provide controls to eliminate abuse?

Essay Section

1. In the Reality Check section of the chapter, what steps should have been taken by the police dispatch concerning the attack of Le Thu Nguyen by her ex-fiancé? What sort of policy needs to be formulated to ensure that these types of tragedies are done away with? What sort of action (from her employer or from the legal system) should be levied against Jeannette Price?

2. How do you feel about the police role of “legislator, prosecutor, and judge” when it comes to deciding whether to enforce certain statutes or not? Is this power something that should be under review of other superiors within the department? What about a civilian panel that might review such decisions of an officer? Would this bring a more balanced approach?

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Chapter 10 Community Oriented Policing

Key Concepts

Broken Window Theory Crime Analysis Programs Team PolicingCAPRA Model Mini-Stations Volunteers in Policing ServiceCommunity-Oriented Policing Neighborhood Foot Patrol Weed and Seed

ProgramsComputer-Aided Dispatching Peelian Model Zero-Tolerance Policing

Problem-Oriented Policing

Chapter Outline:

1. The Evolution of Police Service ModelsA. The Watch and WardB. The Peelian ModelC. The Traditional ModelD. The Professional Model

2. The Development of Community Police ModelsA. Team PolicingB. Integrated Criminal Apprehension ProgramC. Neighborhood Foot PatrolD. Community-Oriented Policing

1. The Philosophical Dimension2. The Strategic Dimension3. The Tactical Dimension4. The Organizational Dimension

E. Problem Oriented Policing3. Technological Advances and Community Policing

A. Crime Analysis ProgramsB. Computer-Aided DispatchingC. Crime Mapping

4. The Current Status of Community PolicingA. Community Policing and Problem Solving (COPPS)B. Computerized Statistics Program (COMPSTAT)

5. Community Policing ApplicationsA. Forms of PatrolB. SubstationsC. Citizen Police Academies and Citizen VolunteersD. Resident Officer ProgramE. Community Action GroupsF. Problem-Specific Techniques

6. Recommendations for Implementing Community Oriented Policing A. Preparation

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(1) Gathering Information(2) Organizational Review(3) The Community(4) Initiation(5) Reorganization(6) Education(7) Training(8) Implementation(9) Preliminary Evaluation(10) Full Implementation

B. Evaluation and Monitoring C. Analysis of Efforts 7. Reality Check 8. Conclusions

Summary

The provision of police services in the United States has seen considerable changes over the past two centuries. Initially, citizens were responsible for policing themselves, due to lack of adequate police organizations capable of providing police services. As police organizations have evolved, they have utilized a variety of service delivery styles. Unfortunately, efforts to enhance discipline, effectiveness, and efficiency have too frequently resulted in isolation from the communities being served. Today’s community policing strategies seek to restore the ties to those communities.Like its predecessors, community policing as a model of police service delivery is in a constant state of evolution. Problems of conceptual complexity and difficulty of implantation have yielded mixed results among strategies utilized thus far. Police scholars and practitioners are currently seeking to develop a community policing model that addresses these issues. Despite these challenges, community involvement in the delivery of police services is the police style of the future.There are several observations that tend to persist in the examination of the evolution of policing. Definitely the technology, both soft and hard, have evolved but the basic principles remain the same. Police-community relations remain the backbone of effective policing. Early policing with its hue and cry have evolved into the Amber Alert but the principle of the community responding to the call for participation in apprehending suspects remain the basic strategy. Likewise, crime prevention as both a police goal and a community relations tool was the centerpiece of community policing efforts.

Student Checklist

1. Describe the evolution of police service delivery styles in the United States.2. Discuss the differences between police-community relations and community policing.3. Contrast the differences between community-oriented policing and problem-oriented

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policing.

Discussion Topics

1. What degree of community involvement is appropriate for your community?2. If you were a police chief in a large city, would you attempt to implement community

policing? Why or why not?3. Assume that you are a police chief who has been instructed by the city counsel to initiate

community policing. What strategies would you choose, and how would you seek to implement them?

4. Which of the four elements of community policing have been properly implemented? Which elements have not been fully pursued?

Essay Section

1. In the Reality Check section of the chapter, what sort of progress was made by this officer and his subordinates who were assigned to this area? When the new “team” came into place after the departure of the other officers, what sort of ground was given back in the form of community-police tension and distrust? Explain how you as a supervisor would have strove to maintain the best possible relationship with those in the community

2. In the COP (community-oriented policing) technique, go through the four phases of the problem-solving process. Are there other techniques that should be implemented? Others that need to be adjusted or eliminated?

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Chapter 11 Police Community Relations and the Media

Key Concepts

Commitment to Crime Coverage Fictional Portrayal Police Information OfficerCrisis Guidelines Heavy Coverage Argument Public Information Officer Exploitation of Crime News Hegemonic Media Relations Restricting Coverage

ArgumentFactional Portrayal Marketing Police-CommunitySubversive Media Relations

Relations

Chapter Outline

1. Community Relations Context2. Commitment to Crime Coverage

A. The Subjectivity FactorB. Restricting Coverage ArgumentC. Heavy Coverage Argument

3. Exploitation of Crime News4. Public Reaction to Media Coverage5. Conflict between Media and Police

A. A Hindrance and a HelpB. Champions of the Innocent

6. A Clear Need for GuidelinesA. The BackgroundB. Competing RightsC. Recognizing the Need for Guidelines

(1) The Bruno Hauptmann Trial(2) The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy(3) The Trial of Dr. Sam Sheppard(4) The Trial of O.J. Simpson (5) Recent Cases

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D. Complicating Issues(1) Concerns of Victims and Witnesses

(2) The Need to Get the Full Story E. Crisis Situations

(1) Disturbances and Unrest F. Hostage and Terrorist Activity7. Setting Guidelines

A. Information ReleaseB. The Wisconsin Guidelines

(1) What Can Be Released(2) What Cannot Be Released(3) Problem Areas

C. Police Operational ResponseD. Advantages of Guidelines

8. Crisis Guidelines for the MediaA. A Common InterestB. A Proposal for Hostage-Terrorist Situations

9. Police-Community RelationsA. Public Information OfficerB. Marketing Police-Community Relations


Summary

The media represent a principal link between police agencies and the public they serve. Media impact on virtually every citizen is enormous, and crime news is a major media topic. Except for the relatively few people who become directly involved with the police, private citizens learn of police activity, of crime prevention, of the pursuit and apprehension of criminals, and their disposition in the courts by what they read in their newspapers and see and hear on television and the radio. All of these media outlets influence American citizens when it comes to their perceptions of the police.Even though there are times when conflict arises between the services provided by the police and media, these institutions both have an interest in the security of its citizens and the preservation of law and order in society. The First Amendment provides the right to having a free press. There is also the balance of allowing those who are in a court of law to have a fair trial; where the person being convicted of a crime be protected from having public opinion turn against them and result in a biased trial. The police are usually in the middle of this conflict, and should therefore come up with guidelines in which to conduct official policy in regards to law enforcement issues with the media.When terrorist attacks, riots, or kidnappings take place, there needs to be “rules” in which the media can abide by without having their right to cover a story effectively censured. Police also need to understand the role of media within the bounds of a free society. Even

40

though there will be conflicts from time to time, it is essential that media outlets be able to conduct their affairs as along with the police, and perform their duties to the public.

Student Checklist

1. Contrast responsibility of the press and the police.2. Justify the need for guidelines in reporting.3. Identify ongoing blocks to positive police-media relations and strategies for resolving

them.4. Describe the duties and responsibilities of a public information officer.

Discussion Topics

1. What information, in your opinion, should police not volunteer to the media about a crime?

2. How is information disseminated to the press by police agencies in your community?3. How responsible is the press in your community?

Essay Section

1. In the Jon Benet Ramsey case a new suspect was recently extradited from Thailand and brought to the United States concerning her 1996 murder. His movements and whereabouts were closely reported, and his background was investigated and reported widely through various media outlets on a continual basis. However, it was found that he did not murder JonBenet (as he claimed to have done). The evidence did not match his confession and he was let go. What future agreements between media outlets and police agencies could be made in order not to sensationalize a situation like this before police have had a chance to investigate thoroughly? What would you have done in the apprehension and questioning of this individual?

2. Describe the ideal relationship (i.e., subversive or hegemonic) that should exist between the police and the media. Justify your position?

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Chapter 12 Special Populations and the Police

Key Concepts

Citizens on Patrol Personal Identify Special PopulationsDependency Issues Physical Incapacitation StereotypingLearning Disorders Physiological Disorders Toxic AgersMental Illness Self-Image and Self-Esteem TRIADs

Chapter Outline

1. Special Problems for the Police2. Understanding the Young

A. The First Ten Years(1) Meeting Basic Needs(2) Children as Police Clients

B. The Teenage Years(1) A Time of Rapid Change(2) Development Tasks(3) Meeting Basic Needs

3. Understanding the ElderlyA. A ProfileB. Transitions into Late AdulthoodC. Facts about the Elderly

(1) Physical Facts(2) Emotional and Functional Facts(3) Meeting Basic Needs

4. Understanding the HandicappedA. The Physically Handicapped

(1) Physiological Disorders(2) Physical Incapacitation(3) The Blind(4) The Deaf

B. The Mentally Handicapped(1) Learning Disorders

(2) Mental Illness(3) Mental Retardation

5. Understanding the HomelessA. A Profile

(1) Facts about the Homeless(2) Meeting Basic Needs

6. Youth, the Elderly, the Handicapped, and the Homeless: Shared ProblemsA. Dependency IssuesB. Personal Identity Issues

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C. Where Do I Fit?D. Self-Image and Self-EsteemE. Stereotyping IssuesF. Myths About Youth

(1) Myth 1: All Teenagers Who Commit Delinquent Acts Are Going to Be Adult Criminals

(2) Myth 2: All Teenagers Have Severe Adjustment Problems During Adolescence(3) Myth 3: Teenagers Cannot Be Trusted(4) Myth 4: All Teenage Groups Are Gangs

G. Myths About the Elderly(1) Myth 1: People over Sixty-Five Are More Often Victimized by Crime Than the

Rest of the Population(2) Myth 2: Women over the Age of Sixty-Five Are Frequently Rape Victims(3) Myth 3: The Elderly Are Totally Dependent on Others for Their Care and Offer

No Contribution to Society(4) Myth 4: The Elderly Cannot Enjoy Sex Because of Physiological Difficulties(5) Myth 5: Intelligence Reaches a Peak in the Twenties and Declines at a Steady

RateH. Myths about the Handicapped

(1) Myth 1: Handicapped People Cannot Take Care of Themselves(2) Myth 2: The Mentally Ill Are Dangerous and Cannot Be Trusted(3) Myth 3: The Mentally Retarded Do Not Know What Is Going On(4) Myth 4: The Police Should Not Treat the Handicapped Differently from Anyone

Else I. Myths about the Homeless

(1) Myth 1: Homeless People Are Usually Single Men(2) Myth 2: Most of the Homeless Are Mentally Ill(3) Myth 3: Almost All of the Homeless Are Heavy Drug and Alcohol Users(4) Myth 4: The Homeless Choose Their Lifestyle(5) Myth 5: The Homeless Are All Dangerous(6) Myth 6: Homeless People Don’t Work and They Get Their Money from Stealing

or Public Assistance(7) Myth 7: Setting up Services for Homeless People Will Cause Other Homeless to

Migrate to Your Community7. Youth, the Elderly, the Handicapped, and the Homeless: A Few Contrasts

A. Interactions with the Criminal Justice SystemB. Maturity and Life ExperienceC. Looking Toward the Future

8. The Problems with ProgramsA. Knowledge of Resources AvailableB. Some Do Not Reach the Population They Hope to Serve

9. A New ApproachA. TRIAD ProgramsB. Specialized Units

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C. R.U.O.K (Are You Okay?)D. Citizens on PatrolE. Senior Citizens Police Academy


Summary

Many resources are available to help police meet the needs of special populations. Some may be used intact; others will require adjustments to meet specific needs. New resources will be developed. The agency that truly wishes to successfully meet the needs of the young, the elderly, the disabled, and the homeless will need to address the following areas when planning and delivering services:

1. Increased training of officers in developmental issues of special populations, in self- awareness, and in strategies for meeting the needs of even difficult-to-reach individuals in these populations.

2. Ongoing awareness of community resources.3. Planning and implementation of programs that actively involve special

populations and foster their input and interaction in a meaningful way in all stages of development and delivery.

4. Planning and implementation of programs that do not increase fear or reduce quality of life.

5. Increased efforts on the part of all officers to build interpersonal relationships with special populations within the community.

Student Checklist

1. Identify how special populations in a community pose special problems for the police.2. Explain some of the needs for the elderly, the youth, the handicapped, and the homeless.3. Suggest several ways through which the effectiveness of services to special populations

might be improved.4. Describe the police programs directed toward senior citizens. How do these programs

improve police-community relations?

Discussion Topics

1. How do suggestions made in this chapter for increasing the effectiveness of programs for special populations compare with suggestions made for increasing effectiveness in police-community relations?

2. Are the basic human rights of our special populations any different from that of other citizens in our country?

Essay Section44

1. With the addition of homeless people added to the special population list, what more can be done in servicing these people as well?

2. In the Reality Check section of the chapter, in what ways could this situation have been handled in a more efficient, fair, and just manner? What other breakdowns in institutional programs such as this school for the deaf are overlooked due to oversight, or perhaps neglect? What would you do if there was such an institution in your jurisdiction and abuses mentioned in this story were occurring?

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Chapter 13 Community Relations in the Context of Culture

Key Concepts

Cognitive Scripts Cultural Universals Police Multicultural AdvisoryCommunity Relations Services Discretionary Decision Making CommitteesCross-Cultural Factors Distinctiveness Theory Salad Bowl TheoryCultural Citizens Police Academy Ethnocentrism StereotypingCultural Diversity Melting Pot Theory XenophobiaCultural Relativism Multiculturalism Xenophiles

Xenocentrism

Chapter Outline

1. The Cultural Context of Community RelationsA. Being Culturally Appropriate

2. Theories of Assimilation and the Problems of the PoliceA. Understanding Crime

B. Providing Services to the CommunityC. Overcoming StereotypesD. Discretionary Decision Making

(1) Space(2) Time(3) Appearance

E. Characteristics of CultureCross-Cultural Factors

A. African-Americans(1) New Immigrants

B. Hispanic-Americans(4) Mexican-Americans(5) Puerto Ricans(6) Cuban-Americans

C. Asian-Americans(1) Chinese-Americans(2) Filipino-Americans(3) Asian-Indians

(4) Vietnamese-Americans(5) Korean-Americans(6) Japanese-Americans

D. Native Americans(1) Pacific Islanders(2) Hawaiian-Americans(3) Samoan-Americans(4) Guamanian-Americans

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(5) American Indians(6) Eskimos and Aleuts

E. White Americans(1) European-Americans(2) Jewish-AmericansF. Middle-Easterners and Northern AfricansG. A Perspective on Diverse Cultures

2. Improving Community Relations in the Context of CultureA. Appreciating CultureB. Understanding LanguageC. Getting Involved in Meaningful WaysD. Affecting Public PolicyE. Making a Firm, Full CommitmentF. Multicultural Advisory CommitteesG. Specific Targets

(1) Recruitment(2) Training(3) Public Information Bulletins for Language Minorities(4) Ongoing Community Participation

H. Cultural Citizens Police Academies(1) The Community Relations Service(2) Advocacy

(3) Police-Community Relations Committee3. Reality Check4. Conclusions

Summary

People usually behave in culturally defined ways, and their behavior can often be understood in the context of culture. Positive police-community relations are easier to achieve in a community that is relatively culturally integrated. They are most difficult to achieve in fragmented communities that are culturally diverse and where cultural rules are in transition and unclear.We rarely have the ideal as an option, but even in the most fragmented community an aggressive ongoing program for improving community relations in the context of culture can be effective. The key elements of a successful program include: appreciating the cultures; understanding the language(s); getting involved in meaningful ways; making a firm, full commitment; and creatively overcoming barriers.It is important to remember that we are one culture as well as many. We have some basic values and goals in common. We share common feelings of anger, sadness, happiness, and fear. We also wish to be valued and to belong.

Student Checklist47

1. Define cultural context.2. Contrast characteristics of different cultural groups.3. Analyze several cultural factors that may be misunderstood by police.

Discussion Topics

1. List five values that you share with other members of your family? Are these values commonly held by all members of your community?

2. Discuss the cultural contexts that exist in your community. How has your community worked to resolve conflicts in values among these contexts?

Essay Section

1. In the Reality Check section of the chapter, what can be done to bring balance among the three battlegrounds of the left, right, and middle ground when it comes to formulating a reasonable approach to race, religion, and ethnic differences in our country?

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Chapter 14 Maintaining Order: Dissent and Conflict Management

Key Concepts

Acceptable Dissent Crisis Negotiation Neutralizing DisorderAlternatives to Arrest De-Escalation of Conflict Power TacticsCivil Disobedience Defusement Process Right to DissentCivil Disturbances Hostage Negotiations Strategies of DissentConflict Intervention Team Human Dynamics Strategies of ResponseConflict Management Individuals in Crisis Upward Spiral of Violence

Legalistic PositionChapter Outline

1. Maintaining an Orderly CommunityA. A New Philosophy for Conflict ManagementB. Community Concerns and Changing PrioritiesC. A PartnershipD. Exemplary Projects

2. Policing Political Dissent: Catalyst of ProgressA. Change versus OrderB. Why Seek Change?C. The Right to DissentD. Keeping Dissent PeacefulE. Acceptable DissentF. A Legalistic PositionG. A Pragmatic PositionH. A Classic Argument

3. Arenas for DissentA. Political DissentB. Social DissentC. Economic DissentD. Religious DissentE. Environmental Dissent

4. Strategies of Dissent and ResponseA. The Labeling ProcessB. Strategies of DissentC. Strategies of ResponseD. Interaction between Strategies

(1) Changes in Orientation and Strategy(2) Violent Actions(3) Resolution of Conflict

E. The Role of Third PartiesF. The Role of the Media

5. Escalation and De-escalation of Conflict49

A. Escalation Factors(1) Increase in Loyalty and Commitment(2) Persistence in a Course of Action(3) Withdrawal of Moderate Membership(4) An Upward Spiral of Violence

B. De-escalation Factors(1) Superior Coercive Power(2) Divide and Conquer(3) Third-Party Involvement(4) A Redefinition of “Reasonable”

C. Success Factors5. Outcomes

A. Determinants of Outcomes(1) Differences in Power(2) Perceived Permanence of Conflict(3) Perceived Instruments of Power

B. The Police(1) Responses of Violence(2) Police View of Dissent(3) Dissenters as Deliberate Provokers of Violence(4) Power and the Response of Order(5) The Police and “Dirty Work”(6) Political Surveillance(7) National Security(8) New Limits on Political Surveillance

C. The Courts(1) The Issue of Impartiality(2) Attacks on the Courts

D. Corrections: The Prison(1) The Realities of Prison Life(2) Reactions to Prison Life

E. Systems for Solution(1) Awareness(2) Education

(3) Planning and Preparation(4) Human Dynamics versus Power Tactics

6. Crisis Negotiations A. Qualities of a Good Negotiator B. Key Elements of Negotiation Training (1) Domestic Disturbances C. Individuals in Crisis7. Hostage Negotiations8. A Broader Concept A. Disputes between a Few People

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(1) Disputes between Neighbors (2) Disputes between Youths and Merchants (3) Landlord–Tenant Disputes B. Disputes between Hundreds of People (1) Civil Disturbances Following the First Rodney King Verdict C. Disputes Over the Use of Public Space (1) Homeless People (2) Young People (3) Poor and Working-Class People 9. Conflict Intervention at the Community Level A. Conflict Intervention Teams B. The Defusement Process C. Major Aspects of Conflict Intervention10. SLO Solutions Program: A Community Resolution Partnership11. Reality Check12. Conclusions

Summary

Order maintenance is one of the most difficult aspect of police work. It involves clashes of people’s rights and the duties of the state to maintain peace. Change and resistance to change are part of every system. For change to occur, some amount of “deviance” takes place and the “normal way of things” is disturbed. Dissent—acts designed to bring about needed social, legal, and political change—grows out of the people’s own will to be in charge of their destiny.The political view of letting people dissent is a precarious one. People have to be able to express themselves through various means; if there is no outlet to have “one’s” voice heard, things could become violent. Letting citizens protest is like letting the steam out of a kettle; better it be let out in a responsible and measured way rather than in violent clashes with police officers.Police officers must be mentally ready to face such situations within a democracy, either to protect an unpopular group (such as the KKK), or dealing with disenfranchised people at the WTO protests. Knowing your boundaries, protecting the rights of citizens to dissent, and maintaining a peaceful environment can make for a much safer and better atmosphere for our country’s varied political, social, and religious beliefs.Conflict management will become an increasingly vital area of police work in the new century as the U.S. population expands and changes. Disputes will continue throughout these changes and police need to be aware of the social, economic, and ethnic changes which are rapidly occurring in our country.Police need to develop and maintain good working relations with civic organizations, churches, the media, and other neighborhood organizations to help in assisting them when trouble starts. These departments, in conjunction with some of these various institutions, need to conduct training of specialized persons to handle conflict management.

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Police must use other options besides the power to arrest when dealing with unrest. An officer with good communication skills can deal with a problem before it becomes a crisis. By using all the resources available to an officer, and using them in proportion to the situation, it will usually make for a much better outcome rather than “fighting fire with fire.”

Student Checklist

1. Present contrasting views of acceptable dissent.2. Describe the necessary components for effectively neutralizing disorder without

increasing violent dissent.3. Describe the events leading up to the “Battle of Seattle.” How could the city and the

police departments have been better prepared?4. Contrast conflict-management approaches with traditional police policy.5. Describe crisis negotiations.6. Describe the defusement process.

Discussion Topics

1. Discuss the conflict between the right to dissent and the need to maintain order.2. In what ways is power a central issue in dissent and political response?1. Set up a conflict-management program in your class. “Respond” to the situations

described in Reality Check. Describe the advantages to police having such a program.

Essay Section

1. Race relations are particularly tense at some high schools in our larger cities. One ongoing source of trouble is between the large Mexican and Armenian groups. Frequently, there are fights between these two groups; many students no longer feel safe because of the conflict. How would you handle this situation being a school resource officer?

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Chapter 15 Community Participation in the New Millennium

Key Concepts

Civilian Oversight Agencies Crime Prevention National Association for CivilianCivilian Review Boards Globalization of Crime Oversight of Law EnforcementCommunity Participation Globalization of Crime Regulatory ParticipationCommunity Problem Solvers Homeland Security Supportive ParticipationCommunity Values Local Strategies “War on Terror”

Chapter Outline

1. The Concept of Community ParticipationA. What Is a Community?B. What Is ParticipationC. What Is Community Participation?

2. Police Models and Community Participation A. New DemandsB. A Clear NecessityC. An Old Concept

3. Systems and Community ValuesA. Problems of Community Participation

(1) Community Resistance to Community Participation(2) Professional Resistance to Community Participation

4. Two Types of Community ParticipationA. Regulatory ParticipationB. Civilian Review Boards

(1) Origins(2) The Controversy Over the Boards

5. Civilian Oversight AgenciesA. New Concept

B. Nature of AgenciesC. The OmbudsmanD. Community PolicingE. Citizen and Community Alert Programs

6. Supportive ParticipationA. Volunteers in Criminal Justice Agencies

7. Self Protection Outside the SystemA. Volunteer PatrolsB. Private SecurityC. Guardian AngelsD. Police Attitudes Toward These Groups.

8. Police-Community Relations in the New Millennium9. Community Features and Social Control

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10. The Impact of World and National Events on CommunitiesA. Globalization of Crime and Criminal GroupsB. Globalization of Protest Issues and Protest Groups

11. The War on Terror and Impacts of Homeland SecurityA. Warring Against Foreign Terrorists

(1) Al-quaida(2) Iraq(3) Imprisoning “Foreign Combatants”

B. Homeland Security(1) Increased Security Efforts(2) Domestic Eavesdropping

12. Improving Police-Community Relations in the New MillenniumA. Understanding What the Police Do for Their Communities

(1) Crime Prevention and Control(2) Emergency Responders to Crisis Situations(3) Community Problem Solvers

13. Choosing Community-Specific StrategiesA. No One SolutionB. Problem-Solving Policing and Community PolicingC. Local Strategies for Local Problems

10. Reality Check11. Conclusions Summary

As long as the criminal justice system fails to do what citizens expect it to do, demands for community control/participation will exist. Because police, or indeed the justice system as a whole, cannot function properly in a free society without the help and support of the people it serves, community participation is essential for success.Many models of community participation already exist. The trend is evolving towards the greater participation of communities in the definition of safety as well as the decision on how these safety needs could be satisfied. Choosing the “best” model in a specific situation is a matter of understanding the unique characteristics of the community, its citizens, and its criminal justice system.

Student Checklist

1. Define community participation.2. How is a police organization a factor in police resistance to community participation?3. Why are volunteers important to the criminal justice process?4. Investigate the various types of programs in your community.

Discussion Topics

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1. What degree of community participation do you believe is appropriate in your community?

2. Can we continue to have community participation and also promote Homeland Security? If so, how?

3. How would you be able to gauge whether a community participation program was effective or not?

4. What is the trend in policing regarding the participation of the community in policing?

Essay Section

1. When examining the pros and cons of having civilian review boards decide such issues as police discipline in a case, what are your opinions? Is there a better way of sharing such power with a law enforcement agency? Discuss what ways police and communities can work together for a more fair and equitable solution to this process.

2. How do community conditions influence the models of police services delivery and the participation of the citizens in public safety provision?

55

TESTBANK

CHAPTER 1

The Administration of Justice and the Police

Chapter 1 Multiple Choice

Select the correct answer.

1. The concept of justice…

a. never changes

b. is less important today than in the past

c. is relatively straightforward

d. is clear cut

Answer: c - is relatively straightforward

Objective: The idea of justice

Page number: 2

Level: Intermediate

2. Nations and their components such as states and territories …

a. can exist without established systems of justice

b. cannot exist without established systems of justice

c. only find benefits from “real justice”

d. always view justice the same way

Answer: b - cannot exist without established systems of justice

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Page number: 2

Level: Intermediate

3. Human Rights

a. have not been a concern of the United Nations

b. exclude adequate food, shelter, and medical care

c. have been related to the U.S. prison at Guantanamo, Cuba

d. have only been the concern of the U.S.

Answer: c - have been related to the U.S. prison at Guantanamo, Cuba


Page number: 2

Level: Intermediate

4. The United Nations Declaration of Human Rights

a. is limited to the basic survival necessities

b. incorporates equal rights, freedom of speech and protection from government abuse

c. has been adopted totally by all nations

d. only applies to Western Democracies

Answer: b – incorporates equal rights, freedom of speech and protection from government abuse

Objective: Definition of Justice

Page number: 3

57

Level: Intermediate

5. Justice

a. is defined the same way by all individuals

b. is not determined by the perspective of the viewer

c. involves fair, moral, and impartial treatment

d. has little value because of changing value systems

Answer: c - involves fair, moral, and impartial treatment


Page number: 4

Level: Intermediate

6. What amendment is related to the idea of due process of law?

a. First

b. Second

c. Third

d. Fourteenth

Answer: d - Fourteenth


Page number: 7

Level: Intermediate

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7. Restorative Justice

a. has no relationship to criminal prosecution

b. requires punishment based on criminal sanctions

c. is also known as “peacemaking”

d. may be used only in criminal cases

Answer: c - is also known as “peacemaking”

Objective: Types of Justice

Page number: 6

Level: Basic

8. Which of the following cases extended the exclusionary rule to state and local officers?

a. Weeks v. United States

b. Mapp v. Ohio

c. Gideon v. Wainwright

d. Argersinger v. Hamlin

Answer: b - Mapp v. Ohio


Page number: 7

Level: Basic

9. The Rule of Law

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a. only applies to civil cases

b. exists to protect society from crime

c. only protects the criminal

d. means the same to all individuals

Answer: b – exists to protect society from crime

Objective: Mission of a Criminal Justice System

Page number: 7

Level: Intermediate

10. The fundamental premise of the classical system of justice is that

a. the imposition of punishment prevents further crime from occurring

b. punishment should be related to the severity of the crime

c. women and men should receive equal treatment

d. all criminals who received punishment should not be subjected to any later form of

punishment

Answer: a - the imposition of punishment prevents further crime from occurring


Page number: 7

Level: Intermediate

11. The ultimate incapacitation is

a. life without parole as a sentence

60

b. the securing of all financial assets of a criminal

c. capital punishment

d. being banned from one’s country

Answer: c – capital punishment


Page number: 8

Level: Intermediate

12. The concept of the common law tradition developed from

a. France

b. the United Kingdom

c. foreign immigrants from eastern Europe

d. recent United States Supreme Court cases

Answer: b - the United Kingdom

Objective: Challenges of Administering Justice

Page number: 10

Level: Basic

13. The Civil Rights Act of 1871

a. ignored African-Americans

b. was passed to protect southern blacks from the Ku Klux Klan

61

c. has had a great deal of force most of the time since its inception

d. only applied to citizens born in a foreign country

Answer: b - was passed to protect southern blacks from the Ku Klux Klan


Page number: 10

Level: Intermediate

14. What type of a government has resulted from the U.S. Constitution?

a. Unitary

b. Socialist

c. Imperial

d. Federalist

Answer: d - Federalist

Objective: The Components of the U.S. Justice System

Page number: 11

Level: Basic

15. What amendment reserves police powers to the states?

a. Third

b. Fifth

c. Seventh

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d. Tenth

Answer: d - Tenth

Objective: The Structure of the Police System in America

Page number: 13

Level: Basic

16. How many different federal police agencies are there?

a. 25

b. 40

c. 75

d. 100

Answer: d - 100


Page number: 14

Level: Basic

17. The Department of Homeland Security

a. has been present since the creation of the United States Constitution

b. excludes the Secret Service

c. has had a number of federal agencies transferred to it

d. will be disbanded by Congress in the year 2020

Answer: d – has had a number of federal agencies transferred to it

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Page number: 15

Level: Basic

18. The only large federal agency remaining within the Treasury Department is the

a. Bureau of Indian Affairs

b. Central Intelligence Agency

c. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms

d. Internal Revenue Service

Answer: d - Internal Revenue Service


Page number: 16

Level: Basic

19. Identify the oldest federal law enforcement agency.

a. the Federal Bureau of Investigation

b. the Department of Homeland Security

c. the Drug Enforcement Administration

d. the United States Marshall Service

Answer: d – the United States Marshall Service


Page number: 18

64

Level: Basic

Chapter 1 True or False

Select the appropriate answer, based on whether the statement is true or false.

1. Nations and states can exist without established systems of justice.

a. True

b. False

Answer: False – Nations and states cannot exist without established systems of justice.

Objective: The Need for Justice

Page number: 2

Level: Intermediate

2. Two key components in evaluating the world’s justice systems are the provisions for basic

human rights and the extent of civil rights granted to citizens.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True


Page number: 2

Level: Intermediate

3. The U.N. Declaration incorporates equal rights, freedom of speech, and protection from

65

government abuse.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True

Objective: The Idea of Justice

Page number: 2

Level: Intermediate

4. Roelofse (2013) suggested that the observance of human rights can be set aside in the face of

terrorism.

a. true

b. false

Answer: False – it has to be observed even by totalitarian societies

Objective: Human Rights

Page number: 3

Level: Intermediate

5. It was not until the First World War that full enforcement of civil rights began within the

United States.

a. True

b. False

Answer: False – It was not until the 1960s

66


Page number: 3

Level: Intermediate

6. Freedoms from government oppression or intrusive practices are also known as civil liberties.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True


Page number: 3

Level: Basic

7. The Bill of Rights refers to the First Ten Amendments.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True


Page number: 3

Level: Basic

8 The First Amendment refers to the right to bear arms.

a. True

67

b. False

Answer: False –The First Amendment refers to speech, association, and religion


Page number: 3

Level: Basic

9. Social justice is rendering to everyone that which is his or her due as a human being.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True

Objective: Justice Defined

Page number: 5

Level: Intermediate

10. Restorative justice avoids arbitration to resolve conflicts.

a. True

b. False

Answer: False – Restorative justice uses arbitration to solve conflicts.


Page number: 6

Level: Basic

11. The “Fruits of the Poisoned Tree Doctrine” is related to the Seventh Amendment.

68

A. True

B. False

Answer: False – It is related to the Fourth Amendment


Page number: 7

Level: Basic

12. Weeks v. United States concerned evidence secured by federal officers.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True


Page number: 7

Level: Basic

13. There are no exceptions to the exclusionary rule.

a. True

b. False

Answer: False - There are exceptions to the exclusionary rule.


Page number: 7

Level: Intermediate

69

14. In a nutshell the U.S. criminal justice system exists to apply the rule of law as a means of

providing social stability.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True

Objective: The Mission of a Criminal Justice System

Page number: 7

Level: Basic

15. The counterpart to the crime control model is the due process model.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True


Page number: 9

Level: Basic

16. The Civil Rights Act of 1871 is no longer used by federal courts.

a. True

b. False

Answer: False -- The Civil Rights Act of 1871 is still used by the federal courts.

70


Page number: 10

Level: Basic

16. At the national level, the U.S. District Attorneys are responsible for the prosecution of

federal cases.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True

Objective: Components of the U.S. Justice System

Page number: 11

Level: Basic

17. Only ten district courts try federal cases within the 50 states and territories.

a. True

b. False

Answer: False – Ninety-four district courts try federal cases.

Objective: Components of the U.S. Justice System

Page number: 13

Level: Basic

18. The largest federal police agencies are located within the Justice and Treasury Departments.

71

a. True

b. False

Answer: True

Objective: The Structure of the Police System in the U.S.

Page number: 14

Level: Basic

19. The FBI’s duties include investigating public corruption.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True


Page number: 18

Level: Basic

20. The passing of the Patriot Act in 2001 increased the Secret Service’s role in investigating

fraud.

a. True

b. False

Answer: True


Page number: 20

72

Level: Basic

Chapter 1 Fill in the Blank

Fill in the appropriate answer.

1. The two key criteria in evaluating the world’s justice systems are the states provisions for

__________ and the extent of civil rights granted to its citizens.

Answer: Human Rights

Objective: The need for justice (Obj. 1.1)

Page number: 2

Level: Intermediate

2. ___________________ may be defined as a person’s right to the basic necessities for

survival.

Answer: Human Rights

Objective: Human Rights (Obj. 1.2)

Page number: 2

Level: Basic

3. On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and

proclaimed the ___________________________.

Answer: Universal Declaration of Human Rights

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Page number: 2

Level: Basic

4. Freedom from government oppression or intrusive practices is known as

__________________.

Answer: civil liberties


Page number: 3

Level: Basic

5. As noted in the Fourteenth Amendment, citizens can be deprived of life, liberty, or

property only by _______________________.

Answer: due process of law


Page number: 5

Level: Basic

6. _____________________ is rendering to everyone that which is his or her due as a

human being.

Answer: Social Justice


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Page number: 5

Level: Intermediate

7. The criminal justice system is concerned not only with the enforcement of laws but with the

protection of ________________as well.

Answer: legal rights


Page number: 6

Level: Difficult

8. The famous ______________________ is one mechanism by which American courts

ensure that a defendant’s due process rights are protected.

Answer: exclusionary rule


Page number: 7

Level: Basic

9. In 1914, the United States Supreme Court ruled in __________________________ that

evidence illegally obtained by federal officers must be excluded from admission at trial.

Answer: Weeks v. United States


Page number: 775

Level: Intermediate

10. The fundamental premise of the classical system of justice is that the imposition of

punishment prevents ____________ from occurring.

Answer: crime


Page number: 7

Level: Intermediate

11. _____________________ may be defined as government’s establishment and imposition

of legal processes to protect society from crime

Answer: Rule of law


Page number: 7

Level: Intermediate

12. ____________________ is defined as the maintenance of order and the continuation of

equitable social control by government.

Answer: Social stability

Objective: The Mission of a Criminal Justice Systems

Page number: 8

76

Level: Intermediate

13. At the national level, the ____________________________ are responsible for

prosecution of federal cases within their jurisdiction.

Answer: U.S. District Attorneys


Page number: 11

Level: Basic

14. The ___________________ was created in 1870 and is responsible for enforcing laws

passed by the U.S. Congress.

Answer: Justice Department


Page number: 16

Level: Basic

15. The Department of ____________________ was created in 2002, in an effort to better

coordinate efforts to protect the U.S. from terrorism.

Answer: Homeland Security


Page number: 18

Level: Basic

77

Chapter 1 Essay

Answer the following questions.

1. Discuss the need for justice.

Answer: The authors note that nations cannot exist without systems of justice. In addition,

these systems must be acceptable to those who are governed. There must also be a belief among

those who are governed that obeying the government and its rules is preferable to disobedience

because disorder in society will result in negative consequences. Disobeying a government and

avoiding compliance with rules and regulations could result in a very dangerous situation such as

a rebellion or a situation in which the strong take advantage of the weak. In evaluating a system

of government in terms of justice at least two factors should be taken into consideration. For

example, do the citizens have basic human rights as needed to survive in a society? These

include food, shelter, and medical care which are critical to function in any society. In addition,

how extensive are the civil rights afforded the citizens of a society. These civil rights should

include the right to be treated equally, the right to speak freely and express oneself, and a basic

protection against government abuse. It is obvious that without a just society or a feeling of fair

treatment among its citizens, a society will be replete with complex problems endangering its

existence.


Page number: 2

Level: Intermediate

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2. Discuss various types of justice.

Answer: There are different types of justice found in a society. For example, social justice is

rendering to everyone that which is due. Social justice may be either distributive or

commutative. Distributive justice seeks to distribute items of value fairly in a society.

Commutative justice seeks to ensure equality among citizens. Civil justice refers to the system

that regulates the relationships between individuals and focuses on the regulation of noncriminal

behaviors within society. Interestingly, it is in the area of civil law that the poor and the middle

class are more likely to experience inequitable treatment. Restorative justice seeks to mitigate

adverse relationships between individuals. It seeks to avoid formal adjudication by using

arbitration to resolve conflicts. Restorative justice may take place in lieu of civil litigation, and it

may also be used as an alternative to criminal prosecutions. Criminal justice is the system that

the readers of this text are interested in and it interacts with other systems of justice. The

criminal justice system is a system that relies on procedural laws as well as substantive laws.

Procedural law relates to how substantive law may be applied while substantive law refers to

particular forms of behavior. No matter what type of justice is present, the fact remains that the

concept of justice is one that is valuable to the maintenance of an orderly society.


Page number: 5-6

Level: Intermediate

3. Discuss the structure of the police system in America.

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Answer: One of the major principles of the American Constitution is that of federalism which

means that citizens of the United States are affected by two main types of government, one being

the national or federal government and the other being the state government. Federalism has

resulted in the United States having a large number of different police agencies. For example,

there are 100 different federal police agencies. The largest of the federal police agencies are

formally located within the Justice Department and the Treasury Departments. Examples of

federal agencies which relate to law enforcement are the Drug Enforcement Administration, the

U.S. Marshals Service, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation which is primarily an

investigative agency. The Department of Homeland Security is rather recent in coming on the

scene being created in 2002, in an effort to better counter terrorism. In addition to federal

agencies the states, counties, and cities have their own police forces. This is a result of the Tenth

Amendment which reserves the police power to the states. Every state with the exception of

Hawaii has a state police force of some type. Most counties in the United States have a sheriff’s

department. Sheriffs are usually elected to their position. However, the majority of law

enforcement officers are employed by a city or municipality. Most of the municipal police

departments are small having ten or fewer officers. Yet such departments are very important

because citizens are more likely to have contact with them than any other type of law

enforcement agency.

Objective: The Structure of the Police System in the United States

Page number: 13-23

Level: Intermediate

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