A2 HistoryUnit 4

In depth study 8Nazi Germany 1933 to 1945

Summary and Advice booklet NAZI GERMANY 1933 TO 1945

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1. The Nazi consolidation of power – how Hitler turned Germany into a one party state

Hitler became Chancellor on 30th January 1933 but was not immediately a dictator, he could still be dismissed at any time by Hindenburg

By the end of March 1933 it was clear that he was not going to be used by the Conservatives and von Papen

In the regions, local Nazi organisations took over town halls and regional government The army is won over to Hitler through promises of investment and freedom from

political interference Industrialists won over with promises that capitalist would continue. A group of them

pledge 3 million marks to his forthcoming election campaign The police were encouraged to cooperate with the SA with 50,000 SA members

joining the police – the police are now no longer neutral Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to call an election for March 1933 During the campaign the Reichstag Building burns down. Communists are blamed

and Hitler uses this as an excuse to persuade Hindenburg to govern by decree ie without the consent of the Reichstag. Under the passing of the Law For the Protection of People and State, this is permissible and part of the Weimar Constitution

Personal freedom was suspended and the government was given more power to arrest ordinary members of the public. By the end of March 25,000 people had been arrested in Prussia alone. Many were communists but socialists were also arrested

Last democratic election was held on 5th March 1933. With the use of violence and intimidation the vote for the Nazis rose to 44% which together with the DNVP getting 8% got them a clear majority

SA violence increased and party activists across the country seized power locally Himmler, head of the SS (Blackshirts) became police chief and set about ordering

mass arrests and ‘re-education’. The first concentration camp, Dachau, was opened 23rd March 1933, the Enabling Act was passed. This allowed the Chancellor to

govern by decree ie without the consent of the Reichstag. Only 94 SPD members voted against it. Power now lay with Hitler and the Weimar Republic came to an end

July 1933 – Night of Long Knives – SA leaders arrested and summarily executed by the SS under Hitler’s orders. Hitler claimed that Roehm was about to stage a revolution. The SS now emerge as hugely powerful

August 1934 Hindenburg died. Instead of holding an election for a new President, Hitler combines the titles of President and Chancellor, and becomes The Fuhrer

2. The relationship between party and state – how Germany was governed

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Structure of the Party:

Hitler

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32 Gauleiters (district leaders)

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760 Kreisleiters (circuit leaders)

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21,000 Ortsgruppenleiters (local group leaders)

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70,000 Zellenleiters (cell leaders)

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700,000 Blockwarten (block wardens)

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5 million (by 1938) PG-Parteigneosse (ordinary party members)

By 1938 there were 500,000 party officials December 1933 – The Law to Ensure Unity of Party and State was meant to define

everyone’s role within the party, but often they were muddled and overlapped. Feb 1934 Hitler told Gauleiters that the role of the Party was just to spread

propaganda After Night of the Long Knives this was extended and the role of the Party was then

to be an alternative civil service, making policy and ensuring policy was followed. The Gauleiters and Kreisleiters were particularly important and built up strong power

bases eg given right to choose local mayors January 1935 Traditional cabinet government was used when Hitler became Chancellor and it met

72 times in 1933 and it contained many non-Nazis eg Alfred Hugenberg the Economics Minister

By 1935, the cabinet only met 12 times Hitler gradually removed non-Nazi cabinet members from the more powerful

positions eg Hjalmar Schacht sacked as Minister of Economics in Nov 1937, and Konstantin von Neurath as Foreign Minister in Feb 1938

The cabinet met only 4 times in 1936 and met for the last time in Feb 1938 The Reich Chancellery: an important part of the government, led by Hans-Heinrich

Lammers. Its role was to create new laws. However, under the Nazi regime, it’s

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power was weakened by the creation of new powerful ministries eg the SS under Himmler

The role of individuals: Hitler gave personal power to a number of individuals who could then compete with the traditional bodies within the government for influence and power eg: Rudolf Hess the Fuhrer’s Deputy for Party Affairs, and his Chief of Staff, Martin Bormann.

As a result of this personal power Hess and Bormann asserted the dominance of the Party over the civil service.

Hitler’s style of leadership

When Hindenburg was alive Hitler performed the role of an ordinary Chancellor but when the President died in August 1934 Hitler was able to adapt the role to his own ideas of leadership

He was a political outsider with little understanding of how the machinery of government worked. Most Chancellor’s had been involved in government and as members of the Reichstag – Hitler had not: he had no training or experience

The Cabinet was called to meetings less and less frequently – the last meeting was in 1938

Some historians maintain that Hitler was in complete control –‘master of the Third Reich’, others that he was a ‘weak dictator’ and let things happen, having no direction

He disliked paperwork and bureaucracy; decisions were often made face to face with little regard for formal lines of communication or protocol. Therefore, access to Hitler was more important than rank or title

Hitler’s philosophy on leadership was the ‘Fuhrer princip’ the ‘leadership principle’ ie politics were the actions of great individuals like himself who solved problems through determination and will-power. He believed that he would lose some of his mystique if he was seen sitting at a desk dealing with paper work

Information was hoarded and there was much secrecy with all levels of management working on a need to know basis

Therefore, the regime fragmented into separate components, each department following their own path with little regard for what other departments were doing

3. Economic Policy

Early economic policy 1933 to 1936

This was influenced by three schools of thought:‘Grosswirtmeinschaft’ – meaning a ‘large economic sphere’ which would allow Germany to be self-sufficient.‘The Reformers’ – they believed that the old economic order of Europe had been destroyed by the Wall Street Crash. Their aim as ‘autarky’ self-sufficiency‘Wehrwirtschaft’ – meaning ‘the defence economy’. This promoted the idea to use the economy to prepare for future war, even in peace time

Dr Hjalmar Schacht – 1933 to 1935 heavily influenced, then took over the Economic Ministry

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Unemployment – a major issue. The RAD – the National Labour Service was set up to oversee job creation schemes

Those out of work were sent to camps, paid low wages and had to wear uniforms Women were forced out of ‘unsuitable’ jobs ie one that could be taken by a man Jews were removed from many occupations Compulsory military service was introduced Not surprisingly unemployment fell from a peak of 6 million in 1933 to 1 million by

1936 Agriculture – Sept 1933 the Reich Food Corporation was set up. Its aim was autarky

ie for Germany to be self-sufficient in food production. In propaganda farmers were portrayed as the lifeblood of the nation. Laws were passed to stop large estates from being broken up

Industry – at first heavy industry was exempt from party interference and Hitler avoided tampering with the wealthy middle classes.

The Four Year Plan 1936 By this stage there was a growing economic crisis which was exploited by Hermann

Goering, a powerful leading member of the Nazis who had previously been in charge of the Gestapo and then the Air Ministry

Goering exploited the crisis to extend his influence Rapid rearmament was causing problems and there was a threat of inflation and food

shortages in the cities. There was also a shortage of raw materials Goering and the Nazis claimed that Germany needed to be more self-sufficient, use its

own natural resources and cut down on imports This led to the setting up of the ‘Four Year Plan’, led by Goering which made him the

second most important person in the Third Reich Schacht resigned in 1937 and was replaced by a supporter of Goering: Walter Funk The ‘Plan’ became a huge bureaucracy and Goering benefited both financially and in

raising his status within the government. Hitler turned a blind eye to any corruption Agriculture: the need for self-sufficiency affected farming too. ‘Lebensraum’ or

living space was needed, claimed the Nazis, for agricultural expansion. In reality, farming declined during this period due to the expansion of investment and interest in industry and rearmament

How far did living standards improve? At one end of the scale were ‘The Golden Pheasants’ – the main party leaders, at the

other end of the scale were the Jews, driven into exile, imprisonment and death Workers: positive – 1) The Nazis brought employment and some prosperity. By 1939

there was full employment. 2) The DAF also promised improvements in working conditions. 3) The ‘Strength Through Joy’ organisation provided holidays etc – in theory all workers benefited from this according to propaganda, but in reality few did. 4) Cinema attendance increased, as did radio ownership

Workers: negative – 1) Longer working hours and less freedom. 2) Reliance on home produced food affected them the most eg bread made from German grain adversely affected the diets of the poorer families

Middle classes: positive – 1) Security from communism. 2) Reduced crime rate. 3) Job security

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Middle classes: negative – endless demands to conform and participate in rallies etc, lack of freedom

Industrialists – if companies co-operated with the government then they did well financially, and the labour force was under control. However, they had to put up with government interference

4. Propaganda and censorship

Josef Goebbels and the role of propaganda As minister in charge of propaganda Goebbels played a central role in boosting

support for the party He took charge of the election of 1930 and carefully stage managed the presentation

of Hitler and the party from then on March 1933 the ‘Reich Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda’ was set

up with Goebbels in charge It’s task was to spread ‘enlightenment and propaganda within the population

concerning the policy of the Reich government and the national reconstruction of the German Fatherland’

On the importance of propaganda Goebbels said ‘the essence of propaganda consists of winning people over to an idea so sincerely, so vitally that in the end they succumb to it utterly and can never escape from it’

The press Before the regime, the press had been in the hands of private companies such as

political parties and religious groups. There were many different papers but few had a large circulation

To Goebbels, the press was the least important of the areas to be controlled – to him the spoken word was much more important

Control was enforced in three main ways: The Editors Law, October 1933 – editors were made responsible for what was

published in their papers/magazines. In this was self-censorship too place ‘Eher Verlag’ – the party set up its own publishing house DNB – the party set up its own press agency in December 1933

Radio Even before the start of the regime, both Hitler and Goebbels realised that the radio

would be an important feature of propaganda As soon as Hitler was made Chancellor, Goebbels made sure that the celebratory

torchlight procession was broadcast to the nation He created a national network, taking over private broadcasting companies – the

Reich Radio Company was set up in April 1934 Any staff thought unsuitable were sacked - approximately 13% of them, mostly Jews

or those with left-wing sympathies Ownership of radios was encouraged with the creation of the ‘Peoples’ Receiver’

which cost just 35 Reich marks. This had restricted wave frequencies to stop people tuning in to foreign broadcasts

By 1939 70% of German homes had a radio, the highest percentage in the world

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Public broadcasts were also made to schools, factories, offices etc and in the summer of 1938, the first open air loud-speaker columns were set up in towns and cities across Germany

Film This was Goebbels greatest love - he was fascinated by this new medium On average, about 100 films were made a year during the time of the Third Reich Hitler wanted direct, pure propaganda but Goebbels wanted it to be entertaining too Many films were costume dramas and light-hearted song and dance moves The most famous propaganda films, such as ‘Hitlerjunge Quex’ were hated by

Goebbels and in fact made by Leni Riefenstahl. Other films made by her include ‘Triumph of the Will’ and ‘Olympia’ where Hitler is portrayed indirectly, as one of Germany’s greatest historical leaders eg Frederick the Great

Goebbels deliberately portrayed Hitler as a remote, god-like figure watching over Germany and denying himself the comforts of life

The arts Goebbels view on the arts was ‘the arts are for the National Socialist State a public

exercise: they are not only aesthetic but also moral in nature and the public interest demands not only police supervision but also guidance’

‘Reich Chambers’ were set up in September 1933 for literature, theatre, music, and the creative arts

Everyone employed in these areas had to belong to a Chamber and Goebbels controlled membership so anyone who was considered ideologically or racially unsuitable were prohibited from performing, writing etc

Hitler in particular had very strong views on art. Modern art, associated with Weimar was ‘decadent’ and unsuitable. Traditional landscapes, characters from German mythology were more acceptable

According to Nazi propaganda, only the Aryan was considered able to produce true and valuable art – the weak and ugly would be rejected in favour of the healthy and strong. Art would no longer be the preserve of the educated middle classes: Nazi art was for the masses

Theatre – attempts were made to create a ‘peoples’ culture’ to celebrate the revolution. This was not very successful

Music – foreign, modern music eg jazz was rejected as alien and decadent. Traditional music such as those with military associations, German folk music and German opera (eg Wagner) were promoted

Ritual and social conformity Religious style ritual was used to oblige the German public to conform – those who

didn’t stood out and could be easily identified ‘Holy Days’ – new ones were created eg celebrating Hitler’s birthday on 20 th April.

Open displays of support were expected eg flags at windows Winter Relief Collections – badges were put on doors of people who had contributed.

Originally designed to collect money for those suffering during the Depression, it continued afterwards

Towns held rallies and processions, the most important being the Nuremberg Rally. More than 500,000 people would arrive from all around Germany to hear Hitler and other Nazi leaders speak

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With such a large percentage of the population living in rural areas, events such as this were important to create a sense of belonging to the Nazi state

Events were broadcast around the world to promote the image of a happy, united nation

The key aim was to create a sense of belonging and unity – a ‘Volksgemeinschaft’. It appealed to peoples need to worship ad belong

The ‘Burning of the Books’ This took place on the 10th May 1933 and was the first manifestation of the new

culture It was organised by the student body ‘Deutsche Studentschaft’ as a symbolic act

against the ‘anti-German spirit’ Lists of writers were drawn up and their books burnt in Berlin and other university

cities It was meant to be the start of a systematic censorship, but in practice achieved little April 1935 the Chamber of Literature took over the banning of books centrally

Read notes on propaganda and censorship during the war in the LIFE IN GERMANY DURING THE WAR section of the booklet – all questions will be

based on period 1933 to 1945

5. Social Policy

The role of women The Nazis brought a return to the traditional role of women as wives and mothers: a

rejection of the liberal and ‘decadent’ changes brought about under Weimar. Men and women should restrict themselves to their ‘natural’ roles and activities

This view was supported by traditionalist groups eg conservatives, rural areas and the churches

Motherhood was a woman’s most important purpose – this reflected the governments concern at the declining birth rate which was common to most European nations at the time and had been affected by the First World War and the move to the cities which were more expensive. The Nazis feared that they would not be able to defend themselves in the future if the population continued to decrease

Methods used: abortion was made illegal, birth control centres were closed down, information and availability of

contraception was restricted, financial incentives were given to couples to have large families ie ‘marriage

loans’. Family allowance was also paid help was given to expectant mothers eg household management classes a huge propaganda campaign was launched to increase the status of wives and

mothers ‘The Mothers’ Cross’ was awarded to women who had large families

This was only partially successful. The birth rate increased but it is doubtful whether this was due to the Nazis policies – more likely due to the improvements in the economy and the tendency for couples to marry younger between the wars

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October 1935 the ‘Law for the Protection of the Hereditary Health of the German People’ banned marriage for those with serious infectious or hereditary diseases. NB the Nazis opinion on what was a ‘hereditary’ disease was not scientifically sound

‘Certificates of Suitability For Marriage’ had to be obtained from a doctor before a couple could marry

Employment – despite ideology, the needs of the workplace came first so women were allowed to stay in ‘female’ jobs eg clerical, nursing, teaching young children. Generally is suited the government for women to be removed from most jobs as this would reduce the unemployment figures. But, by 1936/7, due to rearmament and compulsory military service, there was a labour shortage and women were encouraged back into the work place

Young people and educationThe Hitler Youth

Traditionally German children and teenagers joined youth organisations so the Nazis adopted this and replaced them with the Hitler Youth

Led by Baldur von Schirach who increased membership dramatically Teachers were officially instructed to persuade their pupils to join Jobs in the state services and apprenticeships were restricted to those who had been a

member It was initially successful and attracted many members. It particularly appealed to

those who had previously not been able to join a youth group eg children in rural areas

However, some were put off by the growing emphasis on militarism and Nazi ideology

Members were exposed to political indoctrination and the reinforcement of values and stereotypes eg the glorification of military virtues: duty, obedience, honour, physical courage, contempt for weakness

Many parents and teachers complained about the brutalising affects – it encouraged loyalty and respect for the party and Hitler, not parents, schools, and academic study. Teachers in particular disliked the organisations contempt for intellectual pursuits and the arrogance it bred in some of the older boys

Education The Nazis realised the importance of propaganda in education Initially many teachers supported the regime – as public employees they had been

badly affected financially by the economic problems of the Weimar years. By 1934 25% of teachers had joined the Nazi Party, some for political reasons, some

out of pragmatism. The Nazis promised a proper education policy, something the Weimar governments

had not done. However, in the long run, Nazi interference in education was unpopular and teaching

became an unpopular job Apart from influencing the curriculum, the government controlled promotions through

insisting on political references and checks on the political suitability of staff. Schools were monitored by Gauleiters (local party leaders)

Indoctrination courses were organised for teachers which provided resources for use in the classroom

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The curriculum was used to further propaganda eg biology, history etc were used to promote Nazi racial theories. Boys and girls were taught subjects ‘suited’ to their future roles

The government restructured education and set up schools targeting pupils for different purposes eg 1) boarding schools to train boys as future members of the armed forces, run by the SS. 2) Adolf Hitler Schools set up to train future leaders. 3) Order Castles were planned to take graduates from the other two schools to train them as Germany’s future elite

Religion Early Nazism had links with Christianity but rejected Catholicism and Protestantism

(Lutherism) Despite this some Christians supported Nazism due to its traditional social and

cultural views But in 1933 Hitler spoke of ‘stamping out Christianity’. Some grassroots Nazis rejected Christianity as a product of Jewish culture 1934 German Faith Movement set up to promote ‘positive Christianity’ which

became state religion. Based upon racial values and return to the ideas of past Nordic pagan faiths

By 1939 only 5% of the population were registered members Catholic Church: early on in the regime the Nazis did not wish to alienate too many

Germans by coming into conflict with the church. July 1933 Concordat (agreement) allowed the Catholic Church some protection On going tension between the Catholic Church and the Nazi government led to the

Pope issuing a letter to Catholic bishops: ‘With Deep Anxiety’ speaking out against government harassment of the Church.

Hitler then demanded that all Germans make a choice: Church or Government and increased harassment of the Church

Protestant Church: 1933 there were 45 million Protestants, with the largest group, the Lutherans having 18 million

April 1933 Hitler appointed Ludwig Muller as National Bishop to lead all Protestants 1934: 200 churchmen (pastors) break away to form Confessional Church eg Martin

Niemoller By 1935, Muller had failed to draw large numbers of members. 1935 Ministry of Church Affairs set up to co-ordinate harassment of practising

Christians.

Read notes on TOTAL WAR and LIFE IN GERMANY DURING THE WAR for information up to 1945 – all questions cover the period 1933 to 1945

6. The use of terror

Himmler and the SS The SS was founded in 1921, led by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich as his

deputy By 1933 it had 52,000 members

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1930 Heydrich was appointed as head of the SD, the SS intelligence branch. Many people thought of him as the brains behind the expansion of the SS and the real ‘power behind the throne’

July 1933 – Night of the Long Knives – the SS involvement in reducing the power and influence of the SA leaders helped assure the position of Himmler as one of the most powerful Nazis

The purpose of the SS was to deal with enemies within the state: racial enemies (Jews, Slavs), ideological enemies (communists, socialists), and moral enemies (homosexuals, workshy)

By 1939 all security and intelligence was controlled by the SS ie Kripo (‘ordinary’ police taken over in 1936), SD (intelligence), Gestapo (secret police)

Ran and controlled concentration camps 1939 set up Waffen SS which grew into an army under Himmler’s direct command Membership of SS based on race and personal qualities rather than traditional birth,

education, money Finest qualities for an SS officer were honour and loyalty which led to blind

obedience to the Fuhrer However, not all officers joined out of ideology – some joined to further their careers It developed its own cults and rituals eg weddings By 1938 the SS were organised into divisions covering all aspects of German life

The Gestapo and the SD They were a key element in the repression of the ‘enemies’ of the Reich By 1936 the Gestapo had been placed above the law, able to arrest and detain people

without trial, treating prisoners according to their own rules The existence of the Gestapo shifted the balance of power in favour of the state

against the individual The popular image of the Gestapo as all knowing and all powerful was encouraged by

the regime to strengthen its power However, in reality this is questionable. Rather than hardened and ruthless Nazis

many were over worked and under educated police officers Therefore, the Gestapo was not everywhere but people were encouraged to self-censor

and police themselves, reporting to the Gestapo anyone they considered suspect or a possible ‘enemy of the state’

The Kripo (‘ordinary’ police) The criminal police are less famous than the Gestapo but were well known at the time Their slogan was ‘the fist comes down’ which highlighted their belief that criminals

had an easy time during the Weimar Republic Sept 1933 approximately 100,000 beggars were arrested – such activities were

publicised in propaganda and appeared to be popular with the general public Nov 1933 a new law was passed against ‘dangerous and habitual’ criminals Throughout the 1930’s there was a constant campaign against ‘asocials’ eg alcoholics,

homosexuals, and persistent criminals.

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Arrests and prosecutions were made easier Most judges who had been in place during the Weimar Republic were allowed to

remain but were encouraged to give harsher sentences Head of the Kripo was Arthur Nebe. This combined with the Gestapo in 1936

Concentration camps Mass arrests took place almost as soon as Hitler took power. In Prussia alone 30,000

people were arrested in March and April 1933 The settling of old scores became commonplace, as well as the arrest of Jews, trades

unionists, and political opponents The first camps were set up to relieve the overflowing prisons. The first, Dachau, was

set up on 29th March 1933 in old factory buildings near Munich. Sachsenhausen followed in 1936, Buchenwald in 1937 with three more built in 1938 Refusing to work was punishable by death, criticising the government was punishable

by two weeks confinement with 25 strokes before and after Guards were given the power to mistreat and terrorise prisoners at will Many were released in a Christmas ‘amnesty’ in 1933 with more released in 1934 By late autumn 1934 there were only 3,000 held in camps across Germany, most of

them communists – the use of terror was working Numbers increased again as war approached. By 1937 there were 8,000 prisoners and

as many as 20,000 by the outbreak of war in September 1939

Read notes on the HOLOCAUST and LIFE IN GERMANY DURING THE WAR in the GERMANY AT WAR section of the booklet – all questions cover the period 1933 to

1945

7. Racial policy

Background ‘We want no more absurd statements to the effect that the Jew is a human being’ –

Goebbels Anti-semitism was at the core of Nazi ideology, particularly Hitler’s For most Nazis, Jews were a propaganda stereotype with the traditional physical

characteristics and the personality traits. Noakes and Pridham: ‘the Jew was a collection of negative attributes representing the antithesis of the qualities of a true German’

The Jew was the focus for disaffection and worries about the future – there seemed to be little real understanding or knowledge of the Jews, who they really were and what part they played in the life of Germany

1933 there were just over half a million Jews living in Germany, less than 2% of the total population

Boycotts and general persecution March 1933 – elections were followed by a wave of largely spontaneous and regional

anti-semitic attacks

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The government decided to have properly organised attacks rather than let things appear to get out of hand

Julius Streicher, a vicious anti-semite and Nazi hardliner led a committee to organise boycotts of Jewish shops and businesses for 1st April 1933. This was not well received by the German public and the Nazis were disappointed with the lack of support this received

‘Restoration of the professional civil service’ – this law was passed on 7 th April 1933. All civil servants of non-Aryan descent were dismissed

‘Law concerning the admission to the legal professions’ – this did the same for those who worked in the law

‘Law against the overcrowding of German schools’ – 25th April 1933 restricted the number of Jewish children in schools

‘Editors’ Law’ – October 1933, removed Jewish journalists

The Nuremberg Laws So named as they were announced at the 1935 Nuremberg Rally ‘Law for the protection of German blood’ – this forbid mixed marriages and

relationships to keep the bloodline pure. It also banned Jews from employing Germans in domestic service

‘Reich citizenship law’ – Jews were now officially no longer German and had all the rights and protection associated with citizenship removed

Anti-semitism is radicalised 1937 to 1938 The autumn of 1937 saw anti-semitism enter a more extreme phase Noakes and Pridham believe that Hitler felt the regime was stagnating and needed

something to make it appear as if it was taking radical action Also, by now, the German economy was strong enough to withstand the impact of

boycotts Nuremberg Rally 1937 – Hitler spoke out against Jewish businesses and the following

month pressure was put on the Jewish business community to sell up below market rates

‘Decree for the registration of Jewish property’ – April 1938, all property worth more than 5,000 marks had to be registerd.

June 1938 – Jewish doctors were banned from treating non-Jewish patients July 1938 – Jews were to be identified by law ie “J” was stamped in passports and all

Jews were to adopt official ‘Jewish’ names of ‘Sarah’ and ‘Israel’. Identity cards were to be carried

Kristallnacht 7th November 1938 – Ernst von Roth, an official in the Paris embassy was

assassinated by Hershel Grunspan, a young Polish Jew in revenge for the mistreatment of his parents

There followed a systematic attack on Jewish property, factories, shops and homes. Every synagogue in Germany was damaged

Estimate of Jewish dead after attack 91 Nazi propaganda portrayed this as a spontaneous uprising by the outraged German

people. In fact it was organised by un-uniformed SA

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Anti-semitism worsened and became more widespread and ‘acceptable’ after this event

1939 Goerring requested the emigration of Jews and the ‘Reich association of the Jews of Germany’ was set up.

The whole ‘Jewish question’ was now placed in the hands of the SS

Read notes on the HOLOCAUST section of the booklet – all questions cover the period 1933 to 1945

8. Opposition to the Nazis

Political Communist gangs fought Nazi storm troopers in Feb 1933 Social Democrats voted against the Enabling Act Conservatives started to keep dossiers (files) on crimes committed by the new

government. Von Papen became Conservative opposition spokesman and made a speech in June

1934 calling for an end to the regime – last example of open defiance

Nature of opposition No single united movement – came from individuals and underground groups eg the

Rote Kapelle (Red Orchestra) Communists set up resistance cells in factories co-ordinated by Robert Uhrig Communist resistance cells in cities eg Hamburg and Mannheim Army – some looked down on Hitler and there was some opposition but this was not

considerable until during the war. But some opposition was shown in 1938 with the Blomberg-Fritsch Affair where some army generals opposed Hitler’s plans to take back land lost from Versailles – they felt Germany wasn’t ready. Hitler removed those who opposed him

9. Foreign Policy

Hitler’s main areas of concern remained constant. They were: reversal of Versailles, Lebensraum, Nationalism, Anti-communism, and economic expansion

League of Nations: Hitler withdraws Germany from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations within a year of becoming Chancellor

Hitler will deal with individual countries and in the early years wants to avoid conflict eg 1934 Non-Aggression Pact with Poland

Austrian Crisis 1934: Anschluss (union) forbidden by Versailles, but Hitler’s ambition. From 1933 Hitler encouraged the Austrian Nazi Party to undermine the Austrian government. This group murders Dollfuss, leader of Austrian government. Some thought of Germany intervening but Austrian government troops stop Austrian Nazi takeover, and Italian leader Mussolini deploys troops on the Austrian border as warning to Germany

The destruction of the Treaty of Versailles:

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The Saar 1935 – vote (plebiscite) held over whether the region should return to German control or be transferred permanently to France. 90% voted to return to Germany. Up to then Hitler has been wary of upsetting GB and France, but now there was the possibility of further territorial gain

Rearmament and conscription 1935 – March 1935 Hitler formally renounced the disarmament clause of Versailles. Immediately reintroduced rearmament and conscription eg Wehrmacht increased to 36 divisions. International reaction very negative which led to the Stresa Conference between France, Italy and GB. Hitler doesn’t believe alliance is strong and recognises GB’s wish to protect empire. Therefore June 1935 signs Anglo-German Naval Treaty allowing Germany a navy 35% the size of GB’s.

The Rhineland 1936 – Hitler risks sending in troops to demilitarised Rhineland. Luckily for Hitler, France does not respond as is distracted by Mussolini’s war with Ethiopia. French could have overwhelmed German troops at this stage.

Danzig 1933-39 – 1933 Nazis win 39 out of 72 seats in the Senate of the Danzig (under control of League of Nations as part of Polish Corridor giving Poland access to sea trade). By 1938 this had risen to 70 due to the encouragement of the German government and the growing weakness of the League of Nations. By now, Danzig had to all intents and purposes returned to Germany

Union with Austria (Anschluss) 1938 - March 1938 Germany invades Austria. This time Musollini is distracted by the Spanish Civil war and also now wants an alliance with Germany. A plebiscite was held over the Anschluss with 99.75% voting ‘yes’. British and French protests are half hearted.

Czechoslovakia 1938 – Hitler believes the 3 and a half million German speakers in the Sudetenland region of the country should become part of the German Reich. Hitler is also attracted by rich raw materials.

Feb 1938 Hitler promises protection to German minorities outside the Reich’s borders – this gives a clear indication of his intentions over Czechoslovakia. After union with Austria, the ‘greater reich’ now surrounds Czechoslovakia on three sides.

April 1938 Konrad Henlein, leader of Sudeten Germans makes demand of Czech government. Known as the Karlsbad Programme it asks for self rule for the area. This is rejected. Negotiations continue and internationally there is preparation for possible war.

Sept 1938 Hitler demands self-determination for Sudenten Germans. Hitler meets British PM, Neville Chamberlain twice at Berchtesgarden and Godesberg. . Hitler demands Czechoslovakia hand over of Sudentenland territory and plebicites in areas with large Sudeten minorities

The Munich Conference Sept 1938 – GB and France find these proposals inacceptable. Mussolini persuades Hitler to hold a conference.

GB, France, Italy, and Germany were present but Czechoslovakia was not The conference agreed that: German occupation of many Sudeten areas could take

place in October, Germany was to gain land, and 3 and a half million people, 700,000 of whom were Czech not German

Although there was some international protest, mostly there was relief that war had been avoided.

March 1939 Hitler’s ambitions for the rest of Czechoslovakia became clear as he announces his intention to incorporate the rest of the country into the Reich.

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In the same month he pressurises Lithuania to give up land and also makes demands over the Polish Corridor. In response, GB and France promise to help Poland should Germany threaten her borders.

Nazi Soviet Pact 1939 – although Hitler was fiercely anti-communist, this pact was signed in August to allow Hitler to invade Poland without Russian response.

The outbreak of war – Sept 1939 Poland was invaded and quickly conquered

h. Germany and the Second World War – details of conflict and reasons for defeat

WAR IN THE WEST:

Blitzkrieg (‘Lightening War’) in the West – April to June 1940

New form of warfare used first in Poland = rapidly advancing infantry, dive bombers and tanks

‘Phoney War’ lasted through the winter of 1939/40. 9th April Norway and Denmark invaded. 10th May Blitzkrieg used in invasions of Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France. French army taken by surprise and country faced a humiliating defeat – German army

reaches the heart of France in 8 days trapping BEF and French army in the north Dunkirk – evacuation of 200,000 BEF and 140,000 French troops 27th May to 11th

June. Paris fell 14th June, French surrendered 22nd June France fell so quickly/easily due to: outmoded military methods, country and armed

forces still drained by First World War, economic depression, and political division. France divided up into German occupied north and Atlantic seaboard, and the south

run by General Petain and a ‘puppet’ government. This was based at Vichy, therefore are known as ‘Vichy France’.

War with Britain

Between June 1940 and June 1941, only Britain fought Germany. Most of Europe had either surrendered to Germany or were allies. The USA continued to be isolationist

Operation Sealion – Hitler’s plan to invade Britain by sea. RAF had to be defeated before this could take place.

From 4th August, Luftwaffe attacked radar stations and RAF bases. By early September, RAF defeated Luftwaffe in ‘Battle of Britain’ Hitler now tried to defeat Britain by destroying civilian morale – terror bombing of

cities and serious disruption of overseas food supplies. German domination of the Atlantic threatened to starve Britain

The Blitz – London suffered the most – bombed on 76 days in a row in the autumn of 1940

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Britain relieved at sea due to: naval defeats of Germany eg sinking of the Bismarck May 1941, adoption of convoy system, and loan of 50 destroyers from USA

German defeat in the West 1943 to 1945

July 1943 Allied troops invaded Italy, Mussolini was overthrown March 1943 Germany lost the Battle of the Atlantic and so failed to starve Britain into

submission German cities were suffering from 24 hour bombing by Britain and the USA: it is

debatable how far this weakened morale and led to anti-Nazi feeling but it did damage factories and production so affected Germany’s ability to wage ‘Total War’

6th June 1944 – Normandy Landings/D-Day 25th August – Paris liberated Germans fight back with success at Arnhem in the Rhineland Germans then forced to retreat and Americans reach the Rhineland in March facing

little resistance Russians allowed by Britain and USA to capture Berlin

WAR IN THE EAST

Invasion of USSR

This took place between June and December 1941 Known as Operation Barbarossa Plans for invasion due to: ideological differences, Hitler wanting Russian oil and

wheat Plans made to conquer then colonise in the west of the country and use the east for

slave labour Had intended to invade earlier in the summer but had to assist Italians in Greece Used Blitzkrieg tactics: 153 divisions of 3 million men, 3,500 tanks, 5,000 aircraft Three pronged attack: Leningrad in the north, Moscow in the centre, Stalingrad in the

south (later on – see below). By December, Germany had conquered 600 miles along a 1,000 mile long front and

captured 3 million prisoners Stalled in December. Supply lines from Germany were long so troops poorly

equipped, unused to fighting in such wintery weather – thousands of German troops froze to death

Soviet people and troops put up a massive resistance

Battle of Stalingrad Dec 1942 to Jan 1943

Summer 1942 Hitler planned new attack on Russia to reach Caucasus mountains to get wheat and oil

Led by Von Paulus, made rapid progress from July to August Germans stalled in September due to: loss of divisions, heat, Russian resistance Hitler halts advance to seize city of Stalingrad – politically important

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City was put under siege – bombed, hand to hand fighting throughout October and November. Stalin refused to evacuate civilians – believed troops would be more resilient

By the end of the year Germans were still unsuccessful – weather and long supply lines again caused problems and they were demoralised and poorly supported

Russian General Zhukov defeated Germans who were refused permission to surrender by Hitler. Von Paulus surrendered regardless

24 German generals captured, 92,000 officers, and thousands of tanks and artillery pieces.

This all led to a collapse of morale in both the army and civilian population of Germany – many now realised that the war was lost

German defeat in the East 1943 to 1945

German defeat at Stalingrad Jan 1943 was the turning point Red Army then unstoppable in it’s advance towards Germany Major tank battle at Kursk where Germans attempt to hold Russians back Soviet Union liberated by August 1944 Russians seized Warsaw (capital of Poland) in Jan 1945 Russians invade Germany in February 1945 Germans, including Home Guard and Hitler Youth put up a fierce defence of Berlin Battle of Berlin was the greatest of the war. Russians lost 300,000 men. Red Army closed in on Nazi underground head quarters at the Reich Chancellory.

Hitler committed suicide on 30th April 1945. New leader, Admiral Donitz surrendered on 8th May.

TOTAL WAR POLICY

This involves the economy and civilians on the ‘home front’ being entirely focused on the war effort

There have been disputes as to how far the economy was focused on the war 1936 Hitler issued a ‘Secret Memo’ which launched the second Four Year Plan (see

notes on the economy) According to the head of the armed forces economic staff, General Thomas, Germany was totally mobilised (ready for war) by July 1941

Hitler expected the war to last between 5 to 7 years at least so plans were put in place to phase in total war

By 1939 Germany 32% of total income was spent on preparation for war (Britain’s was 15%)

Much of the preparation was for Blitzkrieg to avoid the slow progress and ‘stalemate’ of the First World War

Problems were seen in 1941 when difficulties were experienced in supplying equipment and targets set down by Hitler in 1939 had not been achieved. Reasons for this: the targets were too ambitious, lack of co-ordination and central planning, war production had been put in the hands of the armed forces rather than industrialists

Hitler set up an enquiry to look into reasons for this failure and the December Rationalisation Decree concentrated control of the war economy with the Armaments Minister Albert Speer

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March 1942 Speer set up the Central Planning Board – a group of committees each with the responsibility of overseeing an aspect of the war economy. Members were experts from industry and business

He controlled the distribution of materials and insisted on the introduction of modern production methods

Production expanded from 1942 to 1943 when it was disrupted by bombing By 1944 weapon production had trebled, However, some of his policies were undermined by arguments with Fritz Sauckel the

Minister Plentipotentiary for Labour and Himmler (in charge of slave labour at the concentration camps). He wished to employ more women and treat slave labour more humanely to allow them to work better. Both these were rejected on ideological grounds

Most significant set backs were due to Allied bombing and advance of the Russians from the east in 1944. It is estimated that this led to production dropping by 50%. Factories were moved underground in an attempt to protect them

There has been a suggestion that Germany would have been more successful if Hitler had waited until 1943 to start the war as production would then have been greater and the economy better prepared for war

Total war put a strain on the demands for workers in both the armed forces and the factories.

A register of labour was drawn up and workers sent to where they were most needed. The Ministry of Labour regularly checked the list

Workers were expected to do ‘double shifts’ which was unpopular and inefficient Foreign workers were drafted in from occupied or allied countries and prisoners of

war were also used as was ‘slave labour’ from the labour camps Women were also encouraged to work. In 1939, 37% of the workforce was female

compared to 26% in Britain By the autumn of 1944, 13 million men were drafted into the armed forces which led

to a fall of industrial labour Labour and investment was redirected from consumer goods and building to

chemicals, iron etc for the war effort The armaments industry tried to protect their workers from being conscripted into the

army Hitler was reluctant to introduce rationing but had to. It affected the German people

more greatly than the British as living standards were worse in Germany to start with There were also shortages of clothing and other equipment which was diverted to

supply the armed forces Allied bombing intensified the hardship of civilians and as many as 400,000 civilians

were killed By the summer of 1944, the regime was forced to introduce the total mobilisation of

German society with the creation of the ‘Volkssturm’ or Home Guard Communication was affected

HITLER AS A WAR LEADER Many in the German military hierarchy looked down on Hitler as a ‘jumped up

Bavarian corporal’ and a ‘facile’ amateur. Germany’s successes however suggest that the wasn’t

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To Hitler success in war was the ultimate in human achievement He was a self taught strategist and had read military histories when younger Had never held high rank in the army though did serve in the trenches which he felt

gave him a better understanding of warfare than the generals – had a fanatical belief in himself

As Fuhrer he felt he should naturally in charge of the armed forces – became Commander-in Chief in December 1941 and his predecessor, von Brauchitsch was given the blame for failing to take Moscow

At the start of the war Hitler treated his generals as equals and allowed them to decide their own tactics – as the war went well at the start he was happy to allow this to continue.

Due to success at the start of the war Hitler regarded himself as infallible and would not tolerate any opposition to his views on the war

Hitler’s main shortcoming was his failure to contemplate retreat and was unwilling to withdraw armies even from impossible situations.

He was guilty of poor judgement and major blunders for example: he badly miscalculated events surrounding the evacuation at Dunkirk, neglected his armies in North Africa sacrificed the German armies defending Stalingrad in 1943 was slow to move armoured units after D Day wasted resources in a final offensive in the west during the winter of 1944-5

Questionable mistakes: invading Russia in 1941 declaring war against the USA in the same year

Hitler turned on his military leaders as the war came to an end:“…my trust has been misused by many people. Disloyalty and betrayal have undermined resistance throughout the war. It was therefore not granted to me to lead the people to victory. The Army General Staff cannot be compared with the General Staff of the First World War. It’s achievements were far behind those of the fighting men.”

HOW PEOPLE IN THE OCCUPIED TERRITORIES WERE TREATED

Hitler intended to create a ‘New Order’ in Europe of the conquered countries – this would be a political and economic domination by Germany based on Nazi race laws

Within Europe boundaries were redrawn with countries treated differently according to their racial similarity to Germany, the level of resistance the Germans experienced, and the countries strategic/military/economic importance to Germany and the war effort

‘Aryan’ countries would be incorporated directly into the German Reich eg Austria, In Western Europe countries were ruled directly by Nazi Gauleiters eg France In Eastern Europe areas wanted for ‘Lebensraum’/’Living Space’ inhabitants would

be ‘Germanised’, moved elsewhere or exterminated Collaborators - Even before the war, every occupied country had it’s own fascist type

party or movement eg France – ‘Action Francaise’. German occupation was therefore welcomed by some and to many people there seemed little point in resisting the Germans. Others collaborated for personal gain (financial/political), others had their own nationalist agenda eg 100,000 Ukrainians joined Germans in fighting Russia to gain their own independence

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Resistance - this varied from country to country and according to the success or otherwise of the Germans during various stages of the war. Some politicians or rulers who had gone into exile when their country was occupied became figureheads for resistance. Eg Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French in Britain called on all French people to join the resistance. Many joined the RAF - eg Poles. Communists made up a large part of the resistance in many countries. Organised groups – Marquis in France, Armee Secrete in Belgium, Partisans in Yugoslavia

THE HOLOCAUST

1938 – special mobile units set up to ‘liquidate’ Jews from recently annexed Austria and Czechoslovakia. Operated by the Einsatzgruppen branch of the SS. They then followed the armies into occupied territory carrying out mass executions: shootings, gas vans and buried in mass graves. Locals often willing to help

As armies advanced across Europe, over 8 million Jews came under their control, most of them based in Eastern Europe

Attempted to concentrate all Jews into ‘ghetto’s in the towns/cities. First one set up in Lodz in Poland in April 1940

Wannsee Conference Jan 1942 – generally regarded as the time when the formal order for the Final Solution to the Jewish ‘problem’ was given. – research and make own notes

Death camps were built in Poland as this was regarded by the Nazis as the ‘world centre’ of the Jews.

Jews were rounded up from all over Europe and transported by train to the camps Gassing of Jews first began in Auschwitz-Birkenau in March 1942 Those not ‘exterminated’ were put to work in extremely harsh conditions and with

little or no regard to health or hygienic living conditions. Diseases such as cholera and typhoid broke out. Once a ‘prisoner’ was no longer able to work they would be gassed.

It is estimated that 6 million Jews died as a result of Nazi persecution from the mass shootings, through to disease/worked to death in the camps, in the ghettos or gas chambers. Some Russian historians put this number at closer to 10 million. It is also estimated that 72% of the Jews of Europe dies, and 85% of the Jews of Poland. It has been estimated that 89% of German Jews died

Some countries managed to protect greater numbers of their Jewish population eg Bulgaria lost 14%, Italy 26%, and France 30%

OPPOSITION TO THE GOVERNMENT DURING THE WAR

Opposition to the Nazis was limited for several reasons -Some Germans supported the Nazis/all opposition was illegal/the police state made it difficult to oppose the Nazis

Civilian opposition

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Political eg the Kreisau Circle A group of aristocrats, socialists, clergymen and foreign officials From 1940 they began drawing up plans for the period after Hitler’s downfall. They refused to take part in any active plans to assassinate Hitler but said they would

participate in the government which replaced him They developed links with Colonel von Stauffenberg (who led the July Bomb Plot in

1944).

Youth Organsiations eg 1) The Edelweiss Pirates Named after the edelweiss flower that they used as their emblem. They were non-conformists who refused to join the Hitler Youth. They wore check

shirts and dark trousers. At weekends they went on hikes and met up with other groups They beat up the Hitler Youth. During the war they collected propaganda leaflets dropped by Allied bombers and

pushed them through peoples doors. In 1944, 12 members of the Edelweiss Pirates were publically hanged in Cologne.

2) Swing Groups These were groups of upper middle-class youths who met in bars, nightclubs and

houses and listened to jazz music. The Nazis did not like Jazz music as they saw it as being produced by an inferior race. They did not sign up to the values of the Hitler Youth.3) White Rose Group Set up by brother and sister, Hans and Sophie Scholl and their professor at Munich

University in 1941. They actively opposed the Nazi regime. They distributed pamphlets making people aware of the atrocities being carried out by

the Nazis in eastern Europe and the USSR. They painted anti-Nazi measures on buildings during the night. In February 1943 they were arrested by the Gestapo after having been informed on by

the university caretaker. They were tortured and hanged

Religious organsiations Although the Church did not come out as an organisation against the Nazis,

individuals and groups within the Church did oppose them.Eg: The Confessional Church – see notes on the Church during the Third Reich for background:

When the Nazis set up the Reich Church, some members of the Church opposed the attempt to Nazify Christianity.

In 1942 Bonhoeffer was arrested by the Gestapo and sent to a concentration camp; he was killed in April 1945.

Niemoller was arrested and imprisoned in a concentration camp; he survived the war. Bishop von Galen welcomed the Nazis at first as he saw them as protecting the

Church from communism. In 1941 von Galen began giving sermons against Nazi policies on euthanasia,

sterilisation programmes and concentration camps.

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He was arrested in 1944 after the July Bomb Plot .

Military Opposition

Groups within the army began to oppose Hitler in the later years because They were against Hitler’s invasion of the USSR. German forces was suffering defeats on the eastern front. They opposed the brutality of the SS, especially the mass murder of the Jews. There were several attempts to overthrow Hitler but the most serious one was:

Von Stauffenberg & The July Bomb Plot of 1944Background

Date: 20th July 1944 Codename ‘Valkyrie’: named after mythical characters who would decide which

dying heroes would enter the afterlife. Feature in an opera by Wagner – Hitler’s favourite composer

For success needed the backing of: the army, politicians, the German people

The Plan Once Hitler was dead, army supporters were to occupy major towns and cities: Berlin

was the principle focus Nazi officials and members of the SS were to be arrested A provisional government to be set up to negotiate peace terms with the Allies Possible leaders: President – Ludwig Beck (old soldier), Chancellor – Carl Goedeler

(former mayor of Liepzig)Potential Problems Who could be trusted? How would the younger members of the army react – they had come up through the

ranks of the Hitler Youth? How would the German people react? Was this treason? Would it lead to civil war?

Who was involved? Core membership: high ranking army officers serving on the Russian Front

Eg General Henning von Tresckow Erich Hoepner Friedrich Olbricht Hans Oster Claus von Stauffenberg

Others: General Karl von Stuelpnagel, commander in France also agreed to co-operate Others who knew but did not take part: Field Marshalls Gunther von Kluge and Erwin

Rommel Numerous others promised support Kreisau Circle – refused to join in ‘we are not conspirators’ but agreed to help

organise the provisional government Numerous others promised support

What happened? Hitler called a conference in Rastenberg Von Stauffenberg arrived with the bomb and made an excuse to leave After the explosion von Stauffenberg is convinced Hitler is dead and flies to Berlin

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Government offices are sealed off and plans put in place to take over the government Lack of planning leads to chaos which then leads to panic when it is realised that

Hitler is still aliveThe Aftermath

The SS maintain order and Nazi authority is restored by midnight Tresckow, Kluge, and Beck commit suicide, Olbricht and von Stauffenberg are shot Conspirators in Paris, Vienna, and Prague still not aware that Hitler is still alive. Von

Stuelpnagel in Paris arrests 1,200 SS and Gestapo members. He is then sent back to Berlin, attempts suicide but is then hanged

200 executed brutally afterwards, including army officers, some of the Kreisau Circle, including Goedeler

Whole von Stauffenberg family arrested and his brother is executed Rommel is ‘allowed’ to commit suicide rather than be put on trial for treason

LIFE IN GERMANY DURING THE EARLY STAGES OF THE WAR

Precautionary measures were taken From the start Germany followed a policy of autarky (self sufficiency) and rationing

(controlling food supplies) in order to avoid food shortages. Children were evacuated from Berlin in September 1940 as the Germans expected to

be bombed by Britain but large air raids did not occur until 1942. All sections of society were encouraged to take part in the war effort, for example,

members of the Hitler Youth collected clothing and metal for recycling. Morale was high

Germany’s blitzkrieg tactics brought Germany quick and easy victories over Poland and western Europe.

Each victory brought new supplies of raw materials and luxury goods to Germany. Hitler became even more popular. The need for propaganda was limited.

Women were needed in the workplace After 1937 more and more women were needed in the workplace as an increasing

number of men were conscripted into the army. This went against Nazi ideology (Kiinder, Kuche,Kirche) but the needs of war came

before ideology. In 1939, 6.2 million married women were working outside the home.

LIFE IN GERMANY DURING THE LATER STAGES OF THE WAR

Propaganda intensified In the later years of the war propaganda changed because of the German defeat at

Stalingrad in January 1943 and the Allied bombing of German cities. Propaganda Minister, Josef Goebbels, called on the people to work harder and make

greater sacrifices for the German war effort. Propaganda campaigns told the people that Germany would be victorious eventually.

Declaration of Total War Goebbels declared ‘Total•War’ in a speech in February 1943.

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Total War called for all economic activity to be geared towards the war; all non-essential businesses were to be closed.

Albert Speer was appointed Minister for Armaments and Production in 1943 and took over the economy to increase war production.

Working hours increased.

Conscription of female workers From January 1943, women between the age of 17 and 45 had to sign up to work as

there were not enough men to work in the factories. By 1944 over 40% of women were in the workforce.

Food shortages Rationing had been introduced since the art of the war to avoid food shortages. Early victories over Poland and Western Europe meant that food shortages were not a

problem However by 1942, Germany had not secured a victory over Russia and food rations

had to be reduced. Parks and gardens in cities were dug up and used to grow vegetables. New recipes like ‘daisy salad’ were introduced. Cigarettes, soap, clothing and shoes were also rationed. By 1941 women were only allowed 1 ½ cigarettes a day.

Emergence of a black market Food shortages led to the illegal trading of goods.

Cities destroyed by Allied bombing From 1942, Britain and the USA began bombing raids on German cities. By the end of the war, more than 600 000 civilians had been killed as a result of

Allied bombing. Millions were made homeless. Berlin, Cologne, Hamburg and Dresden were all heavily bombed Cities were destroyed (raids on Dresden in February 1945 destroyed 70% of the city).

Formation of the People’s Home Guard (Volkssturm) By 1944 Germany’s armed forces were overstretched; they were fighting a war on

two fronts (against the USSR in the East and Britain & the USA in the West). In September 1944, Hitler gave orders for the creation of a People’s Home Guard to

defend German cities from an Allied invasion. It was made up of men and boys who were poorly trained and equipped. Members of the Hitler Youth (including those as young as 12) were defending Berlin

from a Russian attack in April 1945.

UNIT 4 EXAMINATION

Length of exam: One hour and 45 minutes

Type of questions: One evidence question 30 marks/One hour

One essay question (choice of 2) 30 marks/45 minutes

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Question 1 – the evidence question

This will include 3 primary sources based on one quite narrow area of the course eg economic policy

It is similar to the AS evidence question in that you must analyse and evaluate the content and attribution of the sources but there are differences:

The depth of analysis and evaluation must take place in far more depth than the exercise at AS level

The sources will be longer and more complex All the sources will focus on one key area and the question will ask how

useful they are to an historian studying that key area NOT the whole of the Third Reich

This means that historical context – own knowledge – must be used in more detail

It also means that the final paragraph/conclusion must focus on the key area not on the whole topic

The period of time covered will be from 1933 to 1945 – important to remember to cover aspects during the war

The focus of this question is Assessment Objective 2: analyse and evaluate primary sources within their historical context

There will be three primary sources which must be analysed and evaluated in detail This means asking critical questions on how useful the content and the attribution of

each source is and making judgements on them. Attribution of the source is the term used at this level for the origin and purpose

The wording of the question is likely to be: “With reference to the sources and your understanding of the historical context, assess the value of these three sources to an historian studying ……..after 1933”

It is really important that the sources are analysed and evaluated in their historical context – this means focus on the topic in the question, don’t just write about them in general

Information in the brackets – the attribution – is there for a reason so use it – date, nationality, authors job, type of source etc

No separate marks are given for ‘own knowledge’ being brought into your answer but you must show that you know about the topic – that is showing an understanding of the historical context

Follow the steps below:1. Make an opening statement about how the sources vary in how valuable they are

to an historian studying the topic2. Start with Source A. State briefly what it is and who produced it.3. Analyse and evaluate the content of Source A. Things to consider:

Briefly, what does it tell you about the topic? Does this make it useful? Is it detailed or does it only deal with a brief aspect of the topic? Does it agree with what you already know? Remember to analyse and evaluate – do not just describe what the source

says4. Next analyse and evaluate the attribution of Source A. Things to consider:

Remember useful and reliable are not the same thing – a source can be unreliable, (that is untrustworthy), but still be useful to an historian, for

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example a piece of propaganda won’t be truthful/factually reliable but still be very useful to an historian as it shows us how propaganda was used

How close to the event/issue was the person who produced the source? How does this proximity affect what they are saying? Does it make them

biased or trustworthy? Are they stating their opinion? If you feel you can’t trust the source is it because they are deliberately

misleading the reader or have they got the information from an untrustworthy source themselves?

Look closely at the date – how close to the event/issue is this? Is it relevant in that something related to the topic has just happened?

Think about the purpose of the source – who was the intended audience? What was the audience meant to think? How does this affect how useful/reliable the source is?

5. Next, have a connecting sentence before starting to analyse and evaluate Source B – show that this is one continuous answer, not three isolated sources. For example ‘Unlike Source A, Source B is written by …’

6. State briefly what Source B is as you did source A7. Analyse and evaluate the content of Source B as you did Source A. You could

compare to Source A – more/less useful etc8. Analyse and evaluate the attribution of Source B as you did Source A9. Next, have a connecting sentence before starting to analyse and evaluate Source C

– show that this is one continuous answer, not three isolated sources10. State briefly what Source C is as you did sources A and B11. Analyse and evaluate the content of Source C as you did Sources A and B. You

could compare to Source A/B – more/less useful etc12. Analyse and evaluate the attribution of Source C as you did Sources A and B13. Conclusion – finish off with a paragraph which shows you’ve looked at the

sources as a whole, not just as three individual sources. Look at the sources collectively. Look at the following and comment on them:

Content – the sources may be useful in telling you about certain aspects of the topic but they don’t mention others eg for Racial Policy they discuss Kristallnacht, the views of the Nazis on race and the Holocaust, but don’t mention the boycott of Jewish businesses – therefore, not as useful as they could be

Attribution – consider the following: Nationalities of the authors – a good variety? Too many non-

German ones? Types of source – a good variety of type eg written/non-written?

There will always be three primary sources so no secondary source – does this make them less useful?

Dates – do they cover the whole period or are they grouped together eg all pre-war? Does this make them less useful?

Final statement – finish off by referring back to the question on how valuable the sources are in relation to their historical context

Question 2/3 – the essay question

You will have two questions to choose from – either question 2 OR question 3

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Questions will focus on a statement which you will have to discuss giving at least a two sided answer

They will be set on any aspect of the course from 1933 to 1945 Example questions include:

“The Nazi regime faced no serious threat from within Germany between 1933 and 1945”. Discuss

To what extend did the Nazis solve Germany’s economic problems between 1933 and 1945?

“Germany lost the Second World War largely as a result of Hitler’s decision to invade the Soviet Union”. Discuss

Structure of the essay: Opening paragraph: state that the issue in the question was an important and

give a brief outline of the issue/topic. Show clearly that you understand it is an issue that can be debated. Use the same wording in the question.

Give your arguments agreeing with the statement. Give as many reasons for this as you can.

Start your arguments by relating directly to the question. Finish your arguments by relating directly to the question Do the same when you are arguing against the question or giving alternative

reasons for something happening Essential – throughout your essay remember you are DISCUSSING the topic

not just describing the issue/events – you must question and make judgements – show there is uncertainty and the statement can be argued over

Conclusion: focus entirely on the question as all points you make here must relate to it. Summarise your key judgement, make sure you don’t contradict yourself – if you’ve made a judgement earlier on in the essay don’t now disagree with that

Keep checking the wording of the question throughout your answer. All points you make must address the question.

Do’s and don’ts of essay writing

Do – learn the FACTS. Prepare revision sheetsDo – plan your essay before you start writingDo – answer the set questionDo – write a well written, analytical (questioning), evaluative (weighing up both sides of the argument), and judgemental (coming to a conclusion) essayDo – show that in 50 minutes you can select information from what you have learnt to focus entirely on the question. Substantial, detailed, and accurate knowledge well used will get you high marks

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Do – remember that the examiners will reward the quality of your answer, not the brilliance of your memory!Do – develop an argument with carefully reasoned opinions, supported by facts and brought to a logical conclusion.

Don’t – learn long descriptive passages by heart – this just tests your memory – it is not good history!Don’t – write everything you can remember about the topic and just reproduce your notesDon’t – include irrelevant information or narrative/descriptive answers

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