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    1/36

    8 S a m p l i n g P r o c e s s

    W e h a v e a l r e a d y t a l k e d a b o u t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a d i s c r e t e s o u r c e o v e r a d i s c r e t e c h a n -

    n e l i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s . H o w e v e r , i f t h e m e s s a g e s i g n a l h a p p e n s t o b e a n a l o g i n

    n a t u r e , a s i n s p e e c h s i g n a l o r v i d e o s i g n a l , t h e n i t h a s t o b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o d i g i t a l f o r m

    b e f o r e i t c a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d b y d i g i t a l m e a n s . T h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s i s t h e r s t s t e p

    i n a n a l o g - t o - d i g i t a l c o n v e r s i o n . T w o o t h e r p r o c e s s e s , q u a n t i z i n g a n d e n c o d i n g , a r e a l s o

    i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o n v e r s i o n . T h e s e o p e r a t i o n s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n s .

    S a m p l i n g a l s o p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e t i m e d i v i s i o n m u l t i p l e x i n g o f s i g n a l s w h i c h i s a

    m e t h o d f o r s i m u l t a n e o u s t r a n s m i s s i o n o f s e v e r a l s i g n a l s t h r o u g h t h e s a m e c o m m u n i c a t i o n

    c h a n n e l w i t h o u t m u t u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e . T h i s i s e x p l a i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g :

    8 . 1 T i m e d i v i s i o n m u l t i p l e x i n g v e r s u s f r e q u e n c y d i v i s i o n m u l t i -

    p l e x i n g

    A s w e s a w b e f o r e , a m o d u l a t e d s i g n a l u s i n g a s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l

    f o r m :

    ( t ) = a ( t ) c o s ( t ) = a ( t ) c o s !

    c

    t + ( t ) ] ( 4 6 2 )

    w h e r e !

    c

    i s c a l l e d t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y .

    I n a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n , t h e p h a s e ( t ) i n ( 4 6 2 ) i s c o n s t a n t a n d t h e a m p l i t u d e a ( t ) i s

    c h a n g e d i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i n p u t s i g n a l . I n a n g l e m o d u l a t i o n , t h e a m p l i t u d e a ( t ) i n

    ( 4 6 2 ) i s c o n s t a n t a n d t h e p h a s e ( t ) i s c h a n g e d i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i n p u t s i g n a l .

    M o d u l a t i o n r e s u l t s i n a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e f r e q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e i n p u t s i g n a l t o

    h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s a r o u n d !

    c

    . T h e f r e q u e n c y t r a n s l a t i n g p r o p e r t y o f m o d u l a t i o n c a n b e

    u s e d t o t r a n s m i t a l a r g e n u m b e r o f s i g n a l s a t t h e s a m e t i m e w i t h o u t m u t u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e .

    T h i s i s c a l l e d t h e f r e q u e n c y d i v i s i o n m u l t i p l e x i n g a n d i s b a s e d o n u s i n g d i e r e n t c a r r i e r

    f r e q u e n c i e s f o r d i e r e n t s i g n a l s ( r e f e r t o F i g . ( 5 6 ) ) . I f t h e b a n d w i d t h o f t h e s i g n a l s i s !

    m

    ,

    t h e n t w o s u b s e q u e n t m o d u l a t i n g f r e q u e n c y s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 2 !

    m

    a p a r t . I n t h e r e c e i v e r

    s i d e , d e p e n d i n g o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n , o n e c a n d e m o d u l a t e a l l t h e s i g n a l s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o r

    u s e a t u n a b l e b a n d p a s s l t e r t o s e p a r a t e o n e o f t h e s i g n a l s .

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    F

    1

    ( ! )

    !

    0

    !

    0; !

    m

    !

    0; !

    m

    +

    +

    +

    T r a n s m i t t e r

    A n t e n n a

    B P F

    @ !

    1

    B P F

    B P F

    f

    1

    ( t )

    f

    2

    ( t )

    B P F

    f

    3

    ( t )

    T u n n a b l e

    F

    2

    ( ! ) F

    3

    ( ! )

    ; !

    m

    !

    m

    !

    m

    !

    m

    @ !

    2

    f

    3

    ( t )

    f

    1

    ( t )

    o r

    f

    2

    ( t )

    o r

    A n t e n n a

    D e m o d u l a t o r

    f

    2

    ( t )

    f

    1

    ( t )

    0

    ( c )

    !

    2

    f

    3

    ( t )

    !

    1

    !

    3

    A n t e n n a D e m o d u l a t o r s

    2 !

    m

    2 !

    m

    2 !

    m

    c o s ( !

    1

    t )

    c o s ( !

    2

    t )

    c o s ( !

    3

    t )

    @ !

    3

    F i g u r e 5 6 : F r e q u e n c y d i v i s i o n m u l t i p l e x i n g ( F D M ) .

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    T i m e d i v i s i o n m u l t i p l e x i n g i s a n a l t e r n a t i v e m e t h o d f o r t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s t r a n s m i s s i o n o f

    d i e r e n t s i g n a l s . I t i s b a s e d o n d i v i d i n g t h e t i m e a x i s i n t o n o n o v e r l a p p i n g s e g m e n t s a n d

    a s s i g n i n g e a c h s e g m e n t t o a d i e r e n t i n p u t s i g n a l . T h i s i s e x p l a i n e d i n F i g . ( 5 7 ) . T h e

    r s t s t e p i n T D M p r o c e s s i s s a m p l i n g .

    L P F

    L P F

    L P F

    C o m m u t a t o r

    1

    2

    N

    1

    2

    N

    M e s s a g e

    i n p u t s

    m o d u l a t o r

    C o m m u n i c a t i o n

    P r e - a l i a s

    l t e r s

    T i m i n g p u l s e s

    a m p l i t u d e

    P u l s e

    d e m o d u l a t o r

    a m p l i t u d e

    P u l s e

    c h a n n e l

    M e s s a g e

    o u t p u t s

    L P F

    L P F

    L P F

    T i m i n g p u l s e s

    S y n c h r o n i z a t i o n o f t h e M o d u l a t o r a n d D e m o d u l a t o r

    D e m o d u l a t o

    F i g u r e 5 7 : T i m e d i v i s i o n m u l t i p l e x i n g ( T D M )

    8 . 2 S a m p l i n g t h e o r y

    I n t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s , a c o n t i n u o u s - t i m e s i g n a l i s c o n v e r t e d i n t o a d i s c r e t e - t i m e s i g n a l

    b y m e a s u r i n g t h e s i g n a l a t p e r i o d i c i n s t a n t s o f t i m e . F o r t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s t o b e o f

    p r a c t i c a l u t i l i t y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t w e c h o o s e t h e s a m p l i n g r a t e p r o p e r l y , s o t h a t t h e

    d i s c r e t e t i m e s i g n a l r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e p r o c e s s u n i q u e l y d e n e s t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t i n u o u s -

    t i m e s i g n a l i n a n e c i e n t w a y ( u s i n g a s m a l l n u m b e r o f s a m p l e s ) .

    C o n s i d e r a n a n a l o g s i g n a l g ( t ) t h a t i s c o n t i n u o u s i n b o t h t i m e a n d a m p l i t u d e . W e a s s u m e

    t h a t g ( t ) h a s i n n i t e d u r a t i o n b u t n i t e e n e r g y . A s e g m e n t o f t h e s i g n a l g ( t ) i s d e p i c t e d

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    i n F i g . ( 5 8 ) . L e t t h e s a m p l e v a l u e s o f t h e s i g n a l g ( t ) a t t i m e s t = 0 T

    s

    2 T

    s

    : : : b e

    d e n o t e d b y t h e s e r i e s f g ( n T

    s

    ) n = 0 1 2 : : : g . W e r e f e r t o T

    s

    a s t h e s a m p l i n g p e r i o d

    a n d t o f

    s

    = 1 = T

    s

    a s t h e s a m p l i n g r a t e

    t

    g ( t )

    0

    g

    ( t )

    0

    T

    s

    ( a )

    ( b )

    F i g u r e 5 8 : I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e i d e a l s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s . ( a ) A n a l o g s i g n a l . ( b ) D i s c r e t e - t i m e

    s i g n a l .

    W e d e n e t h e d i s c r e t e - t i m e s i g n a l , g

    ( t ) , t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s a s

    g

    ( t ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g ( n T

    s

    ) ( t ; n T

    s

    ) ( 4 6 3 )

    w h e r e ( t ; n T

    s

    ) i s a D i r a c d e l t a f u n c t i o n l o c a t e d a t t i m e t = n T

    s

    W e h a v e

    1 2 0

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    g ( t ) ( t ; n T

    s

    ) = g ( n T

    s

    ) ( t ; n T

    s

    ) ( 4 6 4 )

    g

    ( t ) = g ( t )

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    ( t ; n T

    s

    )

    = g ( t )

    T

    s

    ( t ) ( 4 6 5 )

    w h e r e

    T

    s

    ( t ) =

    P

    1

    n = ; 1

    ( t ; n T

    s

    ) i s t h e D i r a c C o m b o r i d e a l s a m p l i n g f u n c t i o n

    F r o m t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m , w e k n o w t h a t t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f t h e t w o

    t i m e f u n c t i o n s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e c o n v o l u t i o n o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s . l e t

    G ( f ) a n d G

    ( f ) d e n o t e t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m s o f g ( t ) a n d g

    ( t ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

    I t i s k n o w n t h a t f o r t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m o f

    T

    s

    ( t ) , w e h a v e

    F

    T

    s

    ( t ) = f

    s

    1

    X

    m = ; 1

    ( f ; m f

    s

    ) ( 4 6 6 )

    w h e r e f

    s

    = 1 = T

    s

    T r a n s f o r m i n g e q u a t i o n ( 4 6 5 ) i n t o t h e f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n , w e o b t a i n

    G

    ( f ) = G ( f )

    "

    f

    s

    1

    X

    m = ; 1

    ( f ; m f

    s

    )

    #

    ( 4 6 7 )

    w h e r e d e n o t e s c o n v o l u t i o n . I n t e r c h a n g i n g t h e o r d e r o f s u m m a t i o n a n d c o n v o l u t i o n

    y i e l d s

    G

    ( f ) = f

    s

    1

    X

    m = ; 1

    G ( f ) ( f ; m f

    s

    ) ( 4 6 8 )

    G

    ( f ) = f

    s

    1

    X

    m = ; 1

    G ( f ; m f

    s

    ) ( 4 6 9 )

    N o t e t h a t G

    ( f ) r e p r e s e n t s a p e r i o d i c e x t e n s i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l s p e c t r u m G ( f ) . T h i s

    m e a n s t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f u n i f o r m l y s a m p l i n g a s i g n a l i n t h e t i m e d o m a i n r e s u l t s i n a

    p e r i o d i c s p e c t r u m i n t h e f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n w i t h a p e r i o d e q u a l t o t h e s a m p l i n g r a t e .

    T a k i n g t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m o f b o t h s i d e s o f e q u a t i o n ( 4 6 3 ) a n d n o t i n g t h a t t h e F o u r i e r

    t r a n s f o r m o f t h e d e l t a f u n c t i o n ( t ; n T

    s

    ) i s e q u a l t o e x p ( ; j 2 n f T

    s

    ) r e s u l t s i n

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    G

    ( f ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g ( n T

    s

    ) e x p ( ; j 2 n f T

    s

    ) ( 4 7 0 )

    T h i s r e l a t i o n m a y b e v i e w e d a s a c o m p l e x F o u r i e r s e r i e s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d i c

    f r e q u e n c y f u n c t i o n G

    ( f ) , w i t h t h e s e q u e n c e o f s a m p l e s f g ( n T

    s

    ) g , d e n i n g t h e c o e c i e n t s

    o f t h e e x p a n s i o n .

    S u p p o s e t h a t t h e s i g n a l i s s t r i c t l y b a n d - l i m i t e d , w i t h n o f r e q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t s h i g h e r

    t h a n W h e r t z , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 5 9 .

    S u p p o s e a l s o t h a t w e c h o o s e t h e s a m p l i n g p e r i o d T

    s

    = 1 = 2 W . T h e n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

    s p e c t r u m G

    ( f ) o f t h e s a m p l e d s i g n a l g

    ( t ) i s a s s h o w n i n F i g . 5 9 b . P u t t i n g T

    s

    = 1 = 2 W

    i n e q u a t i o n ( 4 7 0 ) y i e l d s

    G

    ( f ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g

    n

    2 W

    e x p

    ;

    j n f

    W

    !

    ( 4 7 1 )

    P u t t i n g f

    s

    = 2 W i n E q . 4 6 9 , w e h a v e

    G

    ( f ) = 2 W G ( f ) ; W f W ( 4 7 2 )

    o r ,

    G ( f ) =

    1

    2 W

    G

    ( f ) ; W f W ( 4 7 3 )

    I t f o l l o w s f r o m e q u a t i o n ( 4 7 1 ) t h a t w e m a y a l s o w r i t e

    G ( f ) =

    1

    2 W

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g

    n

    2 W

    e x p

    ;

    j n f

    W

    !

    ; W f W ( 4 7 4 )

    T h e r e f o r e i f t h e s a m p l e v a l u e s g ( n = 2 W ) o f t h e s i g n a l g ( t ) a r e s p e c i e d f o r a l l t i m e , t h e n

    t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m G ( f ) o f t h e s i g n a l i s u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y u s i n g t h e F o u r i e r s e r i e s

    o f e q u a t i o n ( 4 7 4 ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e s e q u e n c e f g ( n = 2 W ) g c o n t a i n s a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n

    o f g ( t )

    C o n s i d e r n e x t t h e p r o b l e m o f r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e s i g n a l g ( t ) f r o m t h e s e q u e n c e o f s a m p l e

    v a l u e s f g ( n = 2 W ) g . W e g e t

    g ( t ) =

    Z

    1

    ; 1

    G ( f ) e x p ( j 2 f t ) d f

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    (b)

    (a)

    (c)

    G ( f )

    ; 2 f

    s

    f

    s

    2 f

    s

    0

    0

    W

    ; f

    s

    W

    ; W

    ; W

    ; W

    G ( 0 )

    2 W G ( f )

    G

    ( f )

    H ( f )

    f

    f

    f

    W

    F i g u r e 5 9 : ( a ) S p e c t r u m o f s i g n a l g ( t ) . ( b ) S p e c t r u m o f s a m p l e d s i g n a l g

    ( t ) f o r a s a m p l i n g

    r a t e f

    s

    = 2 W . ( c ) I d e a l a m p l i t u d e r e s p o n s e o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l t e r .

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    =

    Z

    W

    ; W

    1

    2 W

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g

    n

    2 W

    e x p

    ;

    j n f

    W

    !

    e x p ( j 2 f t ) d f

    I n t e r c h a n g i n g t h e o r d e r o f t h e s u m m a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n , w e o b t a i n ,

    g ( t ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g

    n

    2 W

    1

    2 W

    Z

    W

    ; W

    e x p

    j 2 f

    t ;

    n

    2 W

    d f ( 4 7 5 )

    T h e i n t e g r a l t e r m i n E q . ( 4 7 5 ) m a y b e r e a d i l y e v a l u a t e d , y i e l d i n g

    g ( t ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g

    n

    2 W

    s i n ( 2 W t ; n )

    ( 2 W t ; n )

    ( 4 7 6 )

    U s i n g t h e n o t a t i o n ,

    s i n c x =

    s i n ( x )

    x

    ( 4 7 7 )

    w e o b t a i n ,

    g ( t ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g

    n

    2 W

    s i n c ( 2 W t ; n ) ( 4 7 8 )

    T h e s i n c f u n c t i o n e x h i b i t s a n i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y k n o w n a s t h e i n t e r p o l a t o r y p r o p e r t y ,

    w h i c h i s d e s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s :

    s i n c x =

    8

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    :

    1 x = 0

    0 x = 1 2 : : :

    ( 4 7 9 )

    C o n s i d e r i n g t h i s p r o p e r t y , i t i s s e e n t h a t e q u a t i o n ( 4 7 8 ) p r o v i d e s a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n f o r m u l a

    f o r r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e o r i g i n a l s i g n a l g ( t ) f r o m t h e s e q u e n c e o f s a m p l e v a l u e s f g ( n = 2 W ) g ,

    w i t h t h e s i n c f u n c t i o n s i n c ( 2 W t ) p l a y i n g t h e r o l e o f a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n f u n c t i o n .

    A p r a c t i c a l m e t h o d f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t i m e s i g n a l g ( t ) f r o m i t s s a m p l e s i s a s

    f o l l o w s : B y i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e s p e c t r u m o f F i g . ( 5 9 b ) , w e s e e t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l s i g n a l

    g ( t ) m a y b e r e c o v e r e d e x a c t l y f r o m t h e s e q u e n c e o f s a m p l e s f g ( n = 2 W ) g b y p a s s i n g i t

    t h r o u g h a n i d e a l l o w - p a s s l t e r o f b a n d w i d t h W . T h e i d e a l a m p l i t u d e r e s p o n s e o f t h e

    r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l t e r i s s h o w n i n F i g . ( 5 9 c ) .

    8 . 3 S i g n a l s p a c e i n t e r p o l a t i o n

    T h e f u n c t i o n s i n c ( 2 W t ; n ) , w h e r e n i s a n i n t e g e r , i s o n e o f a f a m i l y o f s h i f t e d s i n c

    f u n c t i o n s t h a t a r e m u t u a l l y o r t h o g o n a l . T o p r o v e t h i s , w e u s e t h e f o r m u l a

    1 2 4

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    Z

    1

    ; 1

    g

    1

    ( t ) g

    2

    ( t ) d t =

    Z

    1

    ; 1

    G

    1

    ( f ) G

    2

    ( f ) d f ( 4 8 0 )

    P u t

    g

    1

    ( t ) = s i n c ( 2 W t ; n ) = s i n c

    2 W ( t ;

    n

    2 W

    )

    ( 4 8 1 )

    a n d

    g

    2

    ( t ) = s i n c ( 2 W t ; m ) = s i n c

    2 W ( t ;

    m

    2 W

    )

    ( 4 8 2 )

    w e h a v e t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m p a i r :

    s i n c ( 2 W t )

    *

    )

    1

    2 W

    r e c t

    f

    2 W

    !

    ( 4 8 3 )

    r e c t ( x ) =

    8

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    :

    1 ;

    1

    2

    < x

    1

    2

    ( 4 8 4 )

    R e c a l l t h a t i f x ( t )

    *

    )

    X ( f ) t h e n , x ( t ; t

    0

    )

    *

    )

    e

    ; j 2 f t

    0

    X ( f ) . U s i n g t h i s f a c t w e o b t a i n ,

    G

    1

    ( f ) =

    1

    2 W

    r e c t

    f

    2 W

    !

    e x p

    ;

    j n f

    W

    !

    ( 4 8 5 )

    a n d

    G

    2

    ( f ) =

    1

    2 W

    r e c t

    f

    2 W

    !

    e x p

    ;

    j m f

    W

    !

    ( 4 8 6 )

    H e n c e ,

    Z

    1

    ; 1

    s i n c ( 2 W t ; n ) s i n c ( 2 W t ; m ) d t =

    1

    2 W

    2

    Z

    W

    ; W

    e x p

    "

    ;

    j f

    W

    ( n ; m )

    #

    d f

    =

    s i n ( n ; m )

    2 W ( n ; m )

    =

    1

    2 W

    s i n c ( n ; m )

    T h i s r e s u l t e q u a l s 1 / 2 W w h e n n = m , a n d z e r o w h e n n 6= m . W e t h e r e f o r e h a v e

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    Z

    1

    ; 1

    s i n c ( 2 W t ; n ) s i n c ( 2 W t ; m ) d t =

    8

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    :

    1

    2 W

    n = m

    0 n 6= m

    ( 4 8 7 )

    T h i s p r o v e s t h e o r t h o g o n a l i t y o f t h e s i n c f u n c t i o n s .

    E q u a t i o n ( 4 7 8 ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e s i g n a l g ( t ) a s a n i n n i t e s u m o f o r t h o g o n a l

    f u n c t i o n s w i t h t h e c o e c i e n t s o f t h e e x p a n s i o n , g ( n = 2 W ) , d e n e d b y

    g

    n

    2 W

    = 2 W

    Z

    1

    ; 1

    g ( t ) s i n c ( 2 W t ; n ) d t ( 4 8 8 )

    T h e m i n i m u m s a m p l i n g r a t e o f 2 W s a m p l e s p e r s e c o n d , f o r a s i g n a l b a n d - w i d t h o f W

    h e r t z , i s c a l l e d t h e N y q u i s t r a t e . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , t h e r e c i p r o c a l 1 = 2 W i s c a l l e d t h e

    N y q u i s t i n t e r v a l

    8 . 4 Q u a d r a t u r e s a m p l i n g o f b a n d - p a s s s i g n a l s

    C o n s i d e r a b a n d - p a s s s i g n a l g ( t ) ( l i m i t e d t o t h e f r e q u e n c y b a n d f

    c

    ; W f

    c

    + W ] a n d i t s

    n e g a t i v e ) w h o s e s p e c t r u m i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . ( 6 0 a ) .

    L e t g

    I

    ( t ) d e n o t e t h e i n - p h a s e c o m p o n e n t o f t h e b a n d - p a s s s i g n a l g ( t ) a n d g

    Q

    ( t ) d e n o t e i t s

    q u a d r a t u r e c o m p o n e n t . W e m a y t h e n e x p r e s s g ( t ) i n t e r m s o f g

    I

    ( t ) a n d g

    Q

    ( t ) a s f o l l o w s :

    g ( t ) = g

    I

    ( t ) c o s ( 2 f

    c

    t ) ; g

    Q

    ( t ) s i n ( 2 f

    c

    t ) ( 4 8 9 )

    W e k n o w t h a t t h e t w o s i g n a l s g

    I

    ( t ) , g

    Q

    ( t ) a r e l o w p a s s a n d l i m i t e d t o a f r e q u e n c y b a n d o f

    ; W W ] . T h i s m e a n s t h a t w e c a n r e p r e s e n t e a c h o f t h e s e t w o s i g n a l s u s i n g 2 W s a m p l e s

    p e r s e c o n d . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a t o t a l o f 4 W s a m p l e s p e r s e c o n d f o r t h e b a n d p a s s s i g n a l

    g ( t ) w h i c h h a s a b a n d w i d t h o f 2 W . T o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e o r i g i n a l b a n d - p a s s s i g n a l f r o m

    i t s q u a d r a t u r e - s a m p l e d v e r s i o n , w e r s t r e c o n s t r u c t g

    I

    ( t ) , g

    Q

    ( t ) a n d t h e n c o m b i n e t h e m

    u s i n g ( 4 8 9 ) .

    1 2 6

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    0

    0

    ; f

    c

    G

    I

    ( f ) G

    Q

    ( f )

    f

    c

    ; W ; W

    2 W

    2 W

    ; W

    W W

    W

    G ( f )

    f

    F i g u r e 6 0 : ( a ) S p e c t r u m o f b a n d - p a s s s i g n a l g ( t ) . ( b ) S p e c t r u m o f l o w - p a s s i n - p h a s e

    c o m p o n e n t g

    I

    ( t ) a n d q u a d r a t u r e c o m p o n e n t g

    Q

    ( t )

    1 2 7

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    8 . 5 S a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e

    W e k n o w t h a t a s i g n a l c a n n o t b e n i t e i n b o t h t i m e a n d f r e q u e n c y . I n p r a c t i c e w e

    h a v e t o w o r k w i t h a n i t e s e g m e n t o f t h e s i g n a l , i n w h i c h c a s e t h e s p e c t r u m c a n n o t

    b e s t r i c t l y b a n d - l i m i t e d . c o n s e q u e n t l y w h e n a s i g n a l o f n i t e d u r a t i o n i s s a m p l e d , a n

    e r r o r i n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o c c u r s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s .

    T h e s p e c t r u m G

    ( f ) o f t h e d i s c r e t e - t i m e s i g n a l g

    ( t ) , r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e u s e o f t h e i d e a l i z e d

    s a m p l i n g , i s t h e s u m o f G ( f ) a n d a n i n n i t e n u m b e r o f f r e q u e n c y - s h i f t e d r e p l i c a o f i t . I f

    G ( f ) i s n o t b a n d l i m i t e d , w e n d t h a t p o i n t s o f t h e f r e q u e n c y - s h i f t e d r e p l i c a a r e f o l d e d o v e r

    i n s i d e t h e d e s i r e d s p e c t r u m . T h i s i s c a l l e d a l i a s i n g o r f o l d o v e r

    P r i o r t o s a m p l i n g , a l o w - p a s s p r e - a l i a s l t e r i s u s e d t o a t t e n u a t e t h o s e h i g h f r e q u e n c y

    c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s i g n a l . T h e l t e r e d s i g n a l i s s a m p l e d a t a r a t e s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e

    N y q u i s t r a t e 2 W , w h e r e W i s t h e c u t o f r e q u e n c y o f t h e p r e - a l i a s l t e r .

    T h e u s e o f a s a m p l i n g r a t e f

    s

    h i g h e r t h a n t h e N y q u i s t r a t e 2 W h a s t h e d e s i r a b l e e e c t

    o f m a k i n g i t s o m e w h a t e a s i e r t o d e s i g n t h e l o w - p a s s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l t e r s o a s t o r e c o v e r

    t h e o r i g i n a l a n a l o g s i g n a l f r o m i t s s a m p l e d v e r s i o n . W i t h s u c h a s a m p l i n g r a t e , w e n d

    t h a t t h e r e a r e g a p s , e a c h o f w i d t h f

    s

    ; 2 W b e t w e e n t h e f r e q u e n t s h i f t e d r e p l i c a o f G ( f )

    A c c o r d i n g l y , w e m a y d e s i g n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l t e r w i t h a h i g h e r d e g r e e o f e x i b i l i t y .

    8 . 6 P r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s o f s a m p l i n g a n d s i g n a l r e c o v e r y

    8 . 6 . 1 O r d i n a r y s a m p l e s o f n i t e d u r a t i o n

    C o n s i d e r t h e w a v e f o r m s g ( t ) , c ( t ) , a n d s ( t ) i l l u s t r a t e d i n p a r t s ( a ) , ( b ) a n d ( c ) o f F i g .

    ( 6 1 ) r e s p e c t i v e l y .

    W e h a v e

    s ( t ) = c ( t ) g ( t ) ( 4 9 2 )

    H o w e v e r , c ( t ) m a y b e e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f o r m o f a c o m p l e x F o u r i e r s e r i e s a s

    c ( t ) = f

    s

    T A

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    s i n c ( n f

    s

    T ) e x p ( j 2 n f

    s

    t ) ( 4 9 3 )

    1 2 8

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    t

    t

    0

    0

    0

    g ( t )

    ( a )

    9 b )

    ( c )

    s ( t )

    c ( t )

    A

    T

    T

    s

    F i g u r e 6 1 : ( a ) A n a l o g s i g n a l . ( b ) S a m p l i n g f u n c t i o n . ( c ) S a m p l e d s i g n a l .

    1 2 9

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    w h e r e T

    s

    f

    s

    = 1 d e n e s t h e s a m p l i n g r a t e f

    s

    s ( t ) = f

    s

    T A

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    s i n c ( n f

    s

    T ) e x p ( j 2 n f

    s

    t ) g ( t ) ( 4 9 4 )

    T a k i n g t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m , w e g e t

    S ( f ) = f

    s

    T A

    1

    X

    m = ; 1

    s i n c ( m f

    s

    T ) G ( f ; m f

    s

    ) ( 4 9 5 )

    W h e r e S ( f ) = F s ( t ) ] a n d G ( f ) = F g ( t )

    T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s p e c t r a G ( f ) a n d S ( f ) i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . ( 6 2 ) .

    2 W

    f

    S ( f )

    s i n c ( n f

    s

    T )

    0

    2 f

    s

    3 f

    s

    f

    s

    ; 3 f

    s

    ; 2 f

    s

    ; f

    s

    F i g u r e 6 2 : I l l u s t r a t i n g t h e e e c t o f u s i n g o r d i n a r y p u l s e s o f n i t e d u r a t i o n o n t h e s p e c t r u m

    o f a s a m p l e d s i g n a l

    S i g n a l g ( t ) c a n b e r e c o v e r e d f r o m s ( t ) w i t h n o d i s t o r t i o n b y p a s s i n g s ( t ) t h r o u g h a n i d e a l

    l o w - p a s s l t e r .

    8 . 6 . 2 F l a t - t o p s a m p l e s

    C o n s i d e r t h e s i t u a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . ( 6 3 ) , w e m a y w r i t e

    s ( t ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g ( n T

    s

    ) h ( t ; n T

    s

    ) ( 4 9 6 )

    1 3 0

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    0

    T

    T

    s

    s ( t )

    g ( t )

    t

    F i g u r e 6 3 : F l a t - t o p S a m p l e s

    h ( t ) =

    8

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    :

    1 0 < t < T

    0 t T

    = r e c t

    t

    T

    ;

    1

    2

    ( 4 9 7 )

    g

    ( t ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g ( n T

    s

    ) ( t ; n T

    s

    ) ( 4 9 8 )

    g

    ( t ) h ( t ) =

    Z

    1

    ; 1

    g

    ( ) h ( t ; ) d

    =

    Z

    1

    ; 1

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g ( n T

    s

    ) ( ; n T

    s

    ) h ( t ; ) d

    =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g ( n T

    s

    )

    Z

    1

    ; 1

    ( ; n T

    s

    ) h ( t ; ) d ( 4 9 9 )

    g

    ( t ) h ( t ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g ( n T

    s

    ) h ( t ; n T

    s

    ) ( 5 0 0 )

    1 3 1

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    T h e r e f o r e ,

    s ( t ) = g

    ( t ) h ( t ) ( 5 0 1 )

    T a k i n g t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m , w e g e t

    S ( f ) = G

    ( f ) H ( f ) ( 5 0 2 )

    S u b s t i t u t i n g o f E q . ( 4 6 9 ) i n t o E q . ( 5 0 2 ) y i e l d s

    S ( f ) = f

    s

    1

    X

    m = ; 1

    G ( f ; m f

    s

    ) H ( f ) ( 5 0 3 )

    S u p p o s e t h a t g ( t ) i s s t r i c t l y b a n d - l i m i t e d a n d t h a t t h e s a m p l i n g r a t e f

    s

    i s g r e a t e r t h a n

    t h e N y q u i s t r a t e . T h e n p a s s i n g s ( t ) t h r o u g h a l o w - p a s s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l t e r , w e n d t h a t

    t h e s p e c t r u m o f t h e r e s u l t i n g l t e r o u t p u t i s e q u a l t o G ( f ) H ( f )

    F r o m E q . ( 4 9 7 ) w e n d t h a t

    H ( f ) = T s i n c ( f T ) e x p ( ; j f T ) ( 5 0 4 )

    w h i c h i s p l o t t e d i n F i g ( 6 4 b ) . H e n c e w e s e e t h a t b y u s i n g t h e a t - t o p s a m p l e s , w e h a v e

    i n t r o d u c e d a m p l i t u d e d i s t o r t i o n a s w e l l a s t h e d e l a y o f T = 2

    T h e d i s t o r t i o n c a u s e d b y l e n g t h e n i n g t h e s a m p l e s i s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e a p e r t u r e e e c t

    T h i s d i s t o r t i o n m a y b e c o r r e c t e d b y c o n n e c t i n g a n e q u a l i z e r i n c a s c a d e w i t h t h e l o w - p a s s

    r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l t e r . I d e a l l y , t h e a m p l i t u d e r e s p o n s e o f t h e e q u a l i z e r i s g i v e n b y

    1

    H ( f )

    =

    1

    T s i n c ( f T )

    =

    1

    T

    f T

    s i n ( f T )

    ( 5 0 5 )

    8 . 7 S a m p l e - a n d - h o l d C i r c u i t f o r S i g n a l R e c o v e r y

    T h e o u t p u t o f t h e s a m p l e - a n d - h o l d c i r c u i t i s g i v e n b y

    u ( t ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g ( n T

    s

    ) h ( t ; n T

    s

    ) ( 5 0 6 )

    1 3 2

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    0

    0 T

    1 0

    t

    h ( t )

    f

    f

    a r g H ( f ) ]

    0

    1

    T

    ;

    ( a )

    ( b )

    1

    T

    ;

    3

    T

    ;

    1

    T

    2

    T

    3

    T

    T

    ;

    2

    T

    H ( f )

    F i g u r e 6 4 : ( a ) R e c t a n g u l a r p u l s e h ( t ) . ( b ) S p e c t r u m H ( f ) .

    1 3 3

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    I n p u t

    g ( t )

    A m p l i e r

    O u t p u t

    u ( t )

    O u t p u t u ( t )

    I n p u t g ( t )

    ( a )

    ( b )

    t

    F i g u r e 6 5 : ( a ) S a m p l e - a n d - h o l d c i r c u i t . ( b ) I d e a l i z e d o u t p u t w a v e f o r m o f t h e c i r c u i t .

    w h e r e

    h ( t ) =

    8

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    :

    1 0 < t < T

    s

    0 t T

    s

    ( 5 0 7 )

    U ( f ) = f

    s

    1

    X

    m = ; 1

    H ( f ) G ( f ; m f

    s

    ) ( 5 0 8 )

    w h e r e

    H ( f ) = T

    s

    s i n c ( f T

    s

    ) e x p ( ; j f T

    s

    ) ( 5 0 9 )

    T h e s e o p e r a t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e b l o c k d i a g r a m s h o w n i n F i g . ( 6 6 ) .

    8 . 8 P u l s e - A m p l i t u d e M o d u l a t i o n

    I n p u l s e a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n ( P A M ) , t h e a m p l i t u d e o f a c a r r i e r c o n s i s t i n g o f a p e r i o d i c

    t r a i n o f r e c t a n g u l a r p u l s e s i s v a r i e d i n p r o p o r t i o n t o s a m p l e v a l u e s o f a m e s s a g e s i g n a l .

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    S a m p l e d

    w a v e f o r m

    c i r c u i t

    L o w - p a s s

    l t e r

    E q u a l i z e r

    A n a l o g

    w a v e f o r m

    s a m p l e a n d h o l d

    F i g u r e 6 6 : C o m p o n e n t s o f a s c h e m e f o r s i g n a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n

    W e n d t h a t t h e P A M s o d e n e d i s e x a c t l y t h e s a m e a s a t - t o p s a m p l i n g .

    A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e n i t i o n o f g i v e n b e f o r e i n t e r m s o f r e c t a n g u l a r p u l s e s , w e w o u l d r e q u i r e

    a v e r y w i d e b a n d o f f r e q u e n c i e s t o t r a n s m i t P A M . H o w e v e r t h i s n e e d n o t b e s o i f w e w e r e

    t o f o r m u l a t e t h e d e n i t i o n o f P A M i n t e r m s o f a s t a n d a r d p u l s e , w h i c h t h e s y s t e m i s

    c a p a b l e o f t r a n s m i t t i n g . L e t ( t ) d e n o t e s u c h a p u l s e . W e t h e n d e n e a P A M w a v e , s ( t )

    a s f o l l o w s

    s ( t ) =

    1

    X

    n = ; 1

    g ( n T

    s

    ) ( t ; n T

    s

    ) ( 5 1 0 )

    8 . 9 T i m e - D i v i s i o n M u l t i p l e x i n g ( T D M )

    T h e c o n c e p t o f T D M i s i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e b l o c k d i a g r a m s h o w n i n F i g . ( 5 7 ) .

    T h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o m m u t a t o r i s t w o - f o l d : ( 1 ) t o t a k e a n a r r o w s a m p l e o f e a c h o f t h e N

    i n p u t m e s s a g e s a t a r a t e f

    s

    ( 2 ) t o s e q u e n t i a l l y i n t e r l e a v e t h e s e N s a m p l e s i n s i d e a s a m p l i n g

    i n t e r v a l T

    s

    = 1 = f

    s

    T h e u s e o f t i m e - d i v i s i o n m u l t i p l e x i n g i n t r o d u c e s a b a n d w i d t h e x p a n s i o n f a c t o r N , b e c a u s e

    t h e s c h e m e m u s t s q u e e z e N s a m p l e s d e r i v e d f r o m N i n d e p e n d e n t m e s s a g e s i g n a l s i n t o a

    t i m e s l o t e q u a l t o o n e s a m p l i n g i n t e r v a l .

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    9 W a v e f o r m C o d i n g T e c h n i q u e s

    C o n s i d e r t h e p r o b l e m o f t r a n s m i t t i n g a n a n a l o g s o u r c e o v e r a d i g i t a l c h a n n e l . T h e r e

    a r e t h r e e m a j o r o p e r a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t h i s t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h e s e a r e t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f

    ( i ) s a m p l i n g ( i i ) q u a n t i z a t i o n ( a n a l o g - t o - d i g i t a l c o n v e r s i o n ) , a n d ( i i i ) e n c o d i n g . S a m p l i n g

    c h a n g e s t h e a n a l o g s i g n a l ( w h i c h i s a c o n t i n u o u s t i m e , c o n t i n u o u s a m p l i t u d e p r o c e s s ) i n t o

    a d i s c r e t e t i m e , c o n t i n u o u s a m p l i t u d e p r o c e s s . T h e n , q u a n t i z a t i o n i s a c h i e v e d o n t h i s

    d i s c r e t e t i m e , c o n t i n u o u s a m p l i t u d e p r o c e s s t o p r o d u c e a d i s c r e t e t i m e , d i s c r e t e a m p l i t u d e

    p r o c e s s . W e a l r e a d y t a l k e d a b o u t t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e s s . I n t h i s s e c t i o n , w e a d d r e s s t h e

    p r o b l e m o f q u a n t i z a t i o n . T h e e n c o d i n g p r o c e s s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n a s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n .

    9 . 1 Q u a n t i z i n g

    I n a l i n e a r s y s t e m , t h e t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e t w e e n t h e i n p u t a n d t h e o u t p u t i s i n t h e

    f o r m o f a s t r a i g h t l i n e .

    A q u a n t i z e r i s a n o n l i n e a r s y s t e m b a s e d o n a t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l o o k s l i k e a s t a i r c a s e .

    A n e x a m p l e i s g i v e n i n F i g . 6 7 ( a ) . I n a q u a n t i z e r , t h e r a n g e o f t h e i n p u t s a m p l e v a l u e s

    i s d i v i d e d i n t o a n i t e s e t o f d e c i s i o n l e v e l s o r d e c i s i o n t h r e s h o l d s t h a t a r e a l i g n e d w i t h

    t h e r i s e r s o f t h e s t a i r c a s e . T h e s e g m e n t o f t h e i n p u t a x i s l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t w o c o n s e q u e -

    t i v e d e c i s i o n l e v e l s i s d e n o t e d a s a q u a n t i z a t i o n i n t e r v a l . I f t h e i n p u t i s l o c a t e d i n a

    g i v e n q u a n t i z a t i o n i n t e r v a l , t h e o u t p u t i s a s s i g n e d a d i s c r e t e v a l u e w h i c h i s a l i g n e d w i t h

    t h e t r e a d o f t h e s t a i r c a s e . T h i s d i s c r e t e v a l u e i s c a l l e d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n l e v e l o r r e c o n -

    s t r u c t i o n v a l u e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e g i v e n q u a n t i z a t i o n i n t e r v a l . I n t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s -

    t i c s h o w n i n F i g . 6 7 ( a ) , t h e d e c i s i o n t h r e s h o l d s a r e a t p o i n t s = 2 3 = 2 5 = 2 : : :

    a n d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n l e v e l s a r e l o c a t e d a t p o i n t s 0 2 : : : . T h i s i s c a l l e d a

    m i d t r e a d t y p e q u a n t i z e r . I n t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h o w n i n F i g . 6 8 ( a ) , t h e d e c i s i o n

    t h r e s h o l d s a r e a t p o i n t s 0 2 : : : a n d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n l e v e l s a r e l o c a t e d a t p o i n t s

    = 2 3 = 2 5 = 2 : : : . T h i s i s c a l l e d a m i d r i s e r t y p e q u a n t i z e r .

    F o r a n a n a l o g i n p u t s a m p l e t h a t l i e s a n y w h e r e i n s i d e a n i n t e r v a l o f e i t h e r t r a n s f e r c h a r -

    a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e q u a n t i z e r p r o d u c e s a d i s c r e t e o u t p u t e q u a l t o t h e m i d v a l u e o f t h e p a i r

    o f d e c i s i o n t h r e s h o l d s . A q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r i s i n t r o d u c e d , t h e v a l u e o f w h i c h e q u a l s t h e

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    d i e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e o u t p u t a n d i n p u t v a l u e s o f t h e q u a n t i z e r . F i g u r e s 6 7 ( b ) , 6 8 ( b )

    s h o w e x a m p l e s o f s u c h a q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r .

    D e n i t i o n : A q u a n t i z e r i s c a l l e d s y m m e t r i c i f i t s t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s s y m m e t r i c a l

    f o r p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e i n p u t v a l u e s . Q u a n t i z e r s s h o w n i n F i g s . 6 7 ( a ) , 6 8 ( a ) a r e b o t h

    s y m m e t r i c a l .

    D e n i t i o n : A q u a n t i z e r i s c a l l e d u n i f o r m i f t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

    l e v e l s a r e t h e s a m e w i t h a c o m m o n v a l u e i s c a l l e d t h e s t e p s i z e . Q u a n t i z e r s s h o w n i n

    F i g s . 6 7 ( a ) , 6 8 ( a ) a r e b o t h u n i f o r m .

    D e n i t i o n : A q u a n t i z e r i s c a l l e d m e m o r y l e s s i n t h a t t h e q u a n t i z e r o u t p u t i s d e t e r m i n e d

    o n l y b y t h e v a l u e o f a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n p u t s a m p l e , i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e e a r l i e r a n a l o g

    s a m p l e s .

    9 . 2 I d l e C h a n n e l N o i s e

    I n a q u a n t i z e r o f t h e m i d r i s e t y p e , a s i n F i g . 6 8 ( a ) , z e r o i n p u t a m p l i t u d e i s e n c o d e d

    i n t o o n e o f t h e t w o i n n e r m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s l e v e l s = 2 . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a q u a n t i z a t i o n

    e r r o r e v e n i f t h e i n p u t t o t h e q u a n t i z e r i s e q u a l t o z e r o . T h i s e r r o r i s d e n o t e d a s t h e

    i d l e c h a n n e l n o i s e . A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e t w o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n l e v e l s = 2 a r e e q u i p r o b a b l e ,

    t h e i d l e c h a n n e l n o i s e f o r m i d r i s e r q u a n t i z e r h a s z e r o m e a n a n d a v a r i a n c e o f

    2

    = 4 . I n a

    q u a n t i z e r o f t h e m i d t r e a d t y p e , a s i n F i g . 6 7 ( a ) , t h e o u t p u t i s z e r o f o r z e r o i n p u t a n d t h e

    i d l e c h a n n e l n o i s e i s c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y z e r o .

    9 . 3 Q u a n t i z a t i o n N o i s e a n d S i g n a l - t o - N o i s e R a t i o ( S N R )

    C o n s i d e r a s y m m e t r i c , u n i f o r m , m e m o r y l e s s q u a n t i z e r w i t h a t o t a l o f L r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

    l e v e l s . L e t x d e n o t e t h e q u a n t i z e r i n p u t , a n d y d e n o t e t h e q u a n t i z e r o u t p u t . T h e t r a n s f e r

    c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e q u a n t i z e r i s s h o w n b y ,

    y = Q ( x ) ( 5 1 1 )

    w h i c h i s a s t a i r c a s e f u n c t i o n . S u p p o s e t h a t w e u s e t h e n o t a t i o n J

    k

    , k = 1 2 : : : L ,

    t o s h o w n t h e q u a t i z a t i o n i n t e r v a l s . T h e d e c i s i o n t h r e s h o l d s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e k t h

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    I n p u t

    O u t p u t

    I n p u t

    2

    3

    ;

    ; 3

    ; 5

    ( a )

    ( b )

    Q u a n t i z a t i o n

    e r r o r

    e x c u r s i o n

    ; 7 = 2

    = 2

    P e a k ; t o ; p e a k

    O v e r l o a d l e v e l

    ; = 2

    = 2

    ; 3 = 2

    3 = 2

    5 = 2 7 = 2

    ; 5 = 2

    ; = 2

    F i g u r e 6 7 : ( a ) T r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f q u a n t i z e r o f m i d t r e a d t y p e . ( b ) V a r i a t i o n o f t h e

    q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r w i t h i n p u t

    1 3 8

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    I n p u t

    I n p u t

    Q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r

    = 2

    ; = 2

    - - 2 - 3

    2 3 4

    - 3 = 2

    - 5 = 2

    - 7 = 2

    O u t p u t

    ( a )

    ( b )

    O v e r l o a d l e v e l

    - 4

    7 = 2

    5 = 2

    3 = 2

    = 2

    - = 2

    F i g u r e 6 8 : ( a ) t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f q u a n t i z e r o f m i d r i s e t y p e . ( b ) V a r i a t i o n o f t h e

    q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r w i t h i n p u t

    1 3 9

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    q u a t i z a t i o n i n t e r v a l a r e d e n o t e d a s x

    k

    a n d x

    k + 1

    . W e h a v e ,

    J

    k

    = f x

    k

    < x < x

    k + 1

    g k = 1 2 : : : L ( 5 1 2 )

    I f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n l e v e l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e k t h q u a t i z a t i o n i n t e r v a l i s d e n o t e d a s y

    k

    ,

    w e h a v e ,

    y = y

    k

    i f x l i e s i n t h e i n t e r v a l J

    k

    ( 5 1 3 )

    L e t q d e n o t e t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r , ; = 2 q = 2 . W e m a y w r i t e

    y

    k

    = x + q i f x l i e s i n t h e i n t e r v a l J

    k

    ( 5 1 4 )

    I f t h e q u a n t i z e r i s n e e n o u g h ( s m a l l ) , t h e n t h e d i s t o r t i o n p r o d u c e d b y t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n

    o p e r a t i o n a e c t s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n a s i f i t w e r e a n i n d e p e n d e n t s o u r c e

    o f a d d i t i v e n o i s e . I t i s a l s o f o u n d t h a t t h e p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y o f t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n n o i s e

    h a s a l a r g e b a n d w i d t h c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e s i g n a l b a n d w i d t h . T h u s , w i t h t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n

    n o i s e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s i g n a l b a n d , i t s i n t e r f e r i n g e e c t o n a s i g n a l

    i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f a w h i t e n o i s e

    A s s u m e t h a t t h e q u a t i z a t i o n e r r o r ( r a n d o m v a r i a b l e q ) i s u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e

    p o s s i b l e r a n g e ; = 2 t o = 2 . W e h a v e ,

    f

    Q

    ( q ) =

    8

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    :

    1

    ;

    2

    q

    2

    0 o t h e r w i s e

    ( 5 1 5 )

    w h e r e f

    Q

    ( q ) i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r . T h e n , t h e m e a n

    o f t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r i s z e r o , a n d i t s v a r i a n c e

    2

    Q

    i s e q u a l t o ,

    2

    Q

    = E Q

    2

    ] ( 5 1 6 )

    =

    Z

    1

    ; 1

    q

    2

    f

    Q

    ( q ) d q

    =

    1

    Z

    = 2

    ; = 2

    q

    2

    d q

    1 4 0

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    =

    2

    1 2

    ( 5 1 7 )

    N o t e t h a t

    2

    = 1 2 c a n b e v i e w e d a s t h e v a r i a n c e o f q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r c o n d i t i o n e d o n t h e

    i n t e r v a l J

    k

    L e t t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e b a s e b a n d s i g n a l x ( t ) a t t h e q u a n t i z e r i n p u t b e d e n o t e d b y

    2

    X

    W e

    d e n e a n o u t p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e q u a n t i z a t i o n n o i s e r a t i o ( S N R ) a s

    ( S N R ) =

    2

    X

    2

    Q

    =

    2

    X

    2

    = 1 2

    ( 5 1 8 )

    I t i s s e e n t h a t t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n S N R d e p e n d s o n t h e v a r i a n c e ( p o w e r ) o f t h e i n p u t s i g n a l .

    I t w o u l d b e h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e f r o m a p r a c t i c a l v i e w p o i n t f o r t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n S N R t o

    r e m a i n c o n s t a n t f o r a w i d e r a n g e o f i n p u t p o w e r l e v e l s . S u c h a q u a n t i z e r i s c a l l e d a r o b u s t

    q u a n t i z e r . T h i s i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g .

    9 . 4 R o b u s t Q u a n t i z a t i o n

    T h e p r o v i s i o n f o r a r o b u s t p e r f o r m a n c e n e c e s s i t a t e s t h e u s e o f a n o n u n i f o r m q u a n t i z e r

    I n t h i s c a s e , t h e r a n g e o f t h e s m a l l e r i n p u t v a l u e s a r e a s s i g n e d m o r e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n l e v e l s .

    T h i s s e l e c t i o n i s j u s t i e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o f a c t s ( i ) g e n e r a l l y , s m a l l e r i n p u t

    v a l u e s o c c u r w i t h h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y a n d t h e r e f o r e s h o u l d b e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a h i g h e r

    p r e c i s i o n , ( i i ) t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h u m a n h e a r i n g h a s a s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t l a r g e

    s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e s m a s k q u a n t i z a t i o n n o i s e t o s o m e e x t e n t .

    N o n u n i f o r m q u a n t i z a t i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y u s i n g a c o m p r e s s o r f o l l o w e d b y a u n i f o r m

    q u a n t i z e r . B y c a s c a d i n g t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a n e x p a n d e r w h i c h a c t s a s a n i n v e r s e t o

    t h e c o m p r e s s o r , t h e o r i g i n a l s i g n a l s a m p l e s a r e r e s t o r e d t o t h e i r c o r r e c t v a l u e s e x c e p t f o r

    t h e e e c t o f t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r . T h e s e o p e r a t i o n s a r e s h o w n i n F i g u r e s 7 0 , 6 9 . T h e

    c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c o m p r e s s o r a n d a n e x p a n d e r i s c a l l e d a c o m p a n d e r

    A s w e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h s y m m e t r i c , m e m o r y l e s s q u a n t i z e r s , t h e n t h e t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r -

    i s t i c s o f t h e c o m p r e s s o r i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y a m e m o r y l e s s n o n l i n e a r i t y c ( x ) , t h a t h a s o d d

    s y m m e t r y , i . e . ,

    c ( ; x ) = ; c ( x ) ( 5 1 9 )

    1 4 1

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    I n p u t O u t p u t

    E x p a n d e r

    U n i f o r m

    Q u a n t i z e r

    C o m p r e s s o r

    F i g u r e 6 9 : M o d e l o f n o n u n i f o r m q u a n t i z e r .

    W e a l s o a s s u m e t h a t ,

    c ( x ) =

    8

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    :

    x

    m a x

    x = x

    m a x

    0 x = 0

    ; x

    m a x

    x = ; x

    m a x

    ( 5 2 0 )

    T h e c o m p r e s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c ( x ) r e l a t e s n o n u n i f o r m i n t e r v a l s a t t h e c o m p r e s s o r i n p u t

    t o t h e u n i f o r m i n t e r v a l s a t t h e c o m p r e s s o r o u t p u t .

    T h e u n i f o r m i n t e r v a l s a r e o f w i d t h 2 x

    m a x

    = L e a c h , w h e r e L i s t h e n u m b e r o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

    l e v e l s o f t h e q u a n t i z e r . I t i s a s s u m e d t h a t L i s a l a r g e n u m b e r ( n e q u a n t i z e r ) . U n d e r t h e s e

    c o n d i t i o n s , t h e c o m p r e s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c ( x ) i n t h e k t h i n t e r v a l , J

    k

    , i n a p p r o x i m a t e d

    b y a s t r a i g h t - l i n e s e g m e n t w i t h a s l o p e e q u a l t o 2 x

    m a x

    = L

    k

    , w h e r e

    k

    i s t h e w i d t h o f t h e

    i n t e r v a l J

    k

    . T h i s m e a n s t h a t

    d c ( x )

    d x

    '

    2 x

    m a x

    L

    k

    k = 0 1 : : : L ; 1 ( 5 2 1 )

    T w o o t h e r a s s u m p t i o n s a r e a l s o m a d e :

    1 T h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f i n p u t f

    X

    ( x ) i s s y m m e t r i c w i t h r e s p e c t t o x

    2 I n e a c h i n t e r v a l J

    k

    , k = 1 2 : : : L , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n f

    X

    ( x ) i s a p -

    p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d a s ,

    f

    X

    ( x ) ' f

    X

    ( y

    k

    ) x

    k

    X x

    k + 1

    ( 5 2 2 )

    W e a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n l e v e l y

    k

    c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e k t h q u a n t i z a t i o n i n t e r v a l

    J

    k

    l i e s i n t h e m i d d l e o f J

    k

    , i . e . ,

    1 4 2

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    I n t e r v a l I

    k

    C

    o

    m

    p

    r

    e

    s

    s

    o

    r

    n

    p

    u

    t

    q u a n t i z a t i o n o u t p u t

    C o m p r e s s o r i n p u t

    C

    o

    m

    p

    r

    e

    s

    s

    o

    r

    o

    u

    t

    p

    u

    t

    E

    x

    p

    a

    n

    d

    e

    d

    o

    u

    t

    p

    u

    t

    k

    t

    h

    r

    e

    p

    r

    e

    s

    e

    n

    t

    a

    t

    o

    n

    e

    v

    e

    E x p a n d e r i n p u t

    F i g u r e 7 0 : T r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c o m p r e s s o r , u n i f o r m q u a n t i z e r , a n d e x p a n d e r ( s h o w n

    f o r p o s i t i v e a m p l i t u d e s o n l y )

    1 4 3

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    y

    k

    =

    1

    2

    ( x

    k

    + x

    k + 1

    ) k = 0 1 : : : L ; 1 ( 5 2 3 )

    T h e w i d t h o f t h e i n t e r v a l J

    k

    e q u a l s ,

    k

    = x

    k + 1

    ; x

    k

    x

    k

    X x

    k + 1

    ( 5 2 4 )

    U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e i n p u t s i g n a l l i e s i n t h e i n t e r v a l J

    k

    i s

    e q u a l t o ,

    p

    k

    = P ( x

    k

    X x

    k + 1

    )

    = f

    X

    ( y

    k

    )

    k

    k = 0 1 : : : L ; 1 ( 5 2 5 )

    L e t t h e r a n d o m v a r i a b l e Q d e n o t e t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r

    Q = y

    k

    ; X x

    k

    X x

    k + 1

    ( 5 2 6 )

    W e h a v e ,

    2

    Q

    = E Q

    2

    = E ( X ; y

    k

    )

    2

    =

    Z

    x

    m a x

    ; x

    m a x

    ( y ; x

    k

    )

    2

    f

    X

    ( x ) d x ( 5 2 7 )

    2

    Q

    =

    L ; 1

    X

    k = 0

    p

    k

    k

    Z

    x

    k + 1

    x

    k

    ( x ; y

    k

    )

    2

    d x ( 5 2 8 )

    S u b s t i t u t i n g E q . 5 2 3 , w e g e t t h e r e s u l t

    2

    Q

    =

    1

    1 2

    L ; 1

    X

    k = 0

    p

    k

    2

    k

    ( 5 2 9 )

    A s w e s a w i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , t h e q u a n t i t y

    2

    k

    = 1 2 c a n b e v i e w e d a s t h e v a r i a n c e o f

    q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r c o n d i t i o n e d o n t h e i n t e r v a l J

    k

    F r o m ( 5 2 1 ) , w e o b t a i n ,

    k

    '

    2 x

    m a x

    L

    "

    d c ( x )

    d x

    #

    ; 1

    k = 0 1 : : : L ; 1 ( 5 3 0 )

    1 4 4

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    S u b s t i t u t i n g E q . 5 3 0 i n E q . 5 2 9 , w e g e t t h e r e s u l t

    2

    Q

    '

    x

    2

    m a x

    3 L

    2

    L ; 1

    X

    k = 0

    p

    k

    "

    d c ( x )

    d x

    #

    ; 2

    ( 5 3 1 )

    R e p l a c i n g f o r p

    k

    f r o m E q . 5 2 5 a n d u s i n g i n t e g r a t i o n i n s t e a d o f t h e s u m m a t i o n o v e r k , w e

    o b t a i n

    2

    Q

    '

    x

    2

    m a x

    3 L

    2

    Z

    x

    m a x

    ; x

    m a x

    f

    X

    ( x )

    "

    d c ( x )

    d x

    #

    ; 2

    d x ( 5 3 2 )

    T h e o u t p u t s i g n a l - t o - q u a n t i z a t i o n r a t i o i s d e n e d b y

    ( S N R ) =

    2

    X

    2

    Q

    ( 5 3 3 )

    w h e r e ,

    2

    X

    =

    Z

    x

    m a x

    ; x

    m a x

    x

    2

    f

    X

    ( x ) d x

    T h i s r e s u l t s i n ,

    ( S N R ) =

    3 L

    2

    x

    2

    m a x

    Z

    x

    m a x

    ; x

    m a x

    x

    2

    f

    X

    ( x ) d x

    Z

    x

    m a x

    ; x

    m a x

    f

    X

    ( x )

    "

    d c ( x )

    d x

    #

    ; 2

    d x

    ( 5 3 4 )

    F o r a r o b u s t p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e o u t p u t s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o s h o u l d i d e a l l y b e i n d e p e n d e n t

    o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n p u t r a n d o m v a r i a b l e X . T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t i s

    m e t i f

    d c ( x )

    d x

    =

    K

    x

    ; x

    m a x

    x x

    m a x

    ( 5 3 5 )

    r e s u l t i n g i n ,

    c ( x ) = x

    m a x

    + K l n

    x

    x

    m a x

    x > 0 ( 5 3 6 )

    U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f u n c t i o n i n ( 5 3 6 ) i s u n r e a l i z a b l e s i n c e c ( 0 ) i s n o t n i t e .

    I n s t e a d , w e h a v e t o u s e a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o ( 5 3 6 ) . T w o w i d e l y u s e d s o l u t i o n s t o t h i s

    p r o b l e m a r e a s f o l l o w s :

    - l a w c o m p a n d i n g

    c ( x )

    x

    x m a x

    =

    l n ( 1 + x = x

    m a x

    )

    l n ( 1 + )

    0

    x

    x

    m a x

    1 ( 5 3 7 )

    1 4 5

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    A p r a c t i c a l v a l u e f o r i s 2 5 5 . T h e ; l a w i s u s e d f o r P C M t e l e p h o n e s y s t e m s i n t h e

    U n i t e d S t a t e s , C a n a d a , a n d J a p a n .

    A - l a w c o m p a n d i n g

    c ( x )

    x

    x m a x

    =

    8

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    >

    :

    A x = x

    m a x

    1 + l n A

    0

    x

    x

    m a x

    1

    A

    1 + l n ( A x = x

    m a x

    )

    1 + l n A

    1

    A

    x

    x

    m a x

    1

    ( 5 3 8 )

    A p r a c t i c a l v a l u e f o r A i s 8 7 . 5 6 . T h e A - l a w c o m p a n d i n g i s u s e d f o r P C M t e l e p h o n e

    s y s t e m s i n E u r o p e .

    1 0 D i e r e n t i a l P u l s e - C o d e M o d u l a t i o n

    I n t h e u s e o f P C M f o r t h e d i g i t i z a t i o n o f v o i c e a n d v i d e o s i g n a l , t h e s i g n a l d o e s n o t

    c h a n g e r a p i d l y f r o m o n e s a m p l e t o t h e n e x t w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e d i e r e n c e b e t w e e n

    a d j a c e n t s a m p l e s h a s a v a r i a n c e t h a t i s s m a l l e r t h a n t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e s i g n a l i t s e l f .

    I n p a r t i c u l a r , i f w e k n o w t h e p a s t b e h a v i o r o f a s i g n a l u p t o a c e r t a i n p o i n t i n t i m e , i t i s

    p o s s i b l e t o m a k e s o m e i n f e r e n c e a b o u t i t s f u t u r e v a l u e s . T h i s p r o v i d e s m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h e

    d i e r e n t i a l q u a n t i z a t i o n s c h e m e s h o w n i n F i g . 7 1 ( a ) .

    T h e d i e r e n c e s i g n a l e ( n T

    s

    ) i s c a l l e d a p r e d i c t i o n e r r o r , i t i s t h e a m o u n t b y w h i c h t h e

    p r e d i c t o r f a i l s t o p r e d i c t t h e i n p u t e x a c t l y .

    v ( n T

    s

    ) = Q e ( n T

    s

    )

    = e ( n T

    s

    ) + q ( n T

    s

    ) ( 5 3 9 )

    w h e r e q ( n T

    s

    ) i s t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r .

    F o r t h e s y s t e m i n F i g . 7 1 , w e m a y w r i t e ,

    u ( n T

    s

    ) = ^x ( n T

    s

    ) + v ( n T

    s

    ) ( 5 4 0 )

    u ( n T

    s

    ) = ^x ( n T

    s

    ) + e ( n T

    s

    ) + q ( n T

    s

    ) ( 5 4 1 )

    1 4 6

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    S a m p l e d

    i n p u t

    x ( n T

    s

    )

    +

    -

    e ( n T

    s

    )

    Q u a n t i z e r

    D e c o d e r

    O u t p u t

    +

    +

    I n p u t

    ( a )

    ( b )

    +

    +

    ^x ( n T

    s

    )

    u ( n T

    s

    )

    D P C M

    W a v e

    P r e d i c t o r

    E n c o d e r

    v ( n T

    s

    )

    P r e d i c t o r

    F i g u r e 7 1 : D P C M s y s t e m . ( a ) T r a n s m i t t e r . ( b ) R e c e i v e r

    1 4 7

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    F i n a l l y , r e p l a c i n g x ( n T

    s

    ) = ^x ( n T

    s

    ) + e ( n T

    s

    ) , w e o b t a i n ,

    u ( n T

    s

    ) = x ( n T

    s

    ) + q ( n T

    s

    ) ( 5 4 2 )

    T h i s m e a n s t h a t i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p r e d i c t o r , t h e q u a n t i z e d s i g n a l u ( n T

    s

    )

    a t t h e p r e d i c t o r i n p u t d i e r s f r o m t h e i n p u t s i g n a l x ( n T

    s

    ) b y t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r .

    I n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e c h a n n e l n o i s e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e c e i v e r o u t p u t i s e q u a l t o u ( n T

    s

    )

    O b v i o u s l y , t h e p o w e r o f t h e p r o c e s s E i s s m a l l e r t h a n t h e p o w e r o f t h e o r i g i n a l s i g n a l X

    T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e d u c t i o n i n p o w e r i s m e a s u r e s b y t h e p r e d i c t i o n g a i n w h i c h i s d e n e d

    a s ,

    G

    P

    =

    2

    X

    2

    E

    W e h a v e ,

    ( S N R )

    0

    =

    2

    X

    2

    Q

    !

    =

    2

    X

    2

    E

    !

    2

    E

    2

    Q

    !

    = G

    P

    ( S N R )

    P

    w h e r e ( S N R )

    P

    i s t h e S N R o f t h e q u a n t i z e r i n F i g . 7 1 . T h i s m e a n s t h a t w e h a v e a n

    i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e o v e r a l l S N R w i t h a f a c t o r e q u a l t o G

    P

    1 1 D e l t a M o d u l a t i o n

    T h e u s e o f D P C M s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g p o s s i b i l i t y : O v e r s a m p l i n g a s i g n a l ( a t a r a t e h i g h e r

    t h a n t h e N y q u i s t r a t e ) p u r p o s e l y t o i n c r e a s e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a d j a c e n t s a m p l e s o f

    t h e s i g n a l , s o a s t o p e r m i t t h e u s e o f a s i m p l e q u a n t i z i n g s t r a t e g y .

    T h i s s t r a t e g y r e s u l t s i n a h i g h e r n u m b e r o f s a m p l e s p e r s e c o n d , h o w e v e r , e x p l o i t i n g t h e

    l a r g e d e p e n d e n c y b e t w e e n s u c c e s s i v e s a m p l e s , w e a r e a b l e t o q u a n t i z e t h e s a m p l e s u s i n g

    a s m a l l e r n u m b e r o f q u a n t i z a t i o n s y m b o l s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a s w e a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d i n

    t h e s e c t i o n o n s i g n a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , f o r a g i v e n c h a n n e l b a n d w i d t h , h a v i n g a l a r g e r n u m b e r

    o f s y m b o l s p e r s e c o n d r e q u i r e s a h i g h e r a v e r a g e e n e r g y f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h e o b j e c t i v e i s

    t o n d a n i n t e r m e d i a t e s o l u t i o n w h i c h p r o v i d e s a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h e s a m p l i n g r a t e

    a n d t h e n u m b e r o f t h e q u a t i z a t i o n s y m b o l s r e s u l t i n g i n a g o o d o v e r a l l p e r f o r m a n c e . I n

    t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n , w e d i s c u s s a n e x a m p l e o f s u c h a m e t h o d a c t i n g i n a n e x t r e m e c a s e

    o f u s i n g a q u a n t i z e r w i t h o n l y t w o l e v e l s .

    1 4 8

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    x ( t )

    S t a i r c a s e

    0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

    ( a )

    ( b )

    B i n a r y

    s e q u e n c e

    a t m o d u l a t o r

    o u t p u t

    a p p r o x i m a t i o n

    T

    s

    u ( t )

    F i g u r e 7 2 : I l l u s t r a t i o n o f d e l t a m o d u l a t i o n

    D e l t a m o d u l a t i o n ( D M ) i s t h e o n e - b i t ( o r t w o l e v e l ) v e r s i o n o f D P C M . D M p r o v i d e s a

    s t a i r c a s e a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e o v e r s a m p l e d v e r s i o n o f t h e i n p u t s i g n a l . T h e d i e r e n c e

    b e t w e e n t h e i n p u t a n d t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s q u a n t i z e d i n t o o n l y t w o l e v e l s , n a m e l y ,

    T h e s t e p s i z e o f t h e q u a n t i z e r i s

    = 2 ( 5 4 3 )

    D e n o t e t h e i n p u t s i g n a l a s x ( t ) a n d t h e s t a i r c a s e a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o i t a s u ( t ) . T h e n

    e ( n t

    s

    ) = x ( n T

    s

    ) ; ^x ( n T

    s

    )

    = x ( n T

    s

    ) ; u ( n T

    s

    ; T

    s

    ) ( 5 4 4 )

    1 4 9

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    I n p u t

    O u t p u t

    0

    ;

    +

    F i g u r e 7 3 : I n p u t - o u t p u t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t w o - l e v e l q u a n t i z e r

    b ( n T

    s

    ) = s g n e ( n T

    s

    ) ] ( 5 4 5 )

    u ( n T

    s

    ) = u ( n T

    s

    ; T

    s

    ) + b ( n T

    s

    ) ( 5 4 6 )

    W e a s s u m e t h a t t h e a c c u m u l a t o r i s i n i t i a l l y s e t t o z e r o . T h e n

    u ( n T

    s

    ) =

    n

    X

    i = 1

    s g n e ( i T

    s

    )

    =

    n

    X

    i = 1

    b ( i T

    s

    ) ( 5 4 7 )

    1 1 . 1 Q u a n t i z a t i o n N o i s e i n D e l t a M o d u l a t i o n

    D e l t a m o d u l a t i o n s y s t e m s a r e s u b j e c t t o t w o t y p e s o f q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r s : s l o p e - o v e r h e a d

    d i s t o r t i o n , a n d g r a n u l a r n o i s e

    L e t q ( n T

    s

    ) d e n o t e t h e q u a n t i z i n g e r r o r . W e h a v e ,

    u ( n T

    s

    ) = x ( n T

    s

    ) + q ( n T

    s

    ) ( 5 4 8 )

    1 5 0

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    S a m p l e d

    i n p u t

    x ( n T

    s

    )

    -

    +

    e ( n T

    s

    )

    o n e - b i t

    q u a n t i z e r

    b ( n T

    s

    )

    +

    +

    u ( n T

    s

    )

    D e l a y

    T

    s

    ^x ( n T

    s

    )

    I n p u t

    +

    +

    D e l a y

    T

    s

    l o w - p a s s

    l t e r

    O u t p u t

    A c c u m u l a t o r

    ( a )

    A c c u m u l a t o r

    ( b )

    F i g u r e 7 4 : D M s y s t e m . ( a ) T r a n s m i t t e r . ( b ) R e c e i v e r

    1 5 1

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    S t a i r c a s e

    S l p e - o v e r l o a d

    x ( t )

    T

    s

    u ( t )

    a p p r o x i m a t i o n

    d i s t o r t i o n

    G r a n u l a r n o i s e

    F i g u r e 7 5 : I l l u s t r a t i o n o f q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r i n d e l t a m o d u l a t i o n

    A c c o r d i n g l y , u s i n g E q . 5 4 8 t o e l i m i n a t e u ( n T

    s

    ; T

    s

    ) f r o m E q . 5 4 4 , w e m a y e x p r e s s t h e

    p r e d i c t i o n e r r o r e ( n T

    s

    ) a s

    e ( n T

    s

    ) = x ( n T

    s

    ) ; x ( n T

    s

    ; T

    s

    ) ; q ( n T

    s

    ; T

    s

    ) ( 5 4 9 )

    E x c e p t f o r t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n e r r o r q ( n T

    s

    ; T

    s

    ) , t h e q u a n t i z e r i n p u t m a y b e v i e w e d a s a

    d i g i t a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e i n p u t s i g n a l . I n o r d e r f o r t h e s e q u e n c e o f

    s a m p l e s f u ( n T

    s

    ) g t o i n c r e a s e a s f a s t a s t h e i n p u t s e q u e n c e o f s a m p l e s f x ( n T

    s

    ) g i n a r e g i o n

    o f m a x i m u m s l o p e o f x ( t ) , w e r e q u i r e t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n

    T

    s

    m a x

    d x ( t )

    d t

    ( 5 5 0 )

    O t h e r w i s e t h e s t e p s i z e = 2 i s t o o s m a l l w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t u ( t ) f a l l s b e h i n d x ( t ) , a s

    i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 7 5 . T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s c a l l e d s l o p e - o v e r h e a d

    G r a n u l a r n o i s e o c c u r s w h e n t h e s t e p s i z e i s t o o l a r g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e l o c a l s l o p e

    c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i n p u t w a v e f o r m x ( t )

    T h e c h o i c e o f t h e o p t i m u m s t e p s i z e t h a t m i n i m i z e s t h e m e a n - s q u a r e v a l u e o f t h e q u a n -

    t i z i n g e r r o r i n a l i n e a r d e l t a m o d u l a t o r w i l l b e t h e r e s u l t o f a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n s l o p e

    o v e r h e a d d i s t o r t i o n a n d g r a n u l a r n o i s e