CORE STUDY: WORLD WAR 1

1. WAR ON THE WESTERN FRONT

1.1 The reasons for stalemate on the Western Front

Failure of the Von Schliefen Plan- Failed to encircle Paris (met with strong resistance from the allied powers

at the battle of the Marne)- Germans forced to retreat to the river Aisne – but had no plans for a

defensive role, so tried to capture the allies Channel Ports (cut off allies’ resources).

- This became known = “Race to the Sea”. - This race stretched the front line of entrenched troops across Belgium

and France- Trench Systems developed - A ‘war of movement’ had ended: neither side was able to make a decisive

gain in land due to the comprehensive, defensive system of trenches. - Neither side was able to break the defenses of the other = stalemate!

- Failed to take into account the railways through Belgium and France, which the French had used to their advantage = transport soldiers faster.

- Invasion of Belgian Neutrality = Britain became involved – unanticipated allied power.

- Russia had mobilized quicker than anticipated, which mean that Germany had to redirect its troops from invasion of France = weakening forces.

- Austria-Hungary was more intent on invading Serbia – did not provide expected support to Germany.

Modifications made by Von Moltke & Ludendorff- Abandoned the advance through Holland, which meant that a

‘bottleneck’ was created as German forces tried to advance through Belgium (Liege) = slowed German advance

- Weakened the vital right flank, and redistributed it into (Alsace and Lorraine)

- The plan originally depended on ‘speed and strength’, so that the Germans could have “Paris for lunch, St. Petersburg for dinner” (Kaiser Wilhelm 2).

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- But, changing the distribution of the soldiers from the right flank meant that no decisive moves were made by the Germans in the north.

War of movement / Nature of trench warfare- Most important factor contributed to the stalemate: both the allies and

central powers had developed such a comprehensive system of trenches designed for defense = neither side could make a decisive move without getting gunned down.

- The advantage was always with the defender – i.e. Somme

No new tactics / strategies- Generals Joffre and Haig had failed to learn from their mistakes by

adopting new strategies. - Persisted with frontal attacks – kept getting annihilated by defences

1.2 Overview of Strategies and Tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendale

1. Frontal Attacks- Artillery Bombardment: destroy barbed wire, machinery, front-line

defenses- Infantry Advance: take over front line trenches, “creeping barrage” –

too slow (35kg backpacks). - Advantage always lay with the defender. One the soldiers were on ‘no-

mans land’, easily targeted by enemies defenses i.e. Somme, machine gun. - This is why stalemate persisted so long; neither side was able to make gains.

2. Introduction of new technology

Gas- Designed to break deadlock, drive enemy away from trenches- Backfired – wind pressure- Chlorine / Mustard gas – burn skin / respiratory systems- “It was not gas, but the fear of gas” (Harber, 1917)

Tank- Designed to break dominance over no-mans land- Psychological support to soldiers / shield / mobile artillery- Unable to make a punch-line- Mechanical failures, caught in the churned up mud in no-mans land.

Flame Throwers / Mortars- Flamethrowers dangerous and difficult to control- Mortars – not enough damage due to strong defenses

3. Attrition- mobilize all resources to wear down opponent- Deplete enemies resources i.e. Verdun, Passchendale

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- It was a war that Germany could not win: British blockade had blocked their supplies, Allie industrial production was up due to easy trade and accessibility to resources (US, colonies). Germany was isolated for a war between two fronts. No trading occurred.

- In the end, it is attrition that had made the allies victorious in 1918: Germany was on the verge of economical collapse.

4. Opening New Fronts- Opened to drive forces away from central points- Germans tried to cut of supplies to Russia through the Black sea i.e.

Gallipoli.

Verdun- Germans tried to “bleed” French Army dry = war of attrition- “Mincing machine of Verdun”- Drive French forces into one area (symbolic importance) – and Germans

make another attack elsewhere, where the enemies forces were sparse on the Hindenburg line.

- War of attrition was useless = Germans had failed to close supply route to the French – “Sacred Way”.

- Allied Victory

Somme- Relieve pressure on French- Make an Allied breakthrough whilst the majority of German soldiers

where at Verdun- Wear down German forces – breakthrough at Ypres a few weeks later- “War of attrition” – Haig had lost 60,000 men- Simply told he could “walk across no man’s land, smoking his pipe and

cigarettes” – gave enough time for Germany to mobilize and gun down.

Passcendale- Break the salient – push Germans back- War of attrition – Haig argues that as long as the Germans lost more men

then the British and French, the Allies could win in the end. - Over 4.5 million shells were fired, aprox.1 million casualties sustained –

NO GAIN.

1.3 The Nature of Trench Warfare and Life in the trenches with experiences of Allied and German Soldiers.

To protect soldiers from the harsh winter, and enemy’s fire – trenches were developed. They were believed to be temporary until Spring, when warfare would be resumed.

Trenches- Front line (4 days) - Support (4 days)- Reserve (8 days) – maintenance of trenches / sleep / read letters

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- Communication: connected from towns to all trenches

- Firestep (repel attacks, stand-to)- Parapet (protection against front-attacks)- Parados (protection from eager comrades shooting from behind)

- Zigzag pattern = contain explosions / each bend could be separately defended.

- Separated by “no-mans land” – usually 200m – 1km wide

- German trenches were superior – positioned in hills, ridges and small villages (Marne).

- French felt obliged to occupy every piece of soil, so generally took what they could.

Challenge of Trench Warfare

Germans: - took a defensive role, as they new that they were going to be fighting a two-font war, so they made sure they could hold on.

- Concrete / wood construction + electricity + lighting

Allies: French took an offensive role, as they hated the Germans so much as they were already on their soil.

- Not as strongly and well built, as they did not expect to stay in them for long.

- expected to drive the enemy of homeland soil- The British also followed this strategy as they were obliged to help the

French- Also, British font-line in north-France = 80km from Channel Ports – a

German breakthrough could take these vital ports from them, and isolate the British from their homeland.

British Generals = obsessed with getting as close to the enemy (offensive approach) – constant frontal attacks. Germans: General Hindenburg decision to withdraw to a well established defensive line (Hindenburg Line), March 1917 – example of contrasting view of Trench warfare.

Life in the trenches- Siegfried Sassoon (poet) – “anyone who had been in the trenches would

be everlastingly different from those who hadn’t”.Experiences

- Lice: made homes in soldiers clothing – left red-rashes = trench fever- Rats: thrived on plentiful supplies – became selective – eyes/tongues- Latrines: caused disease due to close proximity- Sickness: Trench foot (constantly immersed in water and mud), frost-

bite, pneumonia (infections from rats). - Food: rationed tinned beef, biscuits, jam, rum

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- Routine: varied from different trench lines- It is the rum that gave the British soldiers the courage to fight, and endure

the harsh conditions. If it weren’t for the war, I don’t think the British would have won the war” (....................................)

1.4 Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time

Outbreak of War- greeted with enthusiasm- opportunity – adventure and excitement- honor to serve ones country – poet Rupert Brook (“richer dust

concealed”)- Belief that the war would be over by Christmas – men feared that they

wouldn’t have a chance to fight – civilians reassured that the war would be over by Christmas.

-- Upper class initially accepted it = provided a release from confinement and

regulation- Middle class = provided an option away from factory = unemployment

(monotony)- “Some soldiers like it, more hated it – but there was a general acceptance

that it had to be done” (Dennis Winter)

Christmas Truce 1914- Fraternization between British and German soldiers i.e. soccer, games,

Christmas carols- Soldiers realized that the ‘enemy’ they were fighting were not so different

from themselves – changed soldiers attitude into killing- Generals ordered this to stop – effected soldiers morale- Fighting resumed the next day

Changing Attitudes after 1916- worst aspects of trench life began = despair replaced enthusiasm - accentuated with losses at the Somme (large loss of life, little gain) =

Futility- reflected in poems of Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon- “faces masked fear” – “make it stop” - When the war ended – armistice = “folks at home, frantic with joy and

excitement” (Simpson, 1993)- “Soldiers too overcome with significance to rejoice”.

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2. THE HOME FRONTS IN BRITAIN AND GERMANY

2.1 Total War and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany

Winston Churchill described the war as a “massive demand [for] both human and material resources”.

War had traditionally been fought by men on battlefields = WW1 different = communities left behind on the home front to deal with munitions, men and machinery.

Britain – Economic

- Rationing: meat, sugar, butter and eggs (basic foods)- Inflation: the cost of living rose by 81% for the skilled labourer- Working Hours: clocks altered daylight saving time = more working

hours- Alcohol: watered down – avoid drunkenness – effect hindrance in work

productionA war of attrition meant that the home front would have to work longer and harder, get paid less, to make sure that fighting on the Western Front could be sustained.

Britain – Social- Governments gained more executive power = control wages / hours /

working conditions (because war demanded clear and quick decisions: debates in parliament would not be decisive)- Defence of the Realm Act” (DORA): passed on 8th Aug, 1915

- Women enter workforce for 1st time- Class barriers = partially broken down, as women had to converse with

other women from different classes in the workforce- Curfews were imposed, and normal activates such as flying kites were

banned

Germany – Economic- Before war broke out, trade accounted for 1/3 of Germany’s food supply. - War had isolated Germany, and stopped trade

Therefore:- Rationing: The K.R.A – agency in charge of feeding the nation. Food

was regulated, controlled – and never wasted. - Synthetic Manufacture: natural/imported products replaced by products

that were created by other means. - Agricultural / Industrial production levels fell – severe frosts (1917) =

‘turnip winter’ = low morale (due to starvation + long working hours) = difficult to control production levels.

- Opposition to war grew in the face of the privations.

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Germany - Social

Food and fuel rationing eventually led to a breakdown in the economy, and strikes proceeded until a revolution in the German government proceeded.

- Hunger strikes turned into strikes against the government- Kaiser neglected their concerns- Led to an eventual revolution

Germany faced harder economic and social hardships than Britain = because of Germanys isolation from trade, strict governmental measures i.e. rationing, and severe frosts.

2.2 Recruitment, Conscription, Censorship, and Propoganda in Britain and Germany

Recruitment- Initial outbreak of war = greeted with enthusiasm among Britain +

Germany. - But as war would progress, propaganda + censorship would be employed

to promote governments pro-war motives. - But, soldiers felt “excitement” + “patriotism” (Humphries, 1998)

Britain (Recruitment)- In Britain = war greeted with a “rush to volunteer” = August Madness- Calls for recruitment = newspapers, speeches, universities and

gentlemen’s clubs

Germany (Recruitment)- Germany already had a standing army of conscripts (100yr background)

Conscription (Germany)- Germany already had a standing army of conscripts- When war broke out – it was a matter of calling them up- Strong quality = readiness of its conscripts

Conscription (Britain)- conscription against the traditions of Britain- Pro-conscription campaign began so that the target of 500,000 men would be

met (Derby Scheme)- Did not produce enough men- Universal Conscription Bill introduced – conscripts all single men

- Conscientious objectors: opposed war and conscription on grounds of political, moral or religious reasons.

- Tribunal was unsympathetic to objectors- a portion agreed to serve in non-combatant war-roles i.e. munitions,

ambulance – the rest went to jail.

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PROPOGANDA- encourage particular ideal/s- based on truth = but exaggerated- Medium: Posters / Newspapers / comics / films - Target: young men / women - Purpose: recruit, raise morale, put down enemy

Propaganda (Britain)- usually highlighted the Germans as the aggressors / bullies – due to their u-

boat bombings on civilian boats i.e. Lusitania - the British had separated the world into two divisions “human beings and

Germans” (Kipling, 1914) - War Propaganda Bureau

- Atrocity Story = popular way to arouse enthusiasm for hatred of the Germans.

- I.e. British Nurse Edith Cavell (executed by Germans) = murderous act / criminal on a civilian.

Propaganda (Germany) - Germanica poster = “God punish England”- Germany portrayed as the strong warrior (sword, helmet, shield) – against

Britain over the sea (thunder-sky = evil).

- “Encirclement” of Germany = popular theme (war was a plot by the Allies to suppress Germany’s greatness).

- Atrocity Story (also embellished by Germans) = Allies had blinded German prisoners of war.

Censorship (Britain)- minimize the bad-news of war, to promote feelings of war- In trenches, soldiers forbidden to keep diaries – to stop home front reading

the reality of conditions, to stop, the stop of support for the war. - The government forbid photographs to be taken of ques lining up for food =

effect morale of population. - Directorate of Special Intelligence (DSI) was set up to coordinate all

censorship

Censorship (Germany)- extent of German resources was exaggerated- German public told that the war had started = French invasion of German

soil

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2.3 The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany

In both Britain and Germany during 1914, the reaction of the civilian population was to support the war, and bury any political indifference’s to support the war effort.

- Adventure – patriotism – nationalism – romanticism – noble sacrifice –

Changing Attitudes in Britain- Turning point: Battle of the Somme- Enormous loss for so little gain- People began to question the way war was being fought = futility- There was still a determination to finish the war, but the enthusiasm had

evaporated- London bombings- The nation had become “war weary” – queuing for food became a

national past-time- Rise of pacifism

Changing Attitudes in Germany- masses effected by “turnip winter” 1916 – 1917- political left inspired by revolution in Russia- If people could not have bread, they demanded political rights- Social Democratic Party = split over views in the continuation of war- Germanys population starving- Tiered because of the strenuous war effort - Strikes and hunger-strikes turned into anti-war movement - Kaiser opposed to cease war – by October 1918 – Germany on the fringes

of revolution

Economic hardships on the home fronts due to total war, had made both Germany and Britain “war weary”

2.4 The impact of war on women’s lives, and experiences in Britain

Economic

As men were fighting on the western front, women became a key element in maintaining production levels at home. Initially, “war work” was avoided for women, so they entered fields such as:

- Transport, education, fiancé and administration- Entered employment (previously reserved for men)

But, to maintain the production levels – women had to be employed in factories to continue the production of weaponry and machinery for the war. More than 7 million women became involved in ‘war work”.

- Largest single employer for women: Ministry of Munitions

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Impact:- women became more financially dependent- Under DORA = equal pay and conditions – but never the same as men.

After the war finished, there was a general expectation by men to return to their homes, and that’s just what happened.

Social- women were liberated by the war effort / new experiences- conversed with women from all social groups, unlike before- smoked in public- For practicality in the workforce, women = cut hair shorter- = wore shorter skirts- = bras replaced corsets- women no longer needed chaperones in public

Politically- gained the vote (after war)

The contribution of women to the war effort convinced men of parliament that they had earned a fuller place in society = hence, vote.

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3. TURNING POINTS

3.1 Impacts of the Entry of the USA and of the Russian Withdrawl

Entry of the United States- America originally = “too proud to fight” (Woodrow Wilson, 1915)- Saw no reason for “their boys” to become involved- Feeling reinforced with ‘isolationism’ – better to stay away from Europe’s

problemsBut:

- German suggests an alliance with Mexico – Germany offered Texas & Arizona to Mexico in return.

- Germany’s unrestricted marine warfare – sinking civilian ships i.e. Lusitania

Impact- the entry of the US into the Great War = Kaiser knew that he was doomed- Americas role in the war was potential, rather than actual - (100, 000’s, fresh, eager troops would become available to the allies +

seemingly limitless industrial and economic resources of America)

- This in turn added increasing urgency to Germany’s efforts to drive Britain out of the war (as Ludendorff knew that he was on borrowed time)

- Response: Ludendorrf initiates Spring Offensive (1918) – so that he could achieve a victory before the full weight of America’s potential power became real.

Russian Withdrawal- 1917 revolution = Tsar forced to abdicate + cousin refused the throne =

dual government created- Soldiers no-longer support war:

- Too much social + political upheaval (home front)- the war wasn’t going anywhere (stalemate)- 7 million casualties = futility- “army voted with its feet”: walked away battlefield

- Russia looses territorial land + resources (Poland + Ukraine) – Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Impact- Allowed Germany to shift troops to the Western Front- Used for Germany in their Spring Offensive- Boosted German confidence against allies-

But, the withdrawal of Russia from the war was not as damaging as expected = allies were soon reinforced by the Americans.

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3.2 Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied Response

Lundendorff’s Spring Offensive- Russia’s withdrawal from the war = freed 52 German divisions - Launch attack at several points along the Hindenburg Line- March 21st, 1918

Enormous final offensive, with new tactics (enormously effective):- storm troopers- portable mortars- rapid surprise attacks- rolling barrages, poison gas, night concentrations = break font-line trenches- avoid strongly defended points – sweep around them

Aim: Attack and divide, then defeat British / French forces at ‘Arras’ and ‘Quentin’ – forcing retirement of the US*

* The defeat of British and French would render the US useless – as the war would already be one.

Germans launched 5 attacks: - allied lines were breached, and forced to retreat

1st Offensive: Forced the British back to Amiens, Germans gain 65km2nd Offensive: Germans attack in Flanders – failed breakthrough3rd Offensive: reached the Marne (met no resistance)–within shelling distance of Paris4th Offensive: German advance halted, as they sought to eliminate salient4th Offensive: German advance halted by French in Champagne

- Offensives failed!

Allied Offensive

Background- During Ludendorff’s 5th Offensive – Allies counter-attack German salients

across Marne. - Through tanks + aero planes- Ludendorff retreats- German fighting capacity was reduced (death of elite storm troopers / moral

declined)Attack

- counter attack = “black day” (for Germans)- Surprise attacks by Allies – 8 August- Germans fall back to Hindenburg line (tactics = short, sharp attacks of tanks and

infantry)- Allies make final assault (26 September) = Foch – “everyone into battle”- Hindenburg line = breached in many places – Germans retreat

- Ludendorff demands German Chancellor to “sue for an armistice”- Germany sued for peace (3 October)- Signed armistice – 11, November, 1918

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4. ALLIED VICTORY

4.1 Events leading to the armistice

- Ludendorff’s Spring Offensives- Allied Counter-attacks = retreating Germans to Hindenburg line- British increase in technology and firepower- Entry of US / withdrawal of Russia- Declining morale of German soldiers

(Troops soon discovered that their British enemies – far from starving as German Propaganda had told them – desertion rates rose alarmingly)

4.2 Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse

1. Failure of the Von Schilieffen Plan- failed to encircle Paris- The Battle of the Marne (crucial turning point for Germany); was

indecisive – resulted in the ‘Race to the Sea’- Trench systems created from the channel ports through France / Belgium- War of Attrition adopted – allies proved superior

2. Entry of the United States- financed the Allied war efforts by providing massive loans- compensated for Russia’s withdrawal

3. Domestic Problems in Germany- Food shortages – ‘turnip winter’ 1916-1917- Riots and strikes became common- Opposition to the war – “war weariness”

4. Weakness of German Allies- Germanys allies lacked economic + military strength to sustain a long war- 1918 – Bulgarian armies defeated by British- 1918 – Austrians defeated by Italy- October 1918 – Turkey surrendered

5. Allied Naval Supremacy- economic blockade of Germany created serious shortages of raw materials

to Central Powers- Allied control of the seaways ensured steady supply of

troops/food/supplies to the Western Front

6. Failure of the March 1918 Offensive- failed and opened the way for a massive Allied counter-attack- Under the superior leadership of General Foch (France)- Germans retreated to the Hindenburg line

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- German army was exhausted4.3 The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George, and Wilson in

creating the Treaty of Versailles

The Conference- 18 January 1918 convened in the Great Hall of Versailles- 32 Allied Nations assembled- All decisions rested with the “Big Three” – Clemenceau/George/Wilson

Germany had only agreed to end the hostilities and sign the armistice on the proviso that Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’ would serve as the basis of future peace negotiations. But – the ‘Fourteen Points’ did not include any reparations, and France and Britain were all about making “Germany pay”.

War Guilt Clause- article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles - Germany accepts full responsibility for the war: moral justification for

reparations.

Terms of the Treaty- army limited to 100,000 men- no air-force, navy limited to 6 battleships- conscription banned (seeds of militarism)- no colonies- Allied occupation of the Rhineland for fifteen years- Banned from membership of the League of Nations

Signing the Treaty- 28 June 1919 – Hall of Mirrors- Same room where the German Empire had been proclaimed = reminder to

Germany of its total defeat.

Clash of Personalities- Clemenceau + Lloyd George = at times, irritated by Wilson’s assumed air

of moral superiority- Clemenceau + Lloyd George = wanted reparations (Wilson did not)- Lloyd George + Wilson against Clemenceau over the detachment of

Rhineland- Wilson and Clemenceau were against George over revisions to the terms

Fontainebleau Memorandum, 25 March 1915- Lloyd George feared if treaty too severe = Germany would turn to

Bolshevisms and seek retribution against Allies- Set out new guidelines, to which Clemenceau thought he was too

moderate:

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- Annual reparation sums – settlement should contain no provocation for future wars – nationalities be allocated to motherlands – Germany should be admitted to League of

Nations - Roles of the “Big Three”

Clemenceau (France)- disarmament of Germany- guarantees of French security- Restoration of Alsace and Lorraine- Reparations- Creation of a separate buffer state to the west of the Rhine – the Rhineland

Woodrow Wilson (USA)- idealist: seeking a peace, fair and just- Self-determination (the right for people to rule themselves)- Opposed the annexation of Germany’s colonies by allied powers- Germany should retain most of its pre-war territory (except Alsace + Lo)- Reparations – Germany should be limited to pay little or nothing (trade)- League of Nations : preserve peace- Fourteen Points: preserve peace and status quo in Europe

Lloyd George- keeping faith with the British public – “political chameleon” - desire to soften harsh French demands- resumption of trade and an econonomically viable Europe- “Hang the Kaiser” – “Squeeze Germans till pips squeak” - War pensions = seek reparations for financial losses of Britain

The Treaty of Versailles was never carried through, as Congress failed to ratify America’s involvement from the League of Nations

- hence, America drew herself away from European affairs- there was no-one left to sanction Germany to pay

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