Writing_with_Style Checklist Completed - Anthony Collins

8/10/2019 Writing_with_Style Checklist Completed - Anthony Collins

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Writing with Style

by Suzanne Hudson and Molly LeClair

13.1 Definitions of Terms

L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S

1. Define and give examples of each part of speech.

2. Identify and explain the various parts of a sentence.

3. Identify and explain the various types of sentences.

The following section will define and exemplify the parts of speech, the parts of a sentence, and the types of

sentences we use to compose compelling, readable papers.

Parts of SpeechThe English language consists of nine parts of speech, whose basic understanding is a prerequisite to any

deeper understanding of grammar. These parts of speech

are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

In every sentence, each word functions as one part of speech. Although a word cannot be two parts of speech at

the same time, the same word can function as one part of speech in one sentence and another part of speech in

another sentence. For example, in the sentence I think we shouldcamphere for the night, the wordcampis a

verb. In the sentence I propose that we set upcamphere, the wordcampis a noun. Understanding the parts of

speech enables us to use words correctly and create clear, logically constructed sentences.

Noun

A nounis word or phrase that names a person, place, or thing. Nouns can be proper or common, singular or

plural, concrete or abstract, or possessive. Proper nouns are capitalized; possessive nouns contain apostrophes.

Verb forms known as gerunds (ending in -ing) are also nouns. The nouns in the following sentence are

emphasized.

A wallis a solid structurethat defines boundaries, defends realms, protects property, and even separates populations.

Pronoun

A pronounis a word that takes the place of a noun and refers to a person, place, or thing. There are three

pronoun cases: subjective, objective, and possessive. Pronouns can be first, second, or third person; masculine,

feminine, or neuter; and singular or plural. The pronouns in the following sentences are emphasized.


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TheEpic of Gilgameshrecounts the adventures of the first epic hero. Itbegins by recounting hisrule of Uruk

and itscitizens, and theirdiscontent over whatsets the story in motionGilgameshsedict that theybuild the city walls

higher and higher.

Pronouns might be personal, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, relative, reflexive, or intensive.

1. A personal pronounis used to refer to someone or something already mentioned. A personal pronoun

might be first person, second person, or third person.

o A first-person pronounI, me, my, mine, we, us, our, oursrefers to the speaker.

Wewill follow in the footsteps of the mythological hero Gilgamesh.

o A second-person pronounyou,your,yoursrefers to the person being spoken to.

Youcan get to Uruk from Al-Muthanna.

o A third-person pronounhe, his,she, hers, it, its, they, them, their, theirsrefers to the person or thing being

spoken about.

Theyrecommend hiring a guide for the trip.

2. A demonstrative pronounthis, that, these, and thoseimplies that the speaker is pointing at an object.

I will bring thisif you will bring that.

3.

An interrogative pronounwho, whom, what, whichis used to ask a question.

Whichdo you want?

4. An indefinite pronouneach, any, both, few, some, several, many, all, everybody, everyone, somebody, someone,

neither, none, nothing, somewhererefers to an indefinite person, place, or thing.

Someonemust have an emergency kit.

5. A relative pronounwho, whom, that, whichintroduces a clause that describes the noun.

The guide, whomwe met in Al-Muthanna, speaks perfect English.

6. A reflexive pronounmyself,yourselves, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselvesrefers to the subject of the

sentence.

We made ourselvesindividual rations of dried apricots and meats.


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7. An intensive pronounmyself,yourselves, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselvesaccentuates its

antecedent, the noun that comes before it.

The guide himselftook the archaeological site photographs.

Hint:Myselfis not an all-purpose form of meorI. Use myselfwhen you have usedIearlier in the same sentence: I

myselfam not particularly fond of goat cheese or Iforced myselfto eat the goat cheese.

Verb

A verbis a word or phrase that expresses action or existence.

Verbs have four principal parts: present, past, past participle, and present participle. Regular verbsend in -

edin the past and past participle forms. Irregular verbsare less predictable, as the following examples

demonstrate.

Principle Part Regular Verb Irregular Verb

Present talk sing

Past talked sang

Past participle talked sung

Present participle talking singing

Hint:An English language dictionary will tell you the principal parts of every irregular verb. The principal

parts of regular verbs are standard.

Verbs will be in one of six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect. The

following is the verbsingconjugated in the simple, active voice.

Singular Plural

Present

1st person I sing We sing

2nd person You sing You sing

3rd person He, she, or it sings They sing

Past

1st person I sang We sang

2nd person You sang You sang

3rd person He, she, or it sang They sang

Future


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Singular Plural

1st person I shall sing We shall sing

2nd person You will sing You will sing

3rd person He, she, or it will sing They will sing

Present Perfect

1st person I have sung We have sung

2nd person You have sung You have sung

3rd person He, she, or it has sung They have sung

Past Perfect

1st person I had sung We had sung

2nd person You had sung You had sung

3rd person He, she, or it had sung They had sung

Future Perfect

1st person I shall have sung We shall have sung

2nd person You will have sung You will have sung

3rd person He, she, or it will have sung They will have sung

Note the following facts:

o In the progressive, active voice, verbs are conjugated with beas a helping verb and paired with the present

participle: She is singing.o In the simple, passive voice, verbs are conjugated with beas a helping verb and paired with the past participle: The

song is sung.

o In the progressive, passive voice, verbs are conjugated with the verb beas a helping verb, combined with beingand

the past participle:The song is being sung.

o Some verbs are main verbs, and some are helping verbs. Helping verbs are various forms of be, have, and do.

o Modalsare a subset of helping verbs: can, could, may, might, must,should, will, and would.

o Verbs may be activeor passive. In an active construction, the subject of the verb is acting. In a passive

construction, the subject is being acted upon, as the following examples demonstrate.

Active Construction Passive Construction

I teach. I am taught.

The verbs in the following sentence are emphasized.

Uruk wasthe most splendid of the seven cities of Sumer with temples, marketplaces, orchards, and a towering wall

that protectedit from enemies, floods, and Humbaba the Terrible, who breathedfire and guardedthe Cedar Forest.


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Adjective

An adjectiveis a word or combination of words that modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjectives usually answer one

of the following questions: What kind? Which one? How many? Some verb forms, called participles, are used as

adjectives. For example, the word recurringin the example that follows is a verb form being used as an adjective

modifying the noun theme, and the word lovingis a verb form being used to modify the noun companion. In

English, adjectives routinely precede the nouns they modify. The adjectives in the following sentences are

emphasized.

A recurringtheme in Gilgamesh is the lovingcompanion who influences profoundchange. For example, through

friendship, Enkidu transforms from a savageman into a nobleone, and Gilgamesh changes from a tyrannicalking into

an exemplaryone.

Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs usually answer one of the

following questions: How? Why? When? Where? The adverbs in the following sentence are emphasized.

In 1849, William Loftus could scarcelyimagine, in the desolation he encountered at the ancient site of Uruk, that the walls

were once intricatelyand colorfullydecorated with mosaics of painted clay.

Article

An articleis any of three words used to signal the presence of a noun.Aand anare indefinite articles; theis

a definite article. The articles in the following sentence are emphasized.

Asecond theme of theepic is thequest for eternal life.

Preposition

A prepositionis a word or phrase that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another noun or pronoun.

Common prepositions are in, out, above,below, under, beside, by, on, across, to,from, between, of, and with. The

prepositions in the following sentence are emphasized.

A ziggurat temple was inUruk. Gilgamesh stood onthe fortification wall and looked acrossthe Abzu Sea.

Conjunction

A conjunctionis a word that connects other words, phrases, or sentences. There are three kinds of

conjunctions: coordinate, subordinate, andcorrelative.


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1. Coordinate conjunctionsconnect items of equal importance. The seven coordinate conjunctions

are but, or,yet,for, and, nor, andso. The coordinate conjunctions in the following sentence are emphasized.

Both King Nebuchadnezzar II andSaddam Hussein built palaces to glorify their realms, butHusseins,built on

top of the ancient stronghold, was never occupied.

Hint:To remember the seven coordinate conjunctions, use the acronym BOYFANS.

2. Subordinate conjunctionsconnect subordinate clauses to main clauses. Some common subordinate

conjunctions are after, although, because,even though, if,since, unless, when, whenever, whereas, and wherever.

The subordinate conjunction in the following sentence is emphasized.

Whereasthe original bricks bore inscriptions eulogizing Nebuchadnezzar, Saddam Hussein had bricks engraved,

Inthe reign of Saddam Hussein who rebuilt Babylon.

3. Correlative conjunctionscome in pairs (either-or, neither-nor, not only-but also). The correlative conjunctions

in the following sentence are italicized bold.

Eitheryou see the connection between Saddam Hussein and the Chaldean conquerors he so admired oryou

dont.

Interjection

An interjectionis a word or phrase used as an exclamation and capable of standing by itself. Interjections such

as hoorayoryikesare often set off from sentences and followed by an exclamation point. Mild interjections, such

as ohand well, are usually incorporated into sentences and set off with commas. Interjections are seldom used

in formal writing.

Oh, so you want to hear more about walls.

C O N C E P T C H E C K

Understanding Parts of Speech

1. Underline the nouns in the following sentence. Double-underline the proper noun.

The construction of the Great Wall of China began over 2,000 years ago.

2. Underline the pronouns in the following sentence.

We think that everyone should see it when they visit China.


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3. Underline the verbs in the following sentence, including any helping verbs and/or modals.

The ruling powers believed that the Wall would protect their territories from invasion.

4. Underline the adjectives in the following sentence.

On numerous maps, the Wall is depicted as a writhing sea monster.

5. Underline the adverb in the following sentence.

Over the centuries, the Wall eventually developed into a system of towers, loops, and spurs.

6. Underline the articles in the following sentence.

A nonprofit organization of conservationists has made an effort to protect the Wall from further

deterioration at the hands of nature.

7. Underline the prepositions in the following sentence:

It is fiction that the Great Wall of China is visible from the moon.

8. Underline the coordinate conjunction in the following sentence. Double-underline the subordinate

conjunction.

Because the villages nearby were built as a result of the Wall and from the same materials, they are

considered part of the wallscape.

9. Underline the interjection in the following sentence.

As at least one world leader has said, Wow! That is a great wall!

Sentence Parts

A sentence is a syntactically independent word group containing at least a subject and a verb (actor and action).

Every word, phrase, or clause in a sentence has a function or plays a part in the sentence. The parts of sentences

are verbs, subjects, objects, complements, modifiers, and connectors.

Verb

A verbis both a part of speech and a sentence part. As a sentence part, the verb is sometimes called a predicate.

A verb is a word or phrase that expresses action or existence. Every complete sentence contains at least one

verb. The emphasized word in the following sentence is a verb.

The Romans thrived.


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Subject

To be complete, a sentence needs a subjectan actor. To find the subject, first find the verb. For example, if the

verb is built, ask, Who built? The answer to that question is the subject of the sentence. The emphasized word

in the following sentence is the subject of the verb built.

The Romansbuilt walls.

Object

There are three kinds of objects: direct object, indirect object, and object of a preposition.

1. Direct object. A direct object is the person, place, or thing on which the action was performed. Not every

sentence has a direct object, but if there is one, you find it by first finding the verb. If the verb is built, ask,

Built what? The answer is the direct object of the sentence. The emphasized words in the following

sentence are the direct object of the verb built.

The Romans built HadriansWall, extending seventy-three miles from the North Sea to the Irish Sea.

2. Indirect object.An indirect object is the person, place, or thing for whom the action was performed. Not

every sentence has an indirect object, but if there is one, you find it by first finding the verb. If the verb

isgave, ask, Gave to whom? The answer is the indirect object of the sentence. The emphasized word in

the following sentence is the indirect object of the verb gave.

Hadrian gave his enemiesin occupied Britain a reminder of Roman power.

3. Object of the preposition.The object of the preposition is the noun or pronoun that comes after the

preposition. For example, if the preposition is beside, ask, Beside what? The answer is the object of the

preposition. The emphasized word in the following sentence is the object of the preposition beside.

Visitors might see wild chives and rockrose beside the wall.

Complement

There are two kinds of complements: subject complementsand object complements.

1. Subject complement.Some sentences are not complete unless they contain a subject complement. Subject

complements either rename or describe the subject of the sentence. Subject complements follow linking

verbs, which are a form of the verb beor a word that approximates the meaning of be, such

asseemor appear. To find the subject complement, first find the linking verb. If the linking verb is might


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have been, ask, Might have been what? The answer is the subject complement of the sentence. The

emphasized word in the following sentence is a subject complement.

HadriansWall might have been a lookoutthat allowed troops to observe marauders from the north and the

south.

Rather than rename the subject, the subject complement might describe it. In this case, the subject

complement is an adjective. The emphasized word in the following sentence is subject complement.

HadriansWall is impressive.

2. Object complement.Object complements either rename or describe objects. They follow the objects they

complement. The emphasized words in the following sentences are object complements.

We now call the stone-and-turf wall HadriansWall.

The Romans made the wall durable.

Modifier

Many sentences contain more than the basic elements. These additional parts are modifiersor describing

words. Modifiers can be a single word, a phrase, or an entire clause. They can be adjectives, adjective clauses,

adverbs, adverb clauses, absolute phrases, infinitive phrases, participle phrases, and prepositional phrases.

(These phrases and clauses are discussed in more detail in the next section of this chapter.)

Modifiers can contain modifiers; for example, an adjective clause might contain a prepositional phrase, and a

prepositional phrase might contain an adjective. The emphasized words in the following sentence are modifiers.

The versatileHadrian, who supervised construction of a stone-and-turf wall to protect against invaders,

alsobuilt sophisticatedaqueducts and sumptuousbaths, wrote classicalverse, hunted enthusiastically,

traveled extensively, and ruled the Roman Empiresuccessfully for twenty-one years.

The preceding sentence contains the following modifiers:

Adjectives: versatile, stone-and-turf, sophisticated, sumptuous, classical, twenty-one

Adverbs: also, enthusiastically, extensively, successfully

Prepositional phrases: of a stone-and-turf wall, against invaders, for twenty-one years

Infinitive phrase: to protect against invaders

Adjective clause: who supervised construction of a stone-and-timber wall to protect against invaders

Connector


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In sentences, the connectors are simply conjunctions.


Understanding Sentence Parts

1. Underline the verb in the following sentence.

In the Biblical account, Israelites destroyed the walls of Jericho by shouting and blowing horns.

2. Underline the subject in the following sentence.

In a failed attempt at excavation, Sir Charles Warren dug through the mud bricks of the wall.

3. Underline the subject complement in the following sentence.

Kathleen Kenyon was the archaeologist who dated the oldest wall of Jericho at around 8000 BCE.

4. Underline the object complement in the following sentence.

Archaeologists named the time period the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A stone age.

5. Underline the modifiers in the following sentence.

Apparently, the wall was part of an early protocity that contained an organized community of 3,000

people.

6. Underline the connectors in the following sentence.

It is unclear what the purpose of the wall of Jericho was, but it may have been intended to prevent

flooding or to protect the people from marauders.

Word Groups

Some sentences contain word groups called phrasesand clauses.

Phrase

A phraseis a group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb. Some phrases function as essential

parts of sentences; others function as modifiers.

1. Prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with the object of the

prepositiona noun or a pronoun. The prepositional phrases in the following sentence are emphasized.


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The Great Wall of Chinawas a symbolic boundary of the empire, a 5,500-mile line separating civilization from

barbarism.

2. Appositive phrase.An appositive phrase is a noun or adjective phrase that renames or describes another

noun. The appositive phrase is emphasized in the following sentence.

Mur des Lamentations, the Wailing Wall, is located in the Old City of Jerusalem.

3. Infinitive phrase.An infinitiveis a verb form consisting of the word toplus the verb. To locateis an infinitive.

An infinitive phrase begins with an infinitive and includes all the modifiers and objects that belong to the

infinitive. The infinitive phrase in the following sentence is emphasized.

To locate the monument to the 200,000 French citizens who died during the Holocaust,visit the nearest

kiosk and purchase your Plan de Paris.

4. Gerund phrase.Agerundis a verb form that ends with -ingand is used as a noun. A gerund phrase usually

begins with a gerund and includes all of its objects and modifiers. A gerund or gerund phrase functions the

same way a noun functionsas subject, object, complement, or appositive. The gerund phrases are

emphasized in the following sentence.

Studying the Potsdam Agreement and the establishment of StalinsEastern Blocis helpful

in understanding how the Berlin Wall became a reality.

5. Participial phrase.Aparticipleis a verb form that is used as an adjective. A participial phrase usually begins

with the participle and includes all of its objects and modifiers. Adjectives are not essential parts of

sentences, and because participles and participial phrases function as adjectives, they are also

nonessential. In other words, a sentence can be complete without the participial phrase. The participial

phrases in the following sentence are emphasized.

Working with sandstone and mud mortar,the Ancient Pueblo People constructed massive dwellings along

cliff walls situated in the Four Corners area of the Southwest United States.

6. Absolute phrase.An absolute phrase would be a complete sentence if some form of the verb behad not been

omitted. An absolute phrase is a modifier and therefore not essential to the structure of the sentence. The

absolute phrase in the following sentence is emphasized.


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The Earl of BelvederesJealous Wall, its length approximately 100 feet, still stands today near Mullingar in

County Westmeath, Ireland.

Clause

Clausesare word groups that contain both subjects and verbs. Clauses can be independent(main)

or dependent(subordinate).

1. Independent clause.An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and stands as a complete

sentence. The following sentence is an independent clause.

Shards of broken ceramics cover Raymonde Isidoreshouse, La Maison Picassiette.

2. Dependent clause.A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand alone as a sentence.

There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adjective, adverb, and noun.

o Adjective clause.An adjective clause performs the function of an adjective: it modifies or describes a noun

or pronoun. An adjective clause begins with a relative pronoun, usually who, whose, whom, which, or that. The

adjective clause in the following sentence is emphasized.

Isidore, whose nickname, Picassiette, means Picassoof plates,used fifteen tons of china and crockery to

decorate his house and garden courtyard in Chartres, France.

o Adverb clause.An adverb clause performs the function of an adverb: it modifies or describes a verb, adverb,

or adjective. Adverb clauses begin with subordinate conjunctions. The adverb clause in the following

sentence is emphasized.

After you visit Chartres Cathedral, consider walking through Isidoresvotive grottoes that recreate images of

the great Cathedral.

o Noun clauses.A noun clause functions just as a noun functionsas a subject, object, complement, or

appositive. Noun clauses begin with relative pronouns, usually who, what, which, or that. The noun clause in

the following sentence is emphasized.

Isidore, who by various accounts was a road mender or graveyard sweeper, could not have imagined that his

house would attract over 30,000 visitors every year.

Picassiette House

Raymonde Isidore built the Picassiette House, with its mosaic walls, between 1938 and 1964.


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Understanding Phrases and Clauses

1.

Underline the prepositional phrase in the following sentence.

The Berlin Wall was a barrier between East Berlin and West Berlin.

2. Underline the appositive phrase in the following sentence.

The United Statesfortieth president, Ronald Reagan, said to the Soviet leader, Mr.Gorbachev, tear

down this wall!

3. Underline the infinitive phrase in the following sentences.

The Berlin Wall was intended to prevent fascist influences in the newly formed socialist state in East

Berlin.

4. Underline the gerund phrase in the following sentence.

However, it resulted in restricting the freedom of East Berliners to travel wherever they pleased.

5. Underline participial phrase in the following sentence.

Made of concrete and barbed wire, the Wall stood as a symbol of totalitarian oppression.

6.

Underline the absolute phrase in the following sentence.

Ronald Reagan delivered his speech in front of Brandenburg Gate, two bulletproof panes of glass

protecting him from potential snipers.

7. Underline the independent clause in the following sentence.

Although the Berlin Wall was obliterated by ecstatic East and West Berliners, a section of it is on

display at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California.

8.

Underline the adjective clause in the following sentence.

The Eastern Bloc, which was controlled by the Soviet Union, included East Germany, Poland,

Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.

9. Underline the adverb clause in the following sentence.


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Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the destruction of the wall because he agreed that it was time to increase

freedom in the Eastern Bloc.

10. Underline the noun clause in the following sentence.

Historians believe that the infiltration of rock nroll music was another cause of the collapse of the

Iron Curtain.

Sentence

A sentence is a word group containing a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought. Basic sentence

structures are the following:

1. Subject and verb:Romans thrived.

2. Subject, verb, and direct object:Romans built walls.

3.

Subject, verb, and subject complement:Romans were builders.

Longer sentences are achieved by compounding any of the preceding elements and by adding modifying

phrases and clauses.

There are four types of sentences in the English language: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.

Striving to use all four types of sentences in your writing will ensure variety in length and structure.

1. A simple sentencecontains only one independent clause. While it may contain more than one subject or

verb, it is not divisible into more than one clause. The following is a simple sentence.

Andy Goldsworthyssculpture,Storm King Wall, is 2,278 feet long.

2. A compound sentencecontains two or more independent clauses. The following is a compound sentence.

Goldsworthy produces site-specific sculptures, but much of his earth art is ephemeral.

3. A complex sentencecontains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The following is a

complex sentence.

Goldsworthy, who collected fieldstones on the premises in Mountainville, New York, spent over two years

completing theStorm King Wall.

4. A compound-complex sentencecontains two or more independent clauses, making the sentence compound,

and at least one dependent clause, making the sentence complex. The following is a compound-complex

sentence.


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Goldsworthy built the wall known as Taking a Wall for a Walkin Grizedale Forest in northwest England, and

several years later he completed theStorm King Wall, which also interacts with the environment by snaking

through the trees, in New York.

Andy Goldsworthy, Storm King Wall

Andy Goldsworthy built his earth sculpture, Storm King Wall, in the hamlet of Mountainville, New York.


Understanding Sentence Types

In the blank beside each of the following sentences, write Sbeside the simple sentence, Cbeside the compound

sentence, CXbeside the complex sentence, and CCXbeside the compound-complex sentence.

1. ___C__

o Before I built a wall, Id ask to know what I was walling in or walling out. Robert Frost

2. ___S__

o The First Amendment has created a wall between church and state. US Supreme Court

3. __CX___

o Joshua fit the battle of Jericho, and the walls come tumblin down. Anonymous

4. _CCX____

o He knows he has a short span of life, that the day will come when he must pass through the wall of

oblivion, and he wants to leave a scratch on that wallKilroy was herethat somebody a hundred, or a

thousand years later will see. William Faulkner

K E Y T A K E A W A Y S

The nine parts of speech are noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, article, preposition, conjunction, and

interjection.

Complete sentences always contain a subject and a verb.

Besides a subject and a verb, a sentence may contain objects, complements, modifiers, and connectors.

Besides a subject and a verb, a sentence may contain phrases and clauses.

Types of phrases are prepositional, appositive, infinitive, gerund, participial, and absolute.

Types of clauses are independent and dependent.

Types of dependent clauses are adjective, adverb, and noun.

The four sentence types are simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.

Writing_with_Style Checklist Completed - Anthony Collins

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