WRBCS305A

Page ii of 52 Learner Guide WRBCS305A Apply knowledge of skin biology to beauty treatments

Service Industries Skills Council, 2005

This work is copyright, but permission is given to trainers and teachers to make copies for use within their own training organisation or in a workplace where training is being conducted. This permission does not extend to making copies for use outside the immediate training environment for which they are made, or the making of copies for hire or resale to third parties.

Modification and distribution of this document is permitted within the terms specified in the Service Skills Beauty Training Package Support Materials - electronic version: Licence conditions document.

Except as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. Requests for permission may be directed to:

Services Industries Skills Council Level 10, 171 Clarence St Sydney NSW 2001 Phone: +61 2 8243 1210 Fax: +61 2 8243 1299 www.serviceskills.com.au e-mail: [email protected]

The views in this work do not necessarily represent the views of the Service Industries Skills Council. The Service Industries Skills Council does not give warranty nor accept any liability in relation to the content of this work.

Published by: Services Industries Skills Council Level 10, 171 Clarence St Sydney NSW 2001 Phone: +61 2 8243 1210 Fax: +61 2 8243 1299 www.serviceskills.com.au e-mail: [email protected]

Title: Learner Guide WRBCS305A Apply knowledge of skin biology to beauty treatments (electronic version) ISBN: 1 74160 060 X

First published: April 2005 Printed by: SOS Printing, Sydney, Australia Print Version No: 1

Service Skills acknowledges the work of the Victoria University of Technology in the development of this resource.

i

Table of contents

Getting started.................................................................................................................1

Section A Identify the main functions of the skin ........................................................3

Section B Identify the main functions of hair ...............................................................43

Assessment......................................................................................................................51

Learner Guide WRBCS305A Apply knowledge of skin biology to beauty treatments Page 1 of 52

Getting started

Getting started

Information about this learner guide This learner guide covers the unit of competency, WRBCS305A Apply knowledge of skin biology to beauty treatments, which is part of the WRB04 Beauty Training Package.

It is a core unit for the following qualifications:

WRB30104 Certificate III in Beauty Services WRB40104 Certificate IV in Beauty Therapy WRB50104 Diploma of Beauty Therapy The guide has been designed to help you develop the skills and knowledge required to apply the principles of skin biology to a range of beauty treatments and it covers the following elements of competency:

1. Apply knowledge of skin structure and function to beauty treatments

2. Apply knowledge of the structure and function of hair to beauty treatments

3. Promote skin health and care

A variety of learning activities have been included to support you in developing the skills and knowledge you need to achieve competence in this unit.

Your will be expected to demonstrate that you have acquired the skills and knowledge specified in the unit of competency. You may be asked to:

answer written and/or oral questions demonstrate the practical skills you have acquired complete relevant workplace documentation. Assessment for this unit must be conducted by an assessor from a Registered Training Organisation (RTO). Refer to the Assessment section at the end of this guide for more information.

Use your trainer or supervisor as an additional learning resource. If you have any problems with your learning discuss them with your trainer or supervisor at the earliest opportunity.

of 52 Learner Guide WRBCS305A Apply knowledge of skin biology to beauty treatments

Getting started

Suggested resources The following references may provide you with additional information and ideas as you progress through this unit.

Books McKenzie, James C and Klein, Robert M. (2000) Basic Concepts in Cell Biology and Histology: A Student's Survival Guide, McGraw-Hill, and Health Professions Division, New York.

Bray, John L. (1999) Lecture notes on human physiology, 4th Ed., Blackwell Science, Malden, Mass.

Marieb, Elaine Nicpon (2001) Human Anatomy & Physiology, 5th Ed., Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco.

Websites Human Anatomy Online: Innerbody.com 2001, Available: http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html. Accessed 6 December 2004.


Section A

Identify the main functions of the skin

Section A Identify the main functions of the skin

What you will cover in this section The three steps to Identify the main functions of the skin are:

Step 1 Identifying skin structure

Step 2 Identifying the functions and features of the skin in relation to beauty treatments

Step 3 Promoting skin health and care

This section covers the structure of the skin and its main functions in relation to a range of beauty treatments. It also covers the importance of protecting the skins main functions by providing appropriate beauty treatments and aftercare advice about such things as the effects of environmental damage and nutrition.

Step 1 Identifying skin structure

Skin is the part of the body which is most visible and therefore contributes to the development of a persons self-esteem and wellbeing. The care, maintenance and enhancement of the skin is the central function of the beauty industry. A knowledge of the structure and function of the skin will give you an understanding of how a range of beauty treatments affects the skin and its functions. The skin itself is an organ an aggregation of tissues that performs a specific function in the body. A group of organs that operate together in the body is called a system. The integumentary system consists of the skin and its derivatives including hair, glands, nails and specialised receptors.

The Integumentary System

The integumentary system covers the whole body and is made up of several layers. The diagram below illustrates the various parts of the system and how it is linked. It is made up of thirteen elements which will be covered in more detail in this guide:

outer skin superficial fascia epidermis dermis hair sweat gland stratum corneum hair follicle


Section A


sebaceous gland fat pacinian corpuscle smooth muscle nerve

The Skin

The skin is the largest organ in the human body. It is quite complex in structure and function. The skin has two major layers the dermis and epidermis. The epidermis is the thinner outermost layer and is composed of epithelium. The dermis is the thicker inner layer composed of connective tissue. The subcutaneous layer, also known as superficial fascia of hypodermis, is beneath the dermis.

Skin

Superficial fascia

Epidermis

Dermis

Hair

Sweat gland

Stratum corneum

Hair follicle

Sebaceous gland

Fat Pacinian corpuscle

Smooth muscle

Nerve


Section A


The Major Regions and Principal Features of Skin Surface Anatomy

The Epidermis The epidermis or outermost layer of the skin is made up stratified squamous epithelium, (layers of cells which are ultimately shed), which contains four different types of cells. The most numerous is the keratinocyte. This cell undergoes the process of keratinisation. The keratinocytes function is to produce keratin, which protects the skin, makes it less permeable to water and plays a role in immunity. The second type of cell is the melanocyte. Melanocytes produce melanin, which plays a role in determining skin colour and providing UV protection. The third type of cell is the langherans cell which originates in bone marrow and moves to the epidermis where it, along with the fourth type of cell, the granstein cell, plays a role in immunity.

The epidermis is composed of between four and five cell layers. Palms and soles have five layers due to their greater exposure to friction. These five layers from the skin surface to deepest layers are as follows:

Stratum corneum provides a barrier against light, heat, water, bacteria and a range of chemicals. The cells in this layer are flat dead cells completely filled with keratin and are continuously being shed and replaced. These keratin cells or keratinocytes are arranged in the skin like the bricks in a wall.

Stratum lucidum - this layer is also made up of clear flat dead cells. It contains a clear substance called eleiden which eventually becomes keratin. Eleiden is translucent, therefore giving the layer its name, lucidum, which means clear. This layer is only found in the skin of palms and soles.

Stratum granulosom contains a substance called keratohyalin, which eventually forms the keratin found in the topmost layer of the epidermis. This layer is made up of between three and five rows of cells in various stages of degeneration.

Stratum spinosum is formed of eight to ten rows of many-sided (polyhedral) cells. When viewed under a microscope these cells may have a prickly appearance, hence the name spinosum, which means prickly.

Stratum basale cells in this layer are continually dividing and multiplying this layer is the source of new cells. The cells are cuboidal to columnar in shape and as they multiply they push their way up through the other skin layers.


Section A


Epidermal ridges and grooves Epidermal ridges are the lines and loops that appear on the palms and soles and are commonly known as fingerprints or footprints. The ridges are formed during the foetal stage in response to the contours of the underlying dermal papillae. Their pattern is genetically determined and is unique. They assist in providing friction and grip for the soles and palms. Epidermal grooves are found on other parts of the skin. Perhaps they are most clearly seen on the back of the hand as a pattern of criss-crossed lines.

The Dermis and the vascular system The dermis is the lower layer of skin and is much thicker than the epidermis. It provides the supporting framework of the skin and also contains numerous hair follicles, nerves, glands and blood vessels. The vascular system in the skin is composed of venous and arterial blood vessels which supply the skin with oxygen and nutrients and together with the lymphatic system remove waste materials. The transport medium of this system is the blood. Blood is composed of cells (blood cells and platelets) and liquid (plasma) which contains proteins, amino acids, hormones, vitamins, inorganic salts and other organic compounds. The vascular tissue within the dermis also helps to regulate temperature.

Connective tissue is found throughout the body as well as in the skin. It plays a role in cushioning and supporting other tissues and maintain the bodys form. It is made up of protein fibres, (collagen and elastin within a gel-like ground substance) and tissue fluid. The cells of connective tissue do not exist in masses or sheets but are linked via intercellular substances which support and bind them.

The dermis is composed of two layers, the papillary layer and the reticular layer.

The papillary layer is made up of loose connective tissue and collagen and elastin fibres. The surface of this layer is made up of dermal papillae, small projections which greatly increase the surface area. The dermal papillae also contain nerve endings, which are sensitive to touch (corpuscles of touch).

The reticular layer is made up of thick connective tissue containing a network of collagenous and coarse elastic fibres. The word reticular means net-like and refers to this network of fibres. This provides the skin with qualities such as resilience, strength and elasticity/extensibility. This layer is connected to the underlying organs via the subcutaneous layer. There are nerve endings in the subcutaneous layer called pacinian (or lamellated) corpuscles, which can sense pressure.

The dermis also contains some very fine networks of skin nerves. These fine nerve fibres extend into the lower layers of the epidermis and up around hair follicles. They allow us to feel sensations such as heat, cold, touch, pain and itch.

The dermis also contains a network of fine blood vessels carrying oxygen nutrients and hormones. These nourish the skin and affect its growth and metabolism. The skin can in no way be fed or nourished from the outside.


Section A


The Hypodermis The hypodermis, also known as the subcutaneous layer, is the layer beneath the dermis. It is made up of subcutaneous tissue which contains fat and is known as adipose tissue. The thickness of this layer varies greatly throughout the body and is absent altogether in some areas such as the eyelid. The function of the hypodermis is to protect the body through providing a cushioning layer. The adipose tissue also plays an important role in hormone activity.

Skin on the hands and feet

The appearance of skin varies on different areas around the body according to the job it is required to do. The depth of the epidermis is thicker on the soles of the feet and in the palms of the hand for example than on the eyelid where it is extremely thin. This has implications for beauty treatments in these areas. The hands and feet take a large amount of wear and tear and so the skin is thicker and tougher as a result of this friction.

Areas of skin also differ in their features such as the type and amount of hair, glands, nerves and blood supply. The soles of the feet and the palms of the hand have no hair follicles, few sweat glands but a high density of nerve receptors. The palms and the soles are smooth areas of skin in most people due to the continual abrasions from shoes, walking and manual activities.

The areas of the hands and feet exposed to the sun such as the top of the feet and the back of the hands will often show the effects of ultra-violet radiation. The skin will darken when exposed to the sun and may also show the effects of sun damage and photo ageing. Skin that is not dry or damaged has a glossy appearance.


Section A


Learning activity A1.1

Select three beauty treatments and use the information in this section to identify which layer/s of the skin is affected by each treatment. For example treatments involving epilation where hair follicles are removed affect the dermis because this is where hair follicles are found. Make some notes below.

Beauty treatment Layer/s of skin affected

Why do you think it is important for you to have an understanding of the structure of the skin?

Discuss how knowledge of the layers of the skin relates to your work with your trainer or supervisor.


Section A


Step 2 Identifying the functions and features of the skin in relation to beauty treatments

It is essential that you have an understanding of the specific functions and features of the skin so that you can identify the effects of a range of beauty treatments. For example, what effect does cleansing the face as part of facial services and makeup treatments have on the major cells of the epidermis? What effect does exfoliation have on the epidermis?

The main functions of the skin include the following:

Protection - The skin provides protection from abrasion, loss of water and keeps the blood supply away from the surface where bacteria could enter.

Excretion - The glands of the skin allow the body to lose heat and water when needed. They also allow the loss of certain salts and wastes from the body.

Sensation - Abundant nerve endings and specialised receptors detect changes on the outside of the skin and give information about pain, temperature, touch and pressure.

Immunity - The epidermis contains cells that fight infection when there is damage to the skin.

Vitamin D synthesis - Ultra-violet light from the sun activates the production of vitamin D.

Body temperature regulation- The skin reacts to stimuli received by either retaining heat or allowing it to leave the body. It maintains an even internal body temperature at all times to protect the inner organs.

Protection

The stratum corneum, also known as the horny layer, is the top layer of the epidermis. It is this layer that plays a key role in protecting the skin from external elements, such as the sun and harsh soaps, and helps to maintain moisture within the rest of the skin. Without moisture the skin can become dry and unhealthy. The stratum corneum is an important layer in understanding the effects of skin care products such as moisturisers which are applied to reinforce the skins protective functions as part of facial and body treatments such as massages.

Excretion

One of the main functions of the skin is excretion. This takes place through the glands in the skin. There are two major glands located in the skin. They are the sebaceous glands which produce sebum or oil and the sweat glands which produce perspiration.


Section A


The sebaceous glands are located all over the skin except for the palms and soles. They largely follow hair growth and usually develop as part of the pilosebaceous unit together with the hair follicle and have a branched or saccular (resembling a sac or pouch) structure. It is an epidermal structure but it grows into the dermis as part of the pilosebaceous unit. It is surrounded by a basement membrane which is continuous with the epidermis basement membrane.

The sebaceous gland itself has many lobes (multilobulate). Each lobe is active in sebum production but then ceases production and shrinks: the oil producing period is indeterminate but estimated to be between several weeks to several months. It is unknown as to whether the lobe regenerates after this period but the likelihood is low. All the lobes in the gland undergo this cycle but not simultaneously.

The duct of the sebaceous gland is usually small or absent. The sebum is excreted into the mouth of the follicle. Not all hair follicles have sebaceous glands, but all sebaceous glands are part of a hair follicle. Sometimes a follicle may have lost the hair and therefore appear like an isolated sebaceous gland.

At the onset of puberty there is a surge in the production of androgens, which in turn stimulate sebum production. Between the ages of 10 years and 18-19 years the production increases six fold. Production then decreases steadily with increasing age.

The sebaceous glands are most concentrated on the forehead and cheeks (900 to 100 per square centimetre) and the scalp and chin (400 to 700 per square centimetre). The rest of the skin averages 100 per square centimetre. There are also high concentrations of quite large glands for lubricity on the vermilion margins of the lips, the labia minora, the glans, penis and the eyelids.

Cells lining pilosebaceous duct are continuous with skin surface keratin

epidermis

dermis

Blood vessels

Nerves

Sebaceous gland

Hair shaft

Pilosebaceous duct


Section A


Production, Composition and Possible Functions of Sebum

The lobe of the sebaceous gland begins development as a bulge of cells that sometimes extends into the hypodermis. At the basement membrane of the lobe is a layer of mitotic or dividing cells. These cells divide and produce potential lipid synthesising cells, (cells which produce the sebum), which are then pushed into the centre of the gland. As these cells develop and age they begin to synthesise lipid and become swollen with droplets of oil.

As these droplets of oil grow they change the size and shape of the cell. The cytoplasm (part of the cell outside the nucleus and the oil droplets) remains as strands containing vivible mitochondria.

The upper central part of the lobe contains cells undergoing nuclear disintegration and further up in the lobe the cells are actually expelling their contents as the cell wall ruptures. This process, the constant production and movement of cells through the lobe, forces the sebum to be constantly squeezed out along the sebaceous gland duct. Expulsion of sebum is in not assisted by muscular contraction.

Muscles also play no part in the opening and closing of pores. Enlarged pores result from long term stretching due to active glands and blockages. This is sometimes quite evident in the skin features of people from tropical regions.

The duct of the sebaceous gland can sometimes experience blockages. This is due to the desquamation (shedding) of the slightly keratinised cells of the duct and also the walls of the follicle which are consistent with the outside epidermis. The keratinised cells like those of the epidermis itself are continuously being shed. This contributes to pore blockages.

The sebaceous glands have a rich blood supply in adulthood. As the glands are not as active in childhood there is a weak blood supply to the glands in children. While sebum production actually diminishes in old age the blood supply to the glands in older people is still quite good and may in fact even increase with age!

While there is a rich blood supply to the sebaceous glands during adulthood, there are no nerves supplying the sebaceous glands. Gland response is driven by hormones in the blood and is therefore characteristically slow. The hormones responsible for this are testosterone and dihydroxytestosterone.

The composition of sebum consists of lipids, cell membrane fragments, cytoplasmic remains, enzymes and protein fragments. The most important of these are the lipids. The sebaceous lipids are quite different in both function and composition to epidermal lipids. Epidermal lipids are derived from the keratinocytes and account for only 5% of skin surface lipids while sebaceous lipids account for 95%. Two types of lipids are especially important:


Section A


Sebaceous lipids: constituents of sebum. They form a more or less occlusive film on the skin. The addition of sebaceous lipids to dry, oil-deficient skin, restores the normal skin condition.

Epidermal lipids: Primarily ceramides, cholesterol and free fatty acids, especially linoleic acid, are found among the lipids of the stratum corneum. They make up the horny layer's permeability membrane, which is mostly determined by the content of these epidermal lipids.

The balance of lipids on the stratum corneum can be improved by the topical application of skin-related lipids through facial treatments.

Their comparative composition can be seen in the table below.

Sebum lipids Epidermal lipids

Triglycerides and Free Fatty Acids

57.5% 5.0%

Wax Esters 26.0% 0.0%

Squalene 12.0% 0.0%

Cholestoral Esters 3.0% 15.%

Cholestoral 1.5% 20.0%

Ceramides 0.0% 55.0%

The following table illustrates the different chemical composition and quantities of sebum produced at various body sites. (ug/cm = micrograms per centimetre). Sebum on the skin has implications for the effectiveness of some body treatments such as waxing where the beauty operator needs to check that the skin is free from a film of sebum so that the wax can adhere effectively. Other treatments such as body massage may increase sebaceous and sweat gland excretions.

Forehead Cheek Chest Back Side Arm Leg

Squalene (ug/cm) 12.3 13.5 10.7 10.7 8.5 6.9 6.9

Total Lipids (ug/cm)

160 104 59 38 29 13 19

Maximum production rates:

Males 5.82 mg/cm/ 3hrs

Females 5.34 mg/cm/ 3hrs


Section A


Variation in Sebaceous Gland Activity with Age:

Age Group Males mg/cm/3hrs

Females mg/cm/3hrs

6-12 0.44 N/A

15-19 2.35 2.17

20-29 2.48 2.03

30-39 2.52 2.04

40-49 2.39 1.86

50-59 2.43 1.08

60-69 2.42 0.88

70-79 1.69 0.85

The figures in the table above reflect the sudden increase in sebaceous gland activity from the onset of puberty and the continuing high production through the reproductive years. Production slows quite significantly in females after menopause due to the reduced testosterone levels, which are responsible for maintaining sebum production levels. Consequently there is no such reduction in males of a similar age. Changes in sebaceous gland activity have implications for the application of beauty treatments. For example high production of sebum may be associated with acne and treatment may focus on the reduction of sebum. Treatments for sebum related disorders (such as acne) can therefore take some time to work. Acne is the result of bacterial activity that is dependent on an individuals particular sebum level and composition and their rate of shedding dead cells, which can contribute to blockages. Lower sebum production may result in dry skin for more mature clients. Treatment in this case may focus on rehydrating the skin.

Hormones which influence sebum production are:

Testosterone the cell of the sebaceous gland metabolises this hormone into dihydroxytestosterone.

Thyroid Hormone increases sebum production.

Growth Hormone increases sebum production.

Oestrogen reduces sebum production.


Section A


NB: Testosterone is also included in the manufacture of some synthetic progesterones used in certain contraceptives. In the body these are metabolised to testosterone which in turn increases sebum activity. This is why some people experience oiliness and acne after the use of certain contraceptives.

The sebum production and discharge cycle can take more than a week. The precise function and role of sebum is still unknown; it may play a part in UV reflection or act as a sexual attractant.

Production, Composition and Function of Sweat

Sweat glands, like sebaceous glands, are a purely mammalian feature. There are two distinct types of sweat glands found in humans, the eccrine sweat glands and the apocrine sweat glands.

Eccrine sweat glands The eccrine sweat glands are distributed throughout the skin in humans and are particularly concentrated on volar skin (skin of the palms of hands and soles of feet). In an adult human there are approximately 3 million sweat glands and these are fully developed but very shallow and non-functional by the 28th week of life. The density of the glands is reduced from birth through to adulthood. The number of actual glands does not change but the growth of the body and expansion of body surface reduces the number of glands per square centimetre of skin. This is illustrated in the table below.

Life Stage Glands per sq cm

Foetal (24 weeks) 3000

At birth 1500

18 months 1000

Adults 120

The eccrine gland consists of secretory and tubular sections. The secretory portion is formed of closed coils and is present in the hypodermis. It consists of two layers of cells: the inner or luminal layer and the outer or basal layer. These layers are capable of reabsorbing secretions. The tubular portion of duct winds its way up from the dermis through the epidermis to the opening on the skins surface known as a sweat pore. Unlike the sebaceous gland, the eccrine gland is not connected to a hair follicle. The coils within the secretory section of the gland contain a sodium pump, which actively secretes the sweat through the cell membrane. The composition of the sweat is modified as it travels up the intra-dermal portion of the duct through the process of reabsorption. Sweat contains sodium, potassium, chloride, lactate, urea and ammonia. Production is controlled by the autonomic nervous system but can also be stimulated by drugs, heat and exercise. The role of eccrine sweat production is to provide thermoregulation and excretion.


Section A


Patterns of Sweating

The stimulus for the sweating response produces a different pattern of sweating in the body. These patterns can be seen in the diagram below.

Thermal in response to heat or exercise, for example in hydrotherapy spa treatments. Emotional in response to emotional changes, for example increased anxiety before epilation. Gustatory in response to hot/spicy food.

Menstruation and Perspiration Ovulation and menstruation result in raising body temperature by 0.5 C which in turn can stimulate sweating.

Thermal Emotional Gustatory


Section A


Disorders of the sweat glands Excessive sweating can result in a condition known as hyperhidrosis. This can occur in the palms of the hand in response to an emotional stimulus and results in sticky and cold palms. When it occurs in the feet it can result in an offensive odour, eczema, fungal infections and even discolouration of shoes. Another disorder of excessive sweating is prickly heat. This condition results in sweat duct blockage due to over hydration of keratin in hot, humid conditions.

Apocrine sweat glands These glands are quite separate from the eccrine sweat glands and are connected to the pilosebaceous unit in the same way as the sebaceous glands they do not have a separate duct opening to the skin surface, as do the eccrine sweat glands. This can be seen clearly in the diagram below.

The heaviest concentration of apocrine sweat glands is in the axillary (underarm) region where they are also large and very active, and in the perineum or anogenital region. The external auditory canal (ear canal) and areola (nipple area) of mammary skin contains apocrine glands in more limited numbers and they are rarely activated at these sites. Apocrine glands develop from and are associated with the hair follicles and their ducts open into the upper portion of the hair shaft. They are much larger than eccrine glands and have two anatomical portions: the secretory coil and the excretory duct. The secretory cells of the coil are structured in a single layer and are cylindrical. The secretions collect in the distal part of the cell until the cell ruptures and expels its contents. After this process the cell structure is restored.

Eccrine gland

Sebaceous gland

Apocrine gland


Section A


Main characteristics of apocrine sweat

Sticky milky coloured fluid which dries like glue. Very slightly acidic and hypotonic (low osmotic pressure) compared to eccrine sweat. Contains iron. Contains protein (eccrine sweat does not). Odourless when freshly secreted but malodorous when decomposed by bacteria on

surface of skin.

Glands are large but amount of secretion is small. The endocrine system

The endocrine system is a complex system composed of a group of glands that secrete hormones straight into the blood system rather than through a duct. The endocrine system includes the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries and testes. Sometimes the thymus gland, pineal gland and kidney are also considered endocrine organs. The role of each of these system parts is explained in the table below.

Gland/Organ Function

Pituitary Located at the base of brain and produces hormones which:

control growth release ovum from ovaries and stimulate sperm production in the

testes.

aid uterus contractions at child birth aid lactation control the amount of water in urine control activities of other endocrine glands.

Thyroid Located in front of the trachea (windpipe) and produces hormone thyroxine. This hormone plays a major role in physical and mental development after birth. Too little can result in stunted development or cretinism and premature aging. Too much results in low weight, mental instability and restlessness.

Parathyroid Four smaller glands within the thyroid. They are sensitive to blood levels of calcium. Low calcium levels stimulate the release of parathormone from the glands, which causes increased calcium absorption in the intestine, reabsorption of calcium by kidney tubules and withdrawal of calcium from bones.


Section A


Gland/Organ Function

Pancreas Located below the stomach and produces digestive juice and the hormone insulin. Insulin decreases the release of glucose from the liver; stimulates the conversion of glucose to fat and enables cells to absorb glucose. Low insulin levels cause the liver to release too much glucose, which can result in dangerously high levels as in diabetes.

Adrenal glands.

Located on top of each kidney and produce the hormone adrenalin. Adrenalin prepares the body for action. It increases heartbeat and breathing rates and blood pressure. It increases the blood supply to muscles while decreasing that to the gut and increases glucose release from the liver.

Ovaries Located in the lower abdomen of females. The ovaries are part of the reproductive system and produce eggs. They also produce oestrogen, which prepares the uterus so that it can receive a fertilised egg and stimulates it to protect and nourish the developing baby. Oestrogen also controls the development of secondary female characteristics.

Testes Located in the groin of males. Produce testosterone, which controls the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Ageing and skin gland function

Ageing has an impact on the whole integumentary system but it affects the various glands of the skin in the following ways:

Eccrine glands these decrease in actual number to 15% of their original amount and also in their capacity to produce sweat

Apocrine glands there is a reduced capacity for secretory output and accumulation of age-pigment.

Sebaceous glands the number of sebaceous glands remains constant but sebum production is diminished while the size of the actual gland may increase. This is the only structure within the integumentary system where blood supply is increased with age.


Section A


The Role of Skin in Homeostasis and Thermoregulation

Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the presence of a changing external environment. There are many factors within the internal environment of the body which need to be kept constant. These include:

blood sugar levels carbon dioxide levels body water acidity/alkalinity temperature (thermoregulation). Thermoregulation Normal body temperature is 36.8C (+0.5, -0.7). Body temperature is usually higher in the evening than the morning due to increased muscular activity. This temperature is the optimum level for the complex chemical reactions, which occur in the body. In particular, the enzymes, which are our biochemical catalysts only, operate within quite narrow temperature boundaries. The whole purpose of the thermoregulatory system is to keep a constant temperature.

If the body temperature is to be kept constant, the heat produced must equal heat lost. Heat energy moves from a region of high energy to low energy until such a time that the heat energy is evenly distributed. What is the difference between heat and temperature? Heat refers to a total amount of energy an object has whereas temperature is a measurement scale of the level of heat.

Thermostatically controlled central heating requires the heat to be turned on or off as the room reaches and then oscillates around the set temperature, pumping the heat in when the temperature drops and switching it off when it gets too hot. This is called a negative feedback loop.

Methods of Heat Production

Cellular activity:

cellular respiration is the process through which cells burn or consume fuel and through the oxidation of glucose release energy, some of which is in the form of heat

contraction of muscles liver metabolism


Section A


Heat Gain Heat can be gained through:

ingestion of hot food or drink digestion chemical breakdown of food results in the breaking of molecular bonds

which releases energy

absorption of heat from surroundings for example in a spa hydrotherapy treatment where the client is immersed in warm to hot water or is sitting in a steam room.

Methods of Heat Loss:

conduction (solids) convection (liquids and gases) radiation (no medium necessary). Heat is therefore lost via the blood vessels which are in the skin and close to the body surface. Heat is also lost through exhaled air, urine and faeces, and through the evaporation of sweat (latent heat).

Nervous Control of Heat Loss and Gain Keeping body temperature constant depends on nervous control. There are three important components to this system.

Receptors These thermoreceptors are located in the hypothalamus and skin. Receptors in the skin respond to changes in environmental temperature. For example, this happens in a spa treatment with the application of heated wraps to the body or with a cool application such as a Vichy shower. Receptors in the hypothalamus are very sensitive to fluctuations in blood temperature.

Regulatory centre This is located in the hypothalamus and is really the bodys thermostat. It measures temperature deviation and then provides information to the heating and cooling systems (the effector organs). Effectors can adjust heat gain or loss if the bodys temperature increases or decreases. Effectors work to decrease temperature by:

heat production Basic Metabolic Rate physical (muscular) activity. Heat loss is achieved through the production of sweat and the vasodilation of dermal blood vessels which leads to loss by conduction and convection.

Effectors work to increase temperature by:


Section A


heat production Basic Metabolic Rate muscular activity shivering (involuntary) and voluntary movements. Heat loss prevention is achieved by decreased sweat production and vasoconstriction which keeps heat well within the body.


Observe what happens to your skin and body in the following situations. Use the information above and any other information sources to explain your observations. Make some notes below.

Bathing or showering Exercising Having a hot drink Applying a cold wash cloth

Compare your observations to those of fellow students or colleagues.


Section A


The Skin as a Sense Organ

Stimuli and Receptors The skin is our connection with the external world. It is through the skin that we make contact with and interpret what is happening around us. The skin does not and cannot respond to every kind of external stimulus but to a selected range of stimuli that seem to provide us with adequate information about the world around us. The inputs allow us to learn, manipulate, avoid or seek further stimuli. The systems involved are very complex.

In general they involve:

1. Some types of specialised receptor organs

2. Conducting Pathways of sensory nerves to the central nervous system (CNS). These may be myelinated or unmyelinated

3. The Central Nervous System (CNS) segments of the brain and the spinal cord.

The Process of Nerve Conduction The function of the brain is to convert the external stimuli (such as touch) into a coded message that the nerves can transit into the CNS. A useful comparison is the passage of the human voice down telephone wires in the form of electrical signals. No actual voice is transmitted just a series of electrical impulses. This neural message is an electrochemical one passed on from nerve to nerve at various junctions and interconnections by using gap jumping neurotransmitter substances (for example, acetylcholine).

Sensory nerves can be myelinated or unmyelinated. This special fatty substance is produced by cells (Schwann cells) that wrap around the nerve and seem to afford some sort of protection to the conduction of the electrochemical signal much like plastic around electrical cables. Not all sensory nerves are the same size. Some are thicker than others, some longer; some end at receptors and some are free; some end at one receptor and some end at a cluster of receptors. All this affects the frequency and intensity of signals arriving back at the CNS.

The complexity of the brain is staggering. Incoming information is distributed to different regions often simultaneously. The sense the brain makes of this is highly variable and dependent on:

brain development the brain must grow properly learning and conditioning.


Section A


Types of stimuli that the skin responds to are:

hot cold pressure/touch vibration/touch pain. These stimuli are applied to the skin in a range of beauty treatments. For example hot stimuli are applied in hydrotherapy spa treatments, pressure or touch is applied as part of facial and body massages while pain stimuli may result from hair removal treatments.

Types of Receptors There are many types of specialised skin receptors. The exact function and activity of them is at best uncertain. Different parts of the body are sometimes endowed with collections of special receptors. For example: the tips of the fingers have dense collections of particular touch and pressure receptors. The back is relatively poor in these receptors. This is logical in terms of survival, manipulation with the hands, etc. The table below lists the main skin sense organs and where they are found.

Major categories of skin sense organs and their location within the skin

Merkel Cells Mechanoreceptors Single cells on basement membrane

Paccinian Corpuscles Pressure receptors Multicellular, deep in the dermis/hypodermis

Kraus Receptors Cold receptors Multicellular in dermis

Ruffini Organs Heat receptors Multicellular in dermis

Meissner Corpuscles Touch receptors Multicellular in dermis

Hederform Bodies/Pinkus Bodies

Clusters of Merkel cells often found around hair follicles and dermal ridges

Pain receptors Naked dendritic endings fanning out in the dermis and just under the epidermis

Fibres Fast Acting

Free Nerve Endings

Fibres Slow Acting


Section A


The interpretation of stimuli depends on:

intensity and frequency; for example the intensity of pressure applied during a body massage or the intensity of an electrical current used in a facial or hair removal treatment

type and number of sensory fibres; for example in a hair removal treatment which involves the dermis, pain receptors found here will provide the stimuli

duration and habituation fields covered by sensory nerves brain pathways utilized and activated complex and neurochemistry of transmitter substances

- excitatory - inhibitory.

Systems and pathways of sensory and motor neuronal conduction

Neurons The basic units of the nervous system are called neurons. Neurons are too small to be seen without a microscope. Neurons are the mechanical means by which your thoughts, movements and responses to everyday living are controlled and monitored. Neurons carry messages from part of the body to another in the form of impulses. There are many different types of neurons but all display certain characteristics.

Structure of neurons A neuron consists of a cell body, an axon and dendrites. The axon is a long structure that carries impulses away from the cell body to other neurons. Axons can reach through the body to distant neurons over one metre away. A nerve is actually a bundle of axons from many neurons. One nerve may consist of more than 1000 axons, with each axon acting independently of the other axons. Dendrites are extensions of the cell body that look like tiny branching tree-like structures that receive impulses and send them to the cell body. Dendrites have many branches and therefore one neuron can receive messages from hundreds of other neurons.

Nerve impulses The impulse that travels along a neuron is like a tiny electrical charge. The impulses travel quickly in fact, an impulse could cover the length of a football field in less than one second. Between the end of the axon of one neurone and the dendrite of another neuron, is a space called a synapse. As an impulse arrives at the end of an axon, it is passed across the synapse gap to a dendrite by neurotransmitters. These are chemicals found naturally in the body located in the synapse that help in the transmission of impulses from neuron to neuron.


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Types of neurons There are three types of neurons:

1. Sensory neurons detect changes in the environment, from both inside and outside the body. They carry nerve impulses from the sense organs, skin, muscles and internal organs to the spinal cord or brain. As an example, when you touch something cold, the cold-sensing neurons send this message to your brain.

2. Interneurons receive sensory messages and send responses. They are located in the brain and spinal cord.

3. Motor neurons carry a response from the interneurons to the muscles, glands and internal organs of the body. Every muscular body movement is controlled by messages carried by motor neurons to the muscles.


Identify the type/s of stimuli to which the skin responds in the following beauty treatments.

Body massage

Waxing

Salt glow spa treatment

Vichy shower

Discuss the stimuli you have identified with your trainer or supervisor.


Section A


Skin colour

There are three main elements that contribute to the colour of skin. They are:

melanin carotene blood. Melanin is a protective substance or pigment that can filter out ultra-violet radiation. It is produced by specialised cells called melanocytes. The melanin itself is found mostly in the basale and spinosum layers of the skin. The melanocytes are located in the basale layer of the skin. All human races have approximately the same amount of melanocytes in their skin so how do we account for the great variation in human skin colour from pale yellow to black? This is due to the differences in the amount of melanin that the melanocytes produce. When there is failure of the melanocytes to produce any pigment the individual concerned is affected by a condition called albinism. Partial lack of pigment results in white spots known as vitiligo. Freckles result from the production of melanin in patches. Melanocytes utilise the amino acid tyrosine in the presence of the enzyme tyrosinase to produce melanin. Melanin production is stimulated by ultra violet radiation. The melanin is taken up by the epidermal cells by phagocytosis and distributed through the skin. Continued exposure to ultraviolet radiation then produces increased amounts and darkness of the melanin resulting in a tanned skin. This provides some protection against the radiation.

Carotene is another pigment found in the stratum corneum and other areas of the dermis in Asiatic races. The carotene and melanin combine to form the yellowish hue of the skin.

Blood in the capillaries of the dermis combined with the lowered levels of pigmentation contributes to the pinkish hue of Caucasian skin.

Human skin can be a range of colours depending on the presence, absence and interplay of these three key elements. The table below illustrates this:

Skin Colour Cause

Blue Reduced Haemoglobin

Red Oxyhaemoglobin

Brown Melanin

Yellow Carotene

White Combination or lack of melanin

Black Combination

Green Bile Salts


Section A


In addition to the factors above, skin colour can also be affected by:

surface reflection of light absorption of light scattering of light type of light thickness of the skin layers presence of light absorbing materials (collagen, elastin, melanin, carotenes,

haemoglobins, lipids)

melanosomes (number, size, type, distribution). Skin pigmentation has particular relevance in the beauty industry as skin colour seems to be linked with social factors and differing perceptions of what is aesthetically acceptable. Many people are dissatisfied with their skin colour wanting it either darker or lighter. An even skin tone as opposed to blotchy or patchy colour is also desirable. A considerable market has grown around remedies to alter skin colour and achieve and maintain even skin tone.

Identifying a clients skin colour or pigmentation is important for the achievement of effective results in a range of beauty treatments. For example the correct pigment must be selected to match a clients skin colour when performing cosmetic tattooing or micropigmentation which involves the implantation of pigment granules for the purpose of cosmetic enhancement of eyebrows, eyelids, lips and lashes. Tattooing for cosmetic reasons is usually done to correct a pigment fault or replace the daily application of makeup. The differences in physiology between skins of different pigment intensities can have implications when performing permanent epilation. Dark skin is more prone to keloid scarring and over treatment can result in hyper and hypo-pigmentation.

Skin Darkening

There are several methods which can be used to darken the skin. They are:

radiation exposure tattooing chemical treatment.


Section A


Radiation Exposure Radiation exposure can be achieved either naturally (using sun exposure) or artificially (through UVB and UVB tanning solariums). Both these methods achieve the same outcome through stimulation of epidermal melanocytes therefore activating increased production of melanin. The resulting colour or tan can be temporary (primary melanization) to long lasting (secondary melanization).

Tattooing This process involves implanting pigments into the layers of the skin. Some tattoo pigments are used to achieve camouflage treatments for the face. The pain associated with tattooing does dissuade many people from choosing it as an option.

Chemical Treatment This treatment can be applied systemically (working on the melanin production system) or topically (staining the skin).

Systemic application works by using one or all of the following additives: - Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) which as its name suggests fires up the

melanocytes - Tyrosine which is the amino acid needed for melanin production - Tyrosinase which is the enzyme needed for converting tyrosine to melanin.

Systemic application cannot be classified a success. Laboratory cell culture tests have shown some increased melanin but trials on volunteers have only achieved a 10% increase which is hardly noticeable to the eye.

Topical application - a large number of chemicals have been tried but Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) is the only one which is safe and significantly successful. DHA actually undergoes a chemical reaction called a maillard reaction which is similar to the caramelising of sugar (DHA is a sugar). The process is pH dependent and as individuals have different pH levels to their skin the resulting colour varies.

Full exposure of the skins protein surface is required in topical application: this is why it is essential to buff and exfoliate the skin before this process. Failure to do this can result in uneven patchy colour. The outcome is also dependent on the additives which have been included such as antioxidants; different additives result in different skin colour.

Other chemicals which have been tried with less successful outcomes are:

DNA dimer fragments Diacylglyceraol Xanthin Riboflavins Chaulmoogra oil.


Section A


Other chemicals have been tried which have had potentially lethal outcomes. One of these involved the carcinogenic 5-Methoxypsoralen (and 8-Methoxysporalen) used in PUVA treatment for psoriasis. This was promoted as a tan in a tablet about twenty years ago and resulted in melanomas. It is now banned.

Skin Lightening There is also a market for skin lightening. Lightening of the skin can be achieved through a number of methods. These include:

destruction of melanocytes inhibition of melanin formation inhibition of tyrosinase activity preventing transfer of melanin into keratinocyte bleaching of the surface of stratum corneum. Bleaching of the skin is a purely cosmetic effect; all the others are therapeutic. The activity of melanocytes is most effectively suppressed through the action of Hydroquinone 1%. This chemical is toxic and must be applied at low dilution and then rinsed soon after application on the skin. Milder chemicals are also used including:

koji acid arbutin retinoic acid cinnamic acid licorice root extract glabrin caffeine acid glucoside ammoniated mercury bleaches including peroxides and hypochlorites. The only other method of lightening the skin involves the skilful application of makeup as part of remedial camouflage. This is particularly the case for sufferers of vitiligo which results in patchy skin.


Section A


The Origin, Structure and Location of Melanocytes and Keratinocytes

The melanocytes originate from special nerve tissue at the embryonic stage of development. This nerve tissue is located in what is known as the neural crest. This tissue has a general distribution through the body including the eye (retina), ear, central nervous system, mucous membranes, hair and skin. The concentration of melanocytes found in the skin can vary.

This is illustrated in the following diagrams.

Head 1930 60

1400 220 Neck

Upper Extremity

1160 40

1210 120

1100 80

Lower Extremity

1130 60

1000 70

1510 170

1680 440 Sole 2840

1420 Dorsum

Foot

890 70 Trunk


Section A


The optical properties of skin

Light and the Skin Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum and therefore a form of energy. It comes in energy parcels or photons. These photons travel in waves. The distance between the tops of each wave is an indication as to the amount of energy per parcel or photon. Radio waves have long wave radiation and thus little energy whereas cosmic rays have incredibly short wavelengths and are energy intensive. This can be seen in the following diagram:

Increasing Wavelength

COS GAM X UV VIS INFRA MICRO RADIO

10 12 m Decreasing Energy 10 6 m

UVC UVB UVA VISIBLE NEAR IR FAR IR

100 200 360 400 700 100 10000

The light coming from the sun is a mixture of radiations. The upper atmosphere filters out the short wave radiation from UVC and some UVB. However UVB and UVA penetrate the atmosphere and reach the earths surface.

This does two things to skin:

1. Causes damage to chemicals, cells and tissues

2. Triggers a defensive response by:

- epidermal hyperproliferation of keratinocytes (thickening) - melanocytes hyperactivity (tanning).


Section A


Light Penetration

Electromagnetic Energy Wavelength (nanometers)

Skin Penetration (micrometers)

UVC 250 2.0 Stratum Corneum

UVB 280 4.5 Epidermis

UVB 300 6.0 Epidermis

UVA 350 60 Dermis

UVA 400 90 Dermis

Blue 450 150 Dermis

Green 500 230 Dermis

Yellow 600 550 Hypodermis

Red 700 750 Hypodermis

Near Infrared 800 1200 Hypodermis

Near IR 1000 1600 Hypodermis

Far IR 1200 2200 Hypodermis

The above table indicates that radiation of the shorter wavelengths does not penetrate as deeply as the longer wavelength (and thus lower energy) radiation. This means that most of the energy of the shorter wave light is absorbed or reflected in the upper layers of the skin.

UVB and UVA create most damage in the epidermis and upper (papillary) dermis. UVA, because it can penetrate deeper into the reticular dermis, can over a long period of exposure create serious damage. It can damage:

blood cells and endothelial linings fibrous proteins (collagen, elastin) fibroblasts and mast cells (wbcs) nerve cells and receptors langheran cells of the immune system.


Section A


The following diagram illustrates the penetration of wavelengths in nanometres (nm)

Optical Properties of the skin

The skin possesses the following properties:

Reflection bounces light back. Surface highlights the rough/smooth features. Deep gives colour effects

- red haemoglobin. - blue carboxyhaemoglobin - green bilirubins - yellow - carotenes - white collagen/adipose - brown/black melanins

Combinations will also occur.

Stratum corneum

Epidermis

Dermis

Subcutaneous tissue

200 250 300 350 400 700


Section A


The table below shows how much light passes through the epidermis for two different skin types.

Percentage of Light Transmitted via Epidermis

UVA UVB

Negroid 17.5 7.4

Caucasian 55.5 29.4

By virtue of their higher melanin content as well as size and distribution of melanosomes, darker skins absorb and block more UVA and UVB. When a molecule absorbs energy it becomes more active or excited. Several things may result:

The molecule may break up. It may cause further chemical reactions as it smashes into other molecules. Heat may be released into the surrounding space. Highly reactive/toxic/lethal chemicals may be produced (eg free radicals). Some chemical pathways may be disrupted, in particular the bodys own anti-oxidate

system (catalase and superoxide dimutase) is rapidly damaged within 30 mins of exposure.

UV radiation is also particularly well absorbed by various chemicals in the skin:

melanin 200 to 1200 nm band amino acids 275nm

(tyrosine, tryptophan)

urocanic acid 277nm DNA/RNA 260nm The diagram below shows how melanin and DNA absorb in the UVB spectral range.

Melanin

220 240 260 280 300 320 320 340

50

100

DNA

Nanometres

% Absorbed


Section A


Note: DNA shows particularly high absorption at 260nm. Melanin has good overall absorption effectively providing good shadow to cellular DNA except for the 260nm region where any UVB that is not taken up by melanin could well be absorbed by DNA. The result: DNA damage (persistent damage may result in defective or abnormal cancerous cells.)

Erythema and Minimal Erythemal Dose (M.E.D.) to Skin Type

The above figure shows the percentage of UVA, UVB and UVC coming from the sun. It also shows the ability of the three radiation bands to cause erythema (reddening of the skin). As can be seen in the chart, comparatively little UVB hits the surface of the earth but it is more than enough to cause erythema. UVA on the other hand will only produce erythema if one is exposed to very high amounts of it.

M.E.D. = MINIMAL ERYTHEMAL DOSE

MED exposures will vary with skin type but the end result is always the same the beginnings of erythema.

Erythema Scale

260 290 320 350 4000.0

1.0 100

Nanometres

% at surface earth


Section A


Results of MED exposures

1 x MED erythema

2 x MED moderate redness

3 TO 4 x MED oedema and tenderness

4 TO 10 x MED pain and blistering

One MED for a type I skin may be only 10 minutes whereas one MED for a type III may be 20 to 30 minutes. If you have exposed yourself to less than one MED dose then are exposed again within 24 hours it lowers the MED needed the second time around. MED 3 to 4 has been reached by the time the average person notices skin redness.

Skin Response to MED

A MED can be achieved by:

a short exposure to UVB (higher energy wavelength) a long exposure to UVA (lower energy wavelength). Within minutes the skin will develop immediate erythema with an increase in vasopermeability.

Within hours the skin will develop delayed erythema with an inflammatory response from chemicals released from damaged cells in the epidermis reaching the dermis (histamines, prostaglandins, kinins, lysomzymes and other photoproducts).

The time delay accounts for the fact that sunburn is often noticed hours before one actually starts to feel pain. If we examine the changes in both keratinocytes and melanocytes in reaction to sun exposure it becomes apparent that the effects can be quite long term even after just one MED.

There are also other causes of erythema other than the skins exposure to the sun. Other causes can include infections, medications, connective tissue disorders or the use of harsh skin care products. Erythema in a client can have implications for techniques used in various beauty treatments. For example when performing a body or facial massage, the beauty therapist must use gentle stokes and pressure so that the erythema is not aggravated and the skin further inflamed. The objective is to soothe these areas.


Section A


Responses to ultraviolet radiation (UVA and UVB)

Keratinocytes develop into sunburn cells within minutes. After the following time frames the following responses occur.

6 hours dramatic reduction in stratum germinatum mitosis

72 hours acceleration of mitosis

Days mitotic rate reaches a maximum and then gradually decreases

(healthy cells are re-establishing and inhibitors are produced)

Weeks mitosis returns to normal

A single sunburn event can thus take 6 weeks to recover from!!

The end result is:

a twofold to threefold increase in the number of keratinocytes (to carry more melanin) an increase in the thickness of the epidermis by hyperproliferation a more protective blanket over the stratum germinatum cells, langerhans cells and

dermis.

Melanocytes

Long UVA or short UVB exposure results in:

an increase in the number and length of dentrites an increase in melanosome production. The above results in Delayed Tanning (DT) which is long lasting.

Very short exposure to UVA causes the already existing (and old) melanosomes to darken in their keratinocytes. They then bleach over a few hours. The tan is Immediate Tanning (IT) which quickly fades. It is often referred to (incorrectly) as a wash away tan it doesnt wash off, it bleaches in the cells.

The end result of DT:

increased production of more melanin-coated melanosomes greater protection to underlying chemicals, cells and tissues. NOTE: Building up a tan is better done via short UVB exposure periods rather than numerous long UVA exposures because UVA penetrates further into the dermis and may result in subtle long term acceleration of the ageing process. Care must still be taken in


Section A


UVB because it is far more energy-intensive and delivers most of its damage to the epidermis.

Exposure to UVA and UVB may also have implications for some beauty treatments, for example in massage where aromatic plant oils are used. UV exposure after the application of some aromatic plant oils (particularly citrus) may result in a phototoxic reaction where the skin burns more readily when exposed to direct sunlight or tanning rays.

Sunscreens

Physical Sunblocks Work by reflecting light. Zinc Oxide and Titanium Dioxide are usually used.

Chemical Sunblocks

UVA types

UVB types

Absorb 98%+ of a specific wavelength of light (UV)

Sunfilters Absorb or reflect around 85% of light

The performance of a sunscreen basically depends on:

the composition and selection of chemicals: UVA only, UVB only or both the solvent they are dissolved in (often lowers the SPF) timing of application wear and tear while you have it on presence of any interfering chemicals in the preparation (preservatives) or on your

skin (cosmetics etc.).

Undesirable Effects of UVA/UVB:

photoageing solar elastosis epidermal thickening hyperpigmentation erythema


Section A


Step 3 Promoting skin health and care

In order to maintain its effective function and condition skin needs to be cared for. Skin care should involve protection and treatment. Skin requires protection against long-term environmental effects such as sun, wind and water, as well as a treatment routine to manage whatever happens to the skin on a day-to-day basis. To function efficiently the skin needs to maintain adequate water content. As discussed earlier in this section, the epidermis, particularly the stratum corneum, acts as a partial water barrier, helping to regulate the amount of water in the skin. This water is used to ensure that the other vital part of the barrier, the lipid structures between the cells of the stratum corneum, is maintained in a fluid state. Damage to the stratum corneum - for example, by overexposure to the sun, which removes both external and internal lipids - can disrupt this barrier and set up a 'vicious circle' of drying.

If dry skin becomes drier, the lipid structure of the barrier tends to break up. As a result, water cannot be retained so easily. The diagram below shows the effect on increased water loss on the skins protective function.

Washing with soap

Barrier disruption

Increased water loss

Fall in water content of stratum

corneum

Lipid structure developed


Section A


Environmental conditions Environmental conditions such as changes between the seasons and exposure to dehydrating environments such as air conditioning, can affect the condition and function of the skin. Cold makes keratin in the skin stiffer and less flexible causing a 'tight' feeling in the skin. Skin tends to be drier and in worse condition in the winter months than at other times of the year. In extreme cases, this constant drying effect can lead to cracking, flaking and redness. In cold weather skin loses the glow it normally gains from blood flow close to the surface, and may look dull and lifeless.

Overexposure to the sun compromises the skins protective function. Although the stratum corneum does not change very much, except that the cells within it (the corneocytes) increase still more in surface area and may become even thinner. The speed at which cells are replaced slows down, and some of the functions of skin, including controlling water loss, may become less efficient. There is less elasticity and increased sensitivity. The elastic fibres in the skin degenerate, in a process called elastosis, producing a thickened mass that replaces the collagen. Surrounding tissues are also damaged.

Smoking deprives the skin of the nutrients and oxygen it needs to function effectively, resulting in dull and lifeless skin. It also weakens the collagen and elastin fibres, with the result that the skin becomes prematurely wrinkled.

Skin care and beauty treatments Cleansing, exfoliating and moisturising are the key components of good skin health. Skin care means preserving the integrity of the stratum corneum while removing sebum and soiling and maintaining adequate hydration.

Beauty treatments such as facials, spa and some body treatments incorporate these components to maintain optimum skin health. The aim of these treatments is to maintain the skins balance and protective capabilities. Most treatments will use photo protective products and hydrating agents to protect the skin. Moisturisers perform several important functions. They enable lost water to be replaced, and then help to keep it in the skin by the humectants (water-binding agents) that they contain. Humectants are important because they help maintain the lipids of the epidermis in good condition which is vital to its water-retaining properties. A good moisturiser will deliver water to the skin effectively and keep it in the skin for as long as possible.


Section A



Develop a checklist of skincare essentials to maintain healthy skin.

Discuss your list with your trainer or supervisor to ensure the essentials you have included promote skin health


Section A


Notes:


Section B

Identify the main functions of hair

Section B Identify the main functions of hair

What you will cover in this section The three steps to Identify the main functions of hair are:

Step 1 Identifying hair structure

Step 2 Identifying the functions and features of the hair in relation to beauty treatments

Step 3 Identifying the effects of hair removal

This section covers the structure of the hair and its main functions in relation to a range of beauty treatments.

Step 1 Identifying hair structure

Identifying the structure and function of hair will give you an understanding of how this influences beauty treatments involving the removal or colouring of hair. Hair is actually a growth of the epidermis. Hair is also referred to as pili and its primary function is to provide protection. Protection provided by hair is fairly limited but without it the scalp would be much more prone to damage from injury and ultraviolet radiation, and the eyes, ears and nose would be more vulnerable to invasion by dust, insects and other foreign particles.

Gross Structural Features of the Pilosebaceous Unit The pilosebaceous (pilo = hair, sebum = grease) unit consists of the hair follicles and the oil-producing or sebaceous glands. The sebaceous gland produces sebum, an oily compound that lubricates our skin and hair. The gland discharges the sebum through the pilosebaceous duct: the same duct that the hair shaft grows through. The size of the sebaceous glands varies depending on its location on the body, for example those on the nose and T zone of the face are very large.

The pilo-sebaceous unit also contains a bundle of smooth muscle extending from the dermis to the hair follicle. This muscle is called the arrector pili and when it contracts it pulls the hair from its normal position lying at an angle to the skin into a vertical position. The muscle contracts in response to cold or fright.

Structural and Cellular Features of a Hair Follicle Hair is composed of two main structures:

1. The hair shaft.

2. The hair root and follicle.


Section B


The hair shaft is the part of the hair that we can see growing above the skin. There are three main parts to the hair shaft the medulla, the cortex and the cuticle.

The medulla is the innermost part of the hair shaft made up of rows of polyhedral cells. These contain eleiden and air spaces.

The cortex is the middle and major part of the hair. The cells in the cortex are elongated cells containing pigment in dark hair. In white hair these cells contain air.

The cuticle is the outermost layer of the hair and contains a single layer of thin flat cells which are keratinised. The arrangement of the cells is like that of shingles or fish scales with the edge of the cell pointing up.

The hair root is surrounded by the hair follicle. The hair follicle is composed of the external and internal root sheaths. The external sheath is formed by the basal and spinosum layers of the epidermis creating a downward structure. Towards the top of sheath, all the epidermal layers are present, whereas towards the bottom of the sheath, only the stratum basal is present. The internal root sheath is a tubular structure extending down to the external root sheath. It is formed from the cells of the matrix is an extension of the hair follicle and is shaped like an onion bulb. Within the bulb is the papilla of the hair, which contains connective tissue and blood vessels nourishing the hair. The matrix is another structure in the bulb, which produces new hairs through cell division. The new hairs replace old hairs when they are shed. The diagram below shows the structure of the bulb.

Cavity of dermal papilla

Melanocytes

Keratinisation zone

Hair cuticle

Cortex Medulla


Section B


Types of hair

There are basically two types of hair vellus and terminal. Vellus hairs are tiny, blonde, fine hairs such as those typically covering a babys body or the hair that is present on the inside of the forearm. Vellus hair can be very difficult to see. Terminal hair includes all other forms of hair on the body, with a full range of colours, shapes and thickness. These hairs are longer and coarser than other types and most are pigmented. Terminal hair can change under varying hormonal conditions of the body. Care must be taken when removing this type of hair so that the hair follicle does not break and become ingrown. There are two types of terminal hair:

asexual hair eyebrows, lashes and the hair on the head. These hairs are terminal in nature from birth. Differences in these hairs are not related to hormones.

sexual hair other areas of hair, typically the pubic area, underarm, legs and arms, face, chest and abdomen, back and shoulders. These are vellus at birth and change to terminal under hormonal influence.

Learning activity B1.1

Use the information in this section to complete the following table to identify hair structure.

Part Description Function

Discuss your answers with your trainer or supervisor to ensure you have correctly identified all the required information.


Section B


Learning activity B1.2

Examine the hairs on different parts of your body and note characteristics such as thickness, length and texture. Make some notes below.

Part of body Type of hair Characteristics

Discuss the differences you have noted with your trainer or supervisor.


Section B


Step 2 Identifying the functions and features of the hair in relation to beauty treatments

An understanding of the process of hair growth will help you to identify patterns of regrowth so you can recommend appointment schedules to your clients. The hair growth pattern is influenced by messages it receives from the endocrine system. The endocrine system influences the hair growth cycle which sometimes results in the growth of unwanted hair as well as baldness. The cycle is also influenced by general health, stage of development and age. Hair can also be affected by disease of the hair follicle.

The hair growth cycle is similar to that of the skin. Long hairs of the scalp last several years and short hairs of the body last up to a year. Hair is continually being shed from the body. Average hair loss in an adult is approximately between 70 to 100 hairs per day. The number of hairs lost is equal to the number of hairs replaced except in old age.

The rate of loss and replacement is affected by a number of factors including diet and illness. Major illness, surgery, loss of blood or stress can increase hair loss. Women experience an increased rate of loss for the months immediately after childbirth. Some drugs and other medical treatments such as radiation can also increase hair loss.

The Hair Growth Cycle

Each hair grows for many years and finally it spontaneously falls out. The follicle rests for a little while, and then starts to produce another new hair. Between starting to grow and falling out years later, each hair passes through three distinct stages.

The growth pattern can be broken down into the following stages.

1. Telogen resting

2. Anagen growing

3. Catagen - transition between growing and resting

Hairs have a predetermined cycle hairs grow to different lengths in different parts of the body, such as eyelashes, arm and leg hairs, hairs on the head. Prolonged growth cycles, that is, waist length hair, can only be attained by some people. The average growth rate is centimetre per month. Waist length hair is many years old and has a spaced out replacement cycle. The different phases of the cycle take approximately the following times:

anagen 1000 days (or more) catagen 10 days telogen 100 days


Section B


The anagen phase of a new hair starts at the moment it begins to grow and there is very active growth in the hair bulb. This lasts for generally between three and seven years without interruption. Pigment (melanin) is made in the hair bulb throughout this phase of the hair cycle. Less pigment is made in the hair of older people. This is why white hairs start to appear, even though the hair itself may still be growing strongly. In some older people the hair cycle becomes shorter, the follicles gradually give up producing long, strong hair, and the hairs become thinner and shorter. Permanent epilation is most successful when performed on hairs in the anagen phase of the cycle.

The anagen phase is followed by catagen, a short resting phase which lasts for between two and four weeks. No pigment is made during that time, and the follicle stops producing hair. The base of the follicle moves upwards towards the surface of the skin.

Telogen (the shedding phase) lasts for three or four months. This is the time at which a new hair begins to grow from the hair follicle. As it grows upwards the old hair will be shed naturally or may be pulled out, which happens easily and painlessly with telogen hairs. These are the hairs that come out when washing or brushing. Shedding is part of the normal process of the replacement of old hair with new. At any one time, around one in ten of the follicles are in the shedding phase. The new hair emerges from the same opening at the surface of the skin as the old one, and the hair cycle begins again.

Types of hair

Superfluous hair is a general term used to describe any unwanted hair condition and is what clients seek to have removed through temporary or permanent epilation treatments. There are three different types of hair found on the human body: lanugo, vellus and terminal.

Lanugo hair is formed on the foetus whilst in the womb, usually shed around the seventh or eight month, but can be shed after birth. Hair that is being lost from the scalp due to baldness reverts to its primary type before disappearance. This hair is fine and soft without a medulla and usually unpigmented.

Vellus hair is fine soft hair which covers most of the body, except the palms, soles, lips and genital areas. This type of hair is non-pigmented, fine, downy and soft. It has no medulla, and has a shallow follicle, small blood supply and is usually less than 2cm in length.

Terminal hair is longer and coarser, pigmented and varies in diameter, texture and shape. This is the hair that both men and women sometimes find superfluous and seek a means of having it removed.


Section B


Influences on Hair Growth Rate

Hair is extremely sensitive to changes happening in the body. One of the reasons for this is that cell reproduction in the hair happens at the second highest rate in the body (the highest rate occurring in bone marrow). Hair grows faster in warmer weather, during sleep and between the ages of 16 and 24.

Hair growth is affected by nutrition. Adequate intake of foods which supply glucose and protein for cell reproduction is essential for hair growth. Pollution, radiation, stress and some medications can have an adverse effect on the rate of hair growth.

Certain hormones also have an impact on hair growth. For example, the male sex hormones, androgens, cause increased growth on the upper lip, chin, thighs, chest and pubic area in both males and females at the onset of puberty. Individual variations in metabolism also have an impact on hair growth.

Step 3 Identifying the effects of hair removal

Hair removal

There are several methods of removing unwanted body and facial hair but they all fall into the two major categories of epilation or depilation.

Epilation involves the removal of both the hair shaft and its root from the follicle. This occurs in the process of waxing, electrolysis and plucking.

Plucking and waxing do not provide permanent results but delay regrowth for 2 or more weeks.Electrolysis involves destruction of the actual hair bulb under the skin using an electric current. With destruction of the bulb, hair cannot regrow, so permanent hair removal is the result. Only anagen phase hairs should be treated, since telogen phase hairs are believed to be more resistant to damage. Anagen phase hairs can be distinguished easily from telogen-phase hairs by shaving the area to be treated and, in a few days time, treating only those hairs visible on the skin surface (anagen phase hairs).

Depilation involves the removal of the hair at the skin's surface and leaves the root intact. This occurs in the process of shaving and use of depilatory creams. Depilatory creams contain chemicals which weaken the keratin in the hair to a point where it breaks off. These creams can be very irritating and can cause allergic reactions, especially when used repeatedly, as the keratin in the skin is similar to that in the hair and is therefore also affected.

Contrary to popular belief, removal of the hair via shaving and depilatories does not result in thicker, coarser hair growth. This impression is because the hair growing back appears thicker due to its being cut at the widest point (the base).


Section B


Removal via epilation gives the impression of finer hair as the hair gro

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