World's Products

28
Sudhakar Dhanapal

description

World's First

Transcript of World's Products

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Sudhakar Dhanapal

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Contents

This is my first eBook. I hope you will like it.

Typewriting Machine --------------------------------- 3

Telephone --------------------------------- 5

Air Conditioner --------------------------------- 7

Bicycle --------------------------------- 9

Flute --------------------------------- 12

Photograph --------------------------------- 13

Temple --------------------------------- 15

Website --------------------------------- 18

Newspaper --------------------------------- 20

Clock --------------------------------- 22

Film --------------------------------- 24

Sport --------------------------------- 26

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TYPEWRITING MACHINE

The idea behind the typewriter was to apply the concept of movable type

developed by Johann Gutenberg in the invention of the printing press century

to a machine for individual use. Descriptions of such mechanical writing

machines date to the early eighteenth century. In 1714, a patent something

like a typewriter was granted to a man named Henry Mill in England, but no

example of Mills’ invention survives.

In 1829, William Burt from Detroit, Michigan patented his typographer

which had characters arranged on a rotating frame. However, Burt’s machine,

and many of those that followed it, were cumbersome, hard to use, unreliable

and often took longer to produce a letter than writing it by hand. Finally, in

1867, a Milwaukee, Wisconsin printer-publisher-politician named Christopher

Latham Sholes, with assistance from Carlos Glidden and Samuel Soule,

patented what was to be the first useful typewriter. He licensed his patent to

Remington & Sons of Ilion, New York, a noted American gun maker. In 1874,

the Remington Model 1, the first commercial typewriter, was placed on the

market.

Based on Sholes’ mechanical typewriter, the first electric typewriter was

built by Thomas Alva Edison in the United States in 1872, but the widespread

use of electric typewriters was not common until the 1950s. The electronic

typewriter, a typewriter with an electronic "memory" capable of storing text,

first appeared in 1978. It was developed independently by the Olivetti Company

in Italy and the Casio Company in Japan.

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In 1714, the British engineer Henry Mill obtains a patent for a machine or

method to put letters on paper that are equal to the quality of

printing. Nothing suggests that he will ever build a machine.

After that, there were many different attempts to produce a mechanical

writing machine, but the first one to be commercially successful was

invented by Christopher Latham Sholes. He was an American engineer

who, together with Samuel W. Soule and Carlos Glidden, invented the first

typewriter machine and QWERTY keyboard in 1868.

1872 Thomas Alva Edison builds first electric typewriter

The invention was sold to the company E. Remington and Son, and their

first typewriter was sold in 1874.

Lilian Sholes, daughter of Christopher Latham Sholes (1815-1891) at one

of the first models of her father’s ―typewriter‖

1978 Olivetti Company and the Casio Company develope electronic

typewriter

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TELEPHONE

Alexander Graham Bell owns the patent for the electric telephone in 1876. He

also has the patent for the phone master patent

While many inventors had been working on the idea of sending human

speech by wire, Alexander Graham Bell was the first to succeed in this

endeavor while working on improving the telegraph. Another gentleman by the

name of Elisha Gray also invented a device that could transmit voice through

wire, but he was three hours too late registering his device with the patent

office. For a little perspective on American history; at roughly the same time

Mr. Bell invented the telephone America was still settling the West. The United

States was preparing to celebrate the American Centennial - the 100th

anniversary of the U.S. America had 38 states, 46 million people, and some

30,000 miles of railroad track providing regular travel from the Atlantic to the

Pacific.

Below highlights important milestones in the invention of the telephone.

On March 10, 1876, at the age of 29, Alexander Graham Bell developed

the telephone's fundamental operating principle when he and his

associate, Thomas Watson, were working in their lab experimenting with

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a new type of 'liquid transmitter'. Through the instrument Mr. Bell spoke

to his assistant and said, 'Mr. Watson, come here, I want you.' And, Mr.

Watson declared that he had heard and understood what Mr. Bell had

said. This historic event was the first successful experiment with

transmitting voice through wire. And shortly after that on July 9, 1877,

the first telephone company, 'Bell Telephone Company', was founded in

Boston, Massachusetts.

1877 One of the first private citizens to have a telephone was Mark

Twain. He, and President Rutherford Hayes, the nineteenth President of

the U.S. in 1877 but the first President of the Telephone age. There was a

phone booth installed inside the White House just outside the Oval

Office. A telephone would not sit on the President's desk until Herbert

Hoover was President in 1929 - 53 years after the invention of the

telephone.

Atlanta's first telephone arrived and was installed in the new 'Atlanta

Railroad Depot' connecting it to the dispatcher's office in the 'Western &

Atlantic Railroad' building nearby. These telephones were 'point-to-point'

Box telephones. The receiver and transmitter were the same device,

much like an intercom system. There was no bell or ringing device to get

the recipient's attention. One had to either yell into the Box phone or rap

on the receiver/transmitter with a pencil or finger to get the attention of

the person at the other end.

1878 The first phone books appeared and were printed in sheets at first

since there weren't very many subscribers at the time. As more people

subscribed to telephone service it became necessary to print directory

listings in books.

The first telephone switchboard Operators were teenage boys. Young

women, who were believed to be more well-mannered than boys, were

preferred to fill those positions. Emma M. Nutt was the first female

employee for the Bell Telephone Company. She was hired at the Boston

exchange September 1, 1878, and continued until her retirement in

1915. Her 37 years as an operator began a tradition of long service.

The earliest telephones were all connected to each other. Everyone who

shard the same line could listen or talk to each other. Privacy became an

issue since it was so easy to listen in on another conversation. Also, any

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two people speaking tied up that line for as long as they were talking,

thus, denying service to other subscribers on that line. Identifying the

intended recipient of a phone call was done by 'ring-pattern'. The

Switchboard allowed people to have private conversations.

The first commercial telephone switchboard opened in 1878 in New

Haven, Connecticut with eight lines and twenty-one subscribers.

The rural (country) switchboard was almost always installed in the home

of the local operator.

1879 The first telephone numbers were issued in Lowell, Massachusetts.

Before that the operator had to memorize or look up people by their

proper names to connect them.

AIR Conditioner

In 1911 Willis Carrier presented to the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers the 'Rational Psychometric Formula' which is still used today by the

air conditioning industry and by 1914 Carrier had designed and installed air

conditioning systems for manufacturing plants, department stores, soap,

rubber and tobacco factories, breweries, bakeries, food processing plants and

others.

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1758 All liquid evaporation has a cooling effect. Benjamin "I invented

everything" Franklin and Cambridge University professor John Hadley

discover that evaporation of alcohol and other volatile liquids, which

evaporate faster than water, can cool down an object enough to freeze water.

1820 Inventor Michael Faraday makes the same discovery in England when

he compresses and liquifies ammonia.

1830s At the Florida hospital where he works, Dr. John Gorrie builds an

ice-making machine that uses compression to make buckets of ice and then

blows air over them. He patents the idea in 1851, imagining his invention

cooling buildings all over the world. But without any financial backing, his

dream melts away.

1881 After an assassin shoots President James Garfield on July 2, naval

engineers build a boxy makeshift cooling unit to keep him cool and

comfortable. The device is filled with water-soaked cloth and a fan blows hot

air overhead and keeps cool air closer to the ground. The good news: This

device can lower room temperature by up to 20 F. The bad news: It uses a

half-million pounds of ice in two months… and President Garfield still dies.

1902 Willis Carrier invents the Apparatus for Treating Air for the Sackett-

Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Co. in Brooklyn, N.Y. The machine

blows air over cold coils to control room temperature and humidity, keeping

paper from wrinkling and ink aligned. Finding that other factories want to

get in on the cooling action, Carrier establishes the Carrier Air Conditioning

Company of America.

1906 Stuart Cramer, a textile mill engineer in North Carolina, creates a

ventilating device that adds water vapor to the air of textile plants. The

humidity makes yarn easier to spin and less likely to break. He's the first to

call this process "air conditioning."

1914 Air conditioning comes home for the first time. The unit in the

Minneapolis mansion of Charles Gates is approximately 7 feet high, 6 feet

wide, 20 feet long and possibly never used because no one ever lived in the

house.

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Bicycle

Karl Von Drais was a German inventor and invented the 1st

Bicycle (pedal-less) in 1818 called

'Pedestrian Hobby-Horse'.

Kirkpatrick Macmillan was a Scottish blacksmith and invented

the 1st pedal-driven bicycle in 1839

A modern bicycle by definition is a rider-powered vehicle with two wheels

in tandem, powered by the rider turning pedals that are connected to the rear

wheel by a chain, and having handlebars for steering and a saddlelike seat for

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the rider. With that definition in mind, let's look at the history of early bicycles

that led up to the modern bicycle

A few years ago, most historians felt that Pierre and Ernest Michaux, the

French father and son team of carriage-makers, invented the first bicycle

during the 1860s. Historians now disagree since there is evidence that the

bicycle and bicycle like vehicles are older than that. Historians do agree that

Ernest Michaux did invent a bicycle with pedal and rotary cranks in 1861.

However, they disagree if Michaux made the very first bike with pedals.

Another fallacy in bicycle history is that Leonardo DaVinci sketched a design

for a very modern looking bicycle in 1490. This has been proven to be untrue.

The Celerifere:

The celerifere was an early bicycle precursor invented in 1790 by

Frenchmen, Comte Mede de Sivrac. It had no steering and no pedals but the

celerifere did at least look somewhat like a bicycle. However, it had four wheels

instead of two, and a seat. A rider would power forward by using their feet for a

walking/running push-off and then glide on the celerifere.

The Steerable Laufmaschine:

German Baron, Karl Drais von Sauerbronn invented an improved two-wheel

version of the celerifere, called the laufmaschine, a german word for "running

machine". The steerable laufmaschine was made entirely of wood and had no

pedals; a rider would push his/her feet against the ground to make the

machine go forward. Drais' vehicle was first exhibited in Paris on April 6, 1818.

Velocipede:

The laufmaschine was renamed the velocipede, latin for fast foot, by French

photographer and inventor, Nicephore Niepce, and soon became the popular

name for all the bicycle-like inventions of the 1800s.

Mechanically Propelled:

In 1839, Scottish inventor Kirkpatrick Macmillan devised a system of

driving levers and pedals for velocipedes, that allowed the rider to propel the

machine with feet off the ground. However, historians are now debating if

Macmillan actually did invent the first pedaled velocipede, or if it was just

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propaganda by British writers to discredit the following French version of

events. The first really popular and commercially successful velocipede design

was invented by French blacksmith, Ernest Michaux in 1863. A simpler and

more elegant solution than the Macmillan bicycle; Michaux's design included

rotary cranks and pedals mounted to the front wheel hub. In 1868, Ernest

Michaux founded Michaux et Cie (Michaux and company), the first company to

manufacture velocipedes with pedals commercially.

Penny Farthing:

The Penny Farthing is also referred to as the "High" or "Ordinary" bicycle,

and the first one was invented in 1871 by British engineer, James Starley. The

Penny Farthing came after the development of the French "Velocipede", and

other versions of early bikes. However, the Penny Farthing was the first really

efficient bicycle, consisting of a small rear wheel and large front wheel pivoting

on a simple tubular frame with tires of rubber.

Safety Bicycle:

In 1885, British inventor John Kemp Starley designed the first "safety

bicycle" with a steerable front wheel, two equally-sized wheels, and a chain

drive to the rear wheel.

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Flute

One of the notable finds at Divje Babe in 1995 is the putative 50,000 year-

old flute, known as the Neanderthal Flute. It is a juvenile cave bear femur,

broken at both ends, but showing 4 holes in line. Found in 1995 by Ivan Turk

in Slovenia, at the Divje Babe site, the juvenile cave bear femur bone, known as

the Divje Babe flute, was a major find of recent times. The reason for that was

because it provided significant evidence that Neanderthals may have been the

equal of Homo Sapiens in the evolution of humankind. It became the oldest

known musical instrument, and the first known instance of a diatonic musical

scale sequence.

But soon after it was found, in 1998, the theory was put forward, most

notably by taphonomist Francesco d'Errico et al, as well as Philip Chase and

April Nowell, that the bone, with four holes in a line, was not a flute, but was a

natural object fashioned by random bites from ancient carnivores. The debate

was on. Others entered the debate, and the archaeological and paleo-

anthropological community was split. The views of major participants are set

out in this article.

Musicologist Bob Fink wrote an essay the year before claiming the bone's

holes were "consistent with four notes of the diatonic (do, re, mi) scale," based

on the spacing of those four holes. The spacing of the holes on a modern

diatonic flute (minor scale) are unique, and not evenly spaced. In essence, Fink

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said, they are like a simple fingerprint. The Divje Babe bone's holes matched

those spacings very closely to a series of note-holes in a minor scale

Flute is the 1st musical instrument in the world.

In July 1995, Slovenian archaeologist Ivan Turk discovered a bone

carving (i.e. Flute) in the Cerkno, Northwest region of Slovenia.

The Ivan carving named the Divje Babe Flute, features four holes that

Canadian musicologist Bob Fink determined could have been used to

play four notes of a diatonic scale.

Researchers estimate the flute's age to be between 43,400 and 67,000

years B.P.

Photograph

As early as 1793, the brothers had discussed the possibility of using light to

reproduce images. Joseph Nicéphore Niépce's earliest experiments in this direction

began in 1816. His progress was slow because photography was not his sole, or even

his primary, interest. The invention on which the brothers expended most of their

efforts, innovation, and money was a combustion engine called the "Pyreolophore"

for propelling boats. This early internal combustion engine successfully propelled a

model boat on local rivers, and the brothers spent the next 20 years improving and

promoting the engine, resulting in Claude's eventual move to England

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When the craze for the newly invented art of lithography swept France in 1813, it

attracted Joseph Nicéphore Niépce's attention. His trials with lithography led to what

Niépce later termed heliography and resulted in the first permanent photograph from

nature, which he produced around 1826. In September 1827, Niépce traveled to

England to visit his ailing brother. While there, he was introduced to the noted

botanist, Francis Bauer, who recognized the importance of Niépce's discovery and

encouraged Niépce to write about his invention. Bauer provided him with

introductions to present his paper and heliographs to the Royal Society while he was

in England. These specimens—which were all referred to by Niépce as "Les premiers

resultats obtenus spontanement par l'action de la lumiere" (the first results obtained

spontaneously by the action of light)—were rejected and returned to Niépce because

he chose not to fully disclose his process.

Upon his return to Le Gras, Niépce continued his experiments. In 1829, he agreed

to a ten-year partnership with Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre. Niépce continued to

experiment with heliography, dreaming of recognition and economic success, until

his death in 1833. In 1839, Daguerre's photographic invention, the daguerreotype,

became a commercial success, overshadowing Niépce's heliograph.

In France in 1826, Joseph Nicephore Niepce took the world's first

photograph.

Joseph Nicephore Niepce captured the photo with a camera

Obscura focused onto a sheet of 20 × 25 cm oil-treated bitumen.

As a result of the 8-hour exposure, Sunlight illuminates the

buildings on both sides.

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TEMPLE

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Archaeologically categorised as a site of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A Period (c.

9600–7300 BC) Göbeklitepe is a series of mainly circular and oval-shaped

structures set on the top of a hill. Excavations began in 1995 by Prof. Klaus

Schmidt with the help of the German Archeological Institute. There is

archelological proof that these installations were not used for domestic use, but

predominantly for ritual or religous purposes. Subsequently it became

apparent that Gobeklitepe consists of not only one, but many of such stone age

temples. Furthermore, both excavations and geo magnetic results revealed that

there are at least 20 installations, which in archeological terms can be called a

temple. Based on what has been unearthed so far, the pattern principle seems

to be that there are two huge monumental pillars in the center of each

installation, surrounded by enclosures and walls, featuring more pillars in

those set-ups

All pillars are T-shaped with heights changing from 3 to 6 meters.

Archeologists interpret those T-shapes as stylized human beings, mainly

because of the depiction of human extremities that appear on some of the

pillars. What also appears on these mystical rock statues, are carvings of

animals as well as abstract symbols, sometimes picturing a combination of

scenes. Foxes, snakes, wild boars, cranes, wild ducks are most common. Most

of these were carved into the flat surfaces of these pillars. Then again, we also

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come across some three-dimensional sculptures, in shape of a predator

depicting a lion, descending on the side of a T-pillar

The unique method used for the preservation of Gobeklitepe has really been

the key to the survival of this amazing site. Whoever built this magnificent

monument, made sure of its survival along thousands of years, by simply

backfilling the various sites and burying them deep under, by using an

incredible amount of material and all these led to an excellent preservation.

Each T-shaped pillar varies between 40 to 60 tonnes, leaving us scratching our

heads as to how on earth they accomplished such a monumental feat. In a time

when even simple hand tools were hard to come by, how did they get these

stone blocks there, and how did they erect them? With no settlement or society

to speak of, with farming still a far cry away, in a world of only roaming hunter-

gatherers, the complexity and developed blueprints of these temples

represented another enigma for archeologists

Prof. Klaus Schmidt discovered Gobekli Tepe (the world’s oldest

temple) with the help of the German Archeological Institute

Gobekli Tepe is located in Southeastern Turkey, Built 12.000 years

ago.

This Temple contains most of the T-shaped pillars and animal

sculptures with heights changing from 3 to 6 meters.

Gobekli Tepe's circles range from 30 to 100 feet in diameter and

are surrounded by rectangular stone walls about six feet high.

Many of the pillars are carved with elaborate animal figure reliefs.

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WEBSITE

The World Wide Web, invented at CERN in 1989 by British scientist Tim

Berners-Lee, has grown to revolutionize communications worldwide

Where the web was born:

Tim Berners-Lee, a British scientist at CERN, invented the World Wide Web

(WWW) in 1989. The web was originally conceived and developed to meet the

demand for automatic information-sharing between scientists in universities

and institutes around the world. CERN is not an isolated laboratory, but

rather a focus for an extensive community that includes more than 10,000

scientists from over 100 countries. Although they typically spend some time on

the CERN site, the scientists usually work at universities and national

laboratories in their home countries. Good contact is therefore essential. The

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basic idea of the WWW was to merge the technologies of personal computers,

computer networking and hypertext into a powerful and easy to use global

information system.

How the web began:

Berners-Lee wrote the first proposal for the World Wide Web [PDF] at CERN

in 1989, further refining the proposal with Belgian systems engineer Robert

Cailliau the following year. On 12 November 1990 the pair published a formal

proposal outlining principal concepts and defining important terms behind the

web. The document described a "hypertext project" called "WorldWideWeb" in

which a "web" of "hypertext documents" could be viewed by ―browsers‖. By the

end of 1990, prototype software for a basic web system was already being

demonstrated. An interface was provided to encourage its adoption, and

applied to the CERN computer centre's documentation, its help service and

Usenet newsgroups; concepts already familiar to people at CERN. The first

examples of this interface were developed on NeXT computers.

Info.cern.ch was the address of the world's first website and web server,

running on a NeXT computer at CERN. The first web page address was

http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html.

Going global:

The first web server in the US came online in December 1991, once again in

a particle physics laboratory: the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in

California. At this stage, there were essentially only two kinds of browser. One

was the original development version, which was sophisticated but available

only on NeXT machines. The other was the ―line-mode‖ browser, which was

easy to install and run on any platform but limited in power and user-

friendliness. It was clear that the small team at CERN could not do all the work

needed to develop the system further, so Berners-Lee launched a plea via the

internet for other developers to join in. Several individuals wrote browsers,

mostly for the X-Window System. The most notable from this era are MIDAS by

Tony Johnson from SLAC, Viola by Pei Wei from technical publisher O'Reilly

Books, and Erwise by Finnish students from Helsinki University of Technology.

Tim Berners-Lee, is a British engineer and computer

scientist and MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) professor

credited with inventing the World Wide Web

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Robert Cailliau, collaborator on the World Wide Web project and

first Web surfer.

The first web site built was at CERN (Conseil Europeen pour la

Recherche Nucleaire), and was first put on line on 6 August 1991.

Info.cern.ch was the address of the worlds first-ever web site and

web server, running on a NeXT computer at CERN.

The first web page address was

http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html

NEWSPAPER

The Roman Empire published Acta Diurna ("Daily Acts"), or government

announcement bulletins, around 59 BC, as ordered by Julius Caesar. They

were carved in metal or stone and posted in public places. In China, early

government-produced news sheets, called tipao, were commonly used among

court officials during the late Han dynasty (2nd and 3rd centuries AD).

Between 713 and 734, the Kaiyuan Za Bao ("Bulletin of the Court") of the

Chinese Tang Dynasty published government news; it was handwritten on silk

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and read by government officials. In 1582, there was the first reference to

privately published newssheets in Beijing, during the late Ming Dynasty;

In 1556, the government of Venice first published the monthly Notizie

scritte ("Written notices") which cost one gazetta, a Venetian coin of the time,

the name of which eventually came to mean "newspaper". These avvisi were

handwritten newsletters and used to convey political, military, and economic

news quickly and efficiently throughout Europe, more specifically Italy, during

the early modern era (1500-1700) — sharing some characteristics of

newspapers though usually not considered true newspapers.

However, none of these publications fully met the classical criteria for

proper newspapers, as they were typically not intended for the general public

and restricted to a certain range of topics. Early publications played into the

development of what would today be recognized as the newspaper, which came

about around 1601. Around the 15th and 16th centuries, in England and

France, long news accounts called "relations" were published; in Spain they

were called "relaciones". Single event news publications were printed in the

broadsheet format, which was often posted. These publications also appeared

as pamphlets and small booklets (for longer narratives, often written in a letter

format), often containing woodcut illustrations. Literacy rates were low in

comparison to today, and these news publications were often read aloud

(literacy and oral culture were, in a sense, existing side by side in this

scenario).

Before the invention of newspapers in the early 17th century,

official government bulletins were circulated at times in some

centralized empires. They were carved in metal or stone and posted

in public places

The German-language Relation aller Furnemmen und

gedenckwurdigen Historien (Collection of all distinguished and

commemorable news), printed from 1605 onwards by Johann

Carolus (Publisher) in Strasbourg, is often recognized as the first

newspaper

Avisa Relation oder Zeitung was one of the first news-periodicals

in the world. It was published in Wolfenbuttel, Germany in 1609.

The printer/publisher was Lucas Schulte

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Some books mention the Avisa as the world's

first newspaper. Before 2005 there was a dispute whether

the Avisa or the Relation, which was printed

in Strassburg by Johann Carolus, was first. It was believed that

both started in 1609. New evidence found in 2005 by the World

Association of Newspapers, however, suggests that the Relation

aller Furnemmen und gedenckwurdigen Historien started as early

as 1605

CLOCK

A clock in Salisbury Cathedral that struck the hours was mentioned in

1306. This was probably one of the precursors of the 1386 clock, one of the

many early examples of mechanical water clocks that are mentioned from c.

1280 onwards. The clock was found in the cathedral in 1928. It had a

pendulum, which appeared to have been installed at a later date. The clock

was restored in 1956, and a verge escapement and foliot were installed. There

were no drawings or documents available, so it is unlikely that the original

foliot and verge escapement looked exactly like the one now installed in the

clock. The striking train of the clock is believed to be original.

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Like many of these more practical devices, its main purpose was to strike a bell

at precise times. It probably did not have a dial. The wheels and gears are

mounted in a four-post wrought iron frame. The framework was not held

together with nuts and bolts (which had not been invented), but rather with

metal wedged tenons. The escapement was a verge escapement with a foliot,

standard for clocks of this age. The power was supplied by two large stone

weights. As the weights descend, ropes unwind from the wooden barrels. One

barrel drives the going train which is regulated by the escapement, the other

drives the striking train whose speed is regulated by the fly (air brake).

Before the weights reach the floor, they have to be wound back up again, a task

that explains the presence of two large wheels shaped like steering wheels at

either end of the clock. The clock was a 'single strike' clock that struck only on

the hour. It made one strike per hour of the day (e.g. 12 strikes at noon). The

left half of the clock (as in the photograph above), is the striking train; the right

half is the going train.

At the end of the 17th century, the Salisbury clock, like many others, was

modified from verge and foliot to pendulum and anchor operation. This usually

made clocks much more accurate, even though trials in the early 1990s by

Michael Maltin showed that the clock was running to within two minutes a day

if the rope on the barrel was kept in a single layer. As soon as there are two

layers, there is more torque applied to the barrel by the weight and the clock

will go faster. As a single layer of winding is enough to keep the clock going for

12 hours, it could have been kept exact to within 2 minutes per day if it had

been wound twice per day.

In 1790, the old bell tower 'on the ditch of the close of the canons of the

said church' mentioned in the deed of 1386 which had housed the clock was

demolished, so the clock was moved to the Cathedral's central tower. In 1884,

a new clock was installed and the old one was left to the side.

The Salisbury Cathedral Clock is the world’s first mechanical

working clock in the world; it has been telling the time since 1386.

The clock doesn’t have a dial and it belongs to the category of

astronomical clocks which were built in the 13th and 14th

century England.

The Salisbury Cathedral clock doesn’t have a dial; it was designed

to strike hours at regular intervals. The gears and

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other mechanical parts are enclosed in a square iron frame of 1.2

m. Two large stones hanging from a pulley supplied the power.

They hang in the air and power the clock on their way down. Once

the stones are down, they have to be lifted again.

FILM

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Charles-Émile Reynaud was born on December 8, 1844 in Montreuil-sous-

Bois (France). His father, Benoît-Claude-Brutus Reynaud was a medal

engraver, and his mother, Marie-Caroline Bellanger was a schoolteacher. His

parents took care of his education. From his father he learned precision

mechanics, and his mother taught him to draw and paint. In 1858 he held an

apprenticeship into Gaiffe's in Paris, where he worked to repair, assemble and

develop optical and physics instruments, before going to Artige & Co., where he

learned industrial drawing. Then he worked as an operator at the portraitist

Adam-Salomon, where he did photographic retouching, and then moved to

Paris as a photographer.

In 1864, he attended public scientific lectures by light projections from

Abbot Moigno. He became his assistant and learned the profession of lecturer.

At the same time, he participated in the illustrations of the general dictionary

of the theoretical and applied sciences, published in 1870, by the French

professor and naturalist Adolphe Focillon. Also under his leadership he took

stereoscopic pictures of the families of plant life. After the death of his father in

1865, Emile Reynaud moved with his mother to Le Puy-en-Velay, where the

family found its origines. He completed his training and his scientific study

with the encouragement of Dr. Claude-Auguste Reynaud, a cousin of his

father. He acquired solid knowledge of botany, zoology, astronomy and physics.

In 1873, Abbot Moigno called on him to do a series of lectures about

photography in the "Progrès" Hall in Paris. These conferences couldn't be go on

and Emile Reynaud had to come back to Le Puy-en-Velay where the city

decided to light projected lessons about science to the students of the

Industrial Schools of Puy and the general public. These lessons were

orchestrated by Emile Reynaud whose numerous experiments projected on the

big screen secured him success with the audience.

It was in Le Puy-en-Velay in 1876 that he developed his optical toy, the

Praxinoscope. In December 1877, he returned to Paris to assemble and market

his praxinoscopes. He married Margueritte Rémiatte October 21, 1879 in Paris.

They had two sons, Paul (1880) and Andre (1882).

He continued to develop his Praxinoscope, into the Praxinoscope-Theatre

(with a decor) and then to the Projection-Praxinoscope (projection on a screen).

But these machines only reproduced a cyclical movement, limited to 12 frames.

Finally, in 1888, Emile Reynaud developed the Optical Theatre used to project

to the public of the Musée Grevin, short cartoons he called « Pantomimes

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lumineuses » from October 28, 1892 until March 1900. More than 500,000

people attended these screenings. Animated cartoons were born

In 1877 Charles Emile Reynaud invented the Praxinoscope, a

mirrored drum that gives the illusion of movement using strips of

pictures and on 28 October 1892 he projected the world’s first film

in public, Pauvre Pierrot, at the Musee Grevin in Paris.

It is an animated film consists of 500 individually painted images

and lasts about 15 minutes

SPORT

Paintings of humans in the cave of swimmers

An Egyptian burial chamber mural, from the tomb of Khnumhotep

and Niankhkhnum dating to around 2400 BC, showing wrestlers

in action

Cave paintings have been found in the Lascaux caves in France that been

suggested to depict sprinting and wrestling in the Upper Paleolithic around

17,300 years ago.Cave paintings in the Bayankhongor Province of Mongolia

dating back to Neolithic age of 7000 BC show a wrestling match surrounded by

crowds. Neolithic Rock art found at the Cave of swimmers in Wadi Sura, near

Gilf Kebir in Libya has shown evidence of swimming and archery being

practiced around 6000 BC. Prehistoric cave paintings have also been found in

Japan depicting a sport similar to sumo wrestling.

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Various representations of wrestlers has been found on stone slabs

recovered from the Sumerian civilization. One showing three pairs of wrestlers

was generally dated to around 3000 BC. A cast Bronze figurine, (perhaps the

base of a vase) has been found at Khafaji in Iraq that shows two figures in a

wrestling hold that dates to around 2600 BC. The statue is one of the earliest

depictions of sport and is housed in the National Museum of Iraq. The origins

of boxing have also been traced to ancient Sumer. The Epic of Gilgamesh gives

one of the first historical records of sport with Gilgamesh engaging in a form of

belt wrestling with Enkidu. The cuneiform tablets recording the tale date to

around 2000 BC, however the historical Gilgamesh is supposed to have lived

around 2800 to 2600 BC. The Sumerian king Shulgi also boasts of his prowess

in sport in Self-praise of Shulgi A, B and C. Fishing hooks not unlike those

made today have been found during excavations at Ur, showing evidence of

angling in Sumer at around 2600 BC.

Monuments to the Pharaohs found at Beni Hasan dating to around 2000

BC indicate that a number of sports, including wrestling, weightlifting, long

jump, swimming, rowing, shooting, fishing and athletics, as well as various

kinds of ball games, were well-developed and regulated in ancient Egypt. Other

Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. An earlier

portrayal of figures wrestling was found in the tomb of Khnumhotep and

Niankhkhnum in Saqqara dating to around 2400 BC

Depictions of ritual sporting events are seen in the Minoan art of Bronze

Age Crete, such as a fresco dating to 1500 BC of gymnastics in the form of

religious bull-leaping and possibly bullfighting. The origins of Greek sporting

festivals may date to funeral games of the Mycenean period, between 1600 BC

and ca. 1100 BC. In the Iliad there are extensive descriptions of funeral games

held in honour of deceased warriors, such as those held for Patroclus by

Achilles. Engaging in sport is described as the occupation of the noble and

wealthy, who have no need to do manual labour themselves. In the Odyssey,

king Odysseus of Ithaca proves his royal status to king Alkinoös of the

Phaiakes by showing his proficiency in throwing the javelin. It was predictably

in Greece that sports were first instituted formally, with the first Olympic

Games recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, where they were celebrated until 393

AD. The games were held every four years, or Olympiad, which became a unit

of time in historical chronologies. Initially a single sprinting event, the

Olympics gradually expanded to include several footraces, run in the nude or

in armor, boxing, wrestling, pankration, chariot racing, long jump, javelin

throw, and discus throw. During the celebration of the games, an Olympic

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Truce was enacted so that athletes could travel from their countries to the

games in safety. The prizes for the victors were wreaths of laurel leaves. Other

important sporting events in ancient Greece were the Isthmian games, the

Nemean Games, and the Pythian Games. Together with the Olympics, these

were the most prestigious games, and formed the Panhellenic Games. Some

games, e.g. the Panathenaia of Athens, included musical, reading and other

non-athletic contests in addition to regular sports events. The Heraean Games

were the first recorded sporting competition for women, held in Olympia as

early as the sixth century BC

Reference:

1. Internet

2. Books

Contact:

Author : Sudhakar Dhanapal

Email : [email protected]