INLAOO

THE WORLD BANK

POLICY PLANNING AND RESEARCH STAFF

Infrastructure and Urban Development Department

Report INU 4

Refrigerated Containers

Joseph Sinclairand others

Decemzber 1989

Technical Paper

This document is published informally by the World Bank. The views and interpretations herein are those of the authors ancshould not be attributed to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to any individual activng on their behalf.

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I

The Wodd Bank

Refrigerated Containers

Technical Paper

December 1989

Copyright 1989The World Bank1818 H Street, N.W.,Washington, DC 20433

All Rights ReservedFirst Printing: December 1989

This document is published informally by the World Bank. In order that the information containedin it can be presented with the least possible delay, the typescript has not been prepared in accordance with theprocedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors.

The World Bank does not accept responsibility for the views expressed herein, which are thoseof the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank or to its affiliated organizations. The findings,interpretations, and conclusions are the results of research supported by the Bank; they do not necessarily representofficial policy of the Bank. The designations employed, and the presentation of material in this document are solelyfor the convenience of the reader and do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of theWorld Bank or its affiliates.

The basic structure and contents have been put together by Joseph Sinclair, who from aneconomic background, has spent from 1965 to date closely involved with many of the varied aspects of thecontainer industry - initially working with SEA CONTAINERS Ltd but from 1981 onwards as a private consultant.He is a frequent contributor to various maritime journals on container related matters. Other co-authors are StevenH. Fraser, until recently Vice President Sales and Marketing, and Richard A. Lidinsky,Jr, Vice President, both of SEACONTAINERS AMERICA, Inc. Other valuable input was provided by John Arnold,Jr, of the Ports and WaterwaysInstitute, Louisiana State University. John R. Lethbridge, Ports Advisor, World Bank, was responsible for tineproduction of this Technical Paper and wrote the introduction. This Technical Paper was prepared unoefconsultancy agreements to the Transport Division of the Infrastructure and Urban Development Department of theWorld Bank.

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TECHNICAL PAPER ON REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

Part I - OVERVIEW

1.0 Objective ......................... 1

1.1 Introduction .......................... , 1

1.2 Overview of refrigeration and perishable producttransportation .................. 2

1.3 Refrigerated Transportation in the context of lessdeveloped countries .................. 4

1.4 Introduction of refrigeration technology and development .... 6

1.4.1 Air Flow .................. 71.4.2 Temperature control ........ ......................... 81.4.3 Temperature differentials ...... ..................... 81.4.4 Relative humidity ......... .......................... 81.4.5 Ripening gases .......... ............................ 91.4.6 Artificial atmospheres ....... ....................... 9

1.5 Microchip technology and remote monitoring ..... ............. 10

Part II - REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS - TECHNOLOGY/ENGINEERING

2.1 What is a refrigerated container? ...... .....................

2.2 Technical factors . ........................................... 1

2.2.1 Design criteria ......... ............................ I2.2.2 Choice of material .................................. I2.2.3 Insulation factors .......... ........................ '2.2.4 Temperature control .......... ....................... .2.2.5 Air distribution . .................................... 12.2.6 Capacity of refrigerating machinery ..... ............ 22.2.7 Control of atmosphere ......... ...................... 2CI2.2.8 Accessibility for repairs ....... .................... 2O

2.3 Description and illustrations of types of refrigerationtechnology ............................................. 20

2.3.1 The container ...................................... 20

(a) Bottom air delivery .20

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(b) Top air delivery ............................ 21(c) Side air delivery ........................... 21(d) Refrigeration machinery ..................... 21(e) The integral and porthole types . . 22(f) Temperature control and data logging ........ 22

2.3.2 Liquid bulk refrigeration containers .26

2.3.3 Ancillary Equipment .27

(a) Power packs . . 27(b) Clip-on diesel generators . .31(c) Underslung diesel generators . .31

2.3.3 Considerations .31

(a) Power requirements . .31(b) Gable connections and multinational sockets . 33(c) Maintenance and spare parts . .34(d) Ship/shore voltage regulations . .34

2.4 International standards, regulatory agenciesand regulations .34

Part III - REFRIGERATED CONTAINER TERMINAL AND TRANSPORT LOGISTICS

3.1 Logistics requirements for reefers inexisting (small ports) .39

3.2 Minimum equipment/installation requirements for transportingreefers by truck and/or train .41

3.3 Size, types and logistical parameters governing dedicatedreefer container vessels .41

3.4 Under-deck operation .43

Part IV - PRODUCT STOWAGE AND PRESERVATION

4.1 Packaging/stowing of cargoes in reefers .44

4.1.1 Types of packaging .444.1.2 Palletization .454.1.3 Air circulation requirements . . . 45

(a) Stowing frozen prodLcts .48(b) Stowing chilled products .48

4.1.4 Description of floor .494.1.5 Details of Weight Restrictions .49

4.2 Cargo description/information and productpreparation/preservation .51

4.2.1 General aspects of storage .51

4.2.2 Deterioration of fruits and vegetables .... .......... 51

(a) Physical deterioration ...................... 52(b) Physiological deterioration .... ............. 52(c) Chemical deterioration ...................... 52(d) Pathological deterioration .... .............. 52

4.2.3 Handling techniques to reduce deterioration .... .... 53

(a) Post harvest practices ...................... 53(b) Pre-shipment practices ...................... 53(c) Discharge ................................... 53

4.2.4 Preservation of fruits and vegetables .... .......... 54

(a) Temperature ................................. 54(b) Relative humidity ........................... 54(c) Controlled atmospheres ....................... 55

Part V - REEFER TRANSPORT ECONOMICS

5.1 The transition from bulk to container reefer .... ........... 565.2 Problems associated with dead-heading of empty reefers ..... 585.3 Cost comparison: reefer vessels versus refrigerated

container shipments ................. I ...................... 595.4 Purchase versus leasing: The role of the leasing company .. 62

Annex A: Bananas--A commodity study ............................. 64

Annex B: USDA Requirement for shipment by refrigerated container. 69

(a) Container ........................................... 70(b) Fruit precooling ........... ........................ 70(c) Loading ............................................. 70(d) Temperature recorder and probes ..... ............... 71(e) Documentation . ...................................... 72(f) Treatment schedules ......... ....................... 72

Annex C: Characteristics of fruits and vegetables affectingtransport .73

Annec D: Comparison of transport costs for bananasand Pineapples from Cote D'Ivoire to France .83

Annex E: Carrying temperatures and compatibility forvarious commodities .94

TECHNICAL PAPER ON REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS

PART ONE - OVERVIEW

1.0 Objective

One of the objectives of the World Bank in its lendingactivities for development is to assist its borrower countries inenhancing and widening their export opportunities through reducing thecosts of transport, improving the quality of the products and exploringnew opportunities for export potential. In the past, many countrieswere unable to export many of their products simply because of the lackof an appropriate transport technology and system.

The development of the refrigerated container and therefrigerated liquid bulk container have enabled countries to enterexport markets that were totally closed to them ten years ago. Althoughthe transport of deep frozen meats and other similar commodities waspossible through the use of refrigerated vessels and has been availablefor some time, the concept of "chilled" transport systems opened upenormous opportunities. For example, the export of fish from theSeychelles. Fish such as Red Snapper can be transported in an "iced"condition for periods up to 12 days and be sold on arrival as "freshfish" able to command a value very much higher than its frozencounterpart thus substantially increasing the return to the country onits assets. Similarly, the use of refrigerated liquid bulk containershas enabled small Pacific island communities to produce and exportchilled fruit juices which was hitherto impossible.

For traditional commodities such as bananas, the use ofrefrigerated containers has enabled the costs of transport to be reducedand for the final quality of the fruit to be much improved. It is thisability to be able control the quality of the fruit at its finaldestination which enables the transport system to function economically.The system has also enabled many countries to compete in new marketswhich were previously inaccessible due to a lack of safe and efficienttransport for perishable commodities.

It is because of the potential of the refrigerated containerfor assisting countries to increase their limited export opportunitiesthat this Technical Paper was prepared. It was considered that both theBank's staff and those responsible for promoting exports in theborrowing countries should be aware of the technology and how it canwork for their benefit. It is a technology which is continuing todevelop.

1.1 Introduction

Refrigeration is defined as the process of removing heat froman enclosed space for the purpose of lowering the temperature. In thecontext of transportation, containerization is the introduction of a

standardized method of unitization which allows cargo to be movedglobally and intermodally without the necetssity to handle that cargo enroute. It has long been known that the retmoval of heat slows down thedeterioration of perishable commodities such as foodstuffs. In theevolution of shipping, it was only natural that refrigerated transportwould be developed and perfected, and it was inevitable that thedevelopment of the sophisticated packing methods implicit incontainerization should ultimately be directed towards the integrationof this new technology.

A press advertisement in the early 1970s by the Sea ContainersGroup, asked: 'What if a container could provide precise, total controlof refrigerated shipments, over any distance, at any temperature? Itwould open up the possibility of distant new mass markets for delicateperishables [and] it would virtually erase the 20% spoilage that isaccepted for perishable shipments via old type cold containers."

This Technical Paper will consider:

* the development of refrigerated transport from theprimitive use of ice for the transport of perishables, tothe modern refrigerated container (Reefer);1

* the transformation of the refrigerated container itselfinto a highly sophisticated instrument in thetransportation sector;

* the technical aspects of the modern refrigeratedcontainer;

* the logistical considerations affected within all othersectors which are touched by its employment;

* and the new areas opened up by this equipment.

1.2 Overview of Refrigeration and Perishable ProductTransportation

We earlier defined refrigeration as the process of removingheat from an enclosed space for the purpose of lowering the temperature.This removal of heat is valuable as a means of preserving any productwhich would otherwise need to be consumed within a short time. In themain this relates to foodstuffs which deteriorate less rapidly as thestorage temperature is lowered. Storage at low temperatures prolongs"shelf" life by decreasing the respiration rate of fruits and vegetablesand by retarding the growth of most spoilage micro-organisms. According

1The term "Reefer" is commonly used to denote a refrigeratedcontainer.

to the product, its intended storage period, and its proposed use, thereare two principal low-temperature techniques: chilling and freezing.

Had there been no development of mechanically controlledrefrigeration, which dates only from the early 19th century, mostperishable foods would have to be consumed where they are produced, andthe transportation of foodstuffs over long distances in chilled orfrozen form would be impossible. During this period, the industrialrevolution in Europe drew its labor force from the rural areas, createda fast rising urban population which needed feeding, and simultaneouslyreduced the supply of locally produced produce. At the same timeAmerica, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand were rapidly developingsurpluses of meat and cereal products. While the latter were easilytransported by conventional means, only the by-products of the meatcould be similarly shipped, i.e., the wool, skins, and tallow.

For many centuries the use of natural ice was the only meansof preserving foodstuffs. The first experimental mechanicalrefrigerating system is thought to be that of Jacob Perkins in 1834, butthis developed practical difficulties and was not followed up. Thefather of refrigeration machinery is more usually regarded as theAmerican, Dr. John Gorrie, who introduced his cold air machine in 1849.This was later developed by Bell & Coleman of Scotland and others.

The first experiment in transporting meat, in 1877, used thes.s. Frigorifique from Buenos Aires to Rouen in France. This ship usedammonia to produce low temperatures. Although not a complete success,the fact that at least some of the food was landed in edible conditiondemonstrated that development was proceeding along the right lines. Afew months later a shipment of 80 tons of mutton from Buenos Aires toFrance on the s.s. Paraguay was discharged in perfect condition despitebeing at sea for over seven months. This cargo was frozen by means of aCarre ammonia machine.

In 1879, ice making machinery manufactured by Bell-Coleman wasplaced on board the s.s. Circassia, a vessel of the Anchor Line tradingbetween America and Great Britain, the machinery having previously beentested at the engineering works of D. and W. Henderson & Co, of Glasgow,where a consignment of meat was kept chilled at a temperature of 30°Ffor 90 days before being sold at Smithfield Market in London. However,the turning point is generally regarded as being the voyage of s.s.Strathleven in 1880 which carried 40 tons of frozen beef, mutton andlamb from Sydney, Australia to London where it was delivered in soundcondition. The refrigeration was provided by a Bell-Coleman compressedair machine.

It is possible that the greater demand for meat in GreatBritain, where the reduction of the rural population was far moredrastic than in France, contributed to the extra efforts made.Compressed-air machines were later replaced by carbon dioxide andammonia systems and by the end of the 19th century a number of

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refrigerated ships were entered in Lloyd's Register of Shipping.

It was refrigeration which made it possible for such meat-producing nations such as Australia and Argentina to export much oftheir output to Britain and western Europe, usually in frozen form.More recently the development of more sophisticated refrigerationequipment has made possible the growth of an export industry in morerapidly perishable fruits and vegetables from less developed countries.

1.3 Refrigerated Transportation in the Context of Less DevelopedCountries

One of the points of major impact which containerization hashad on the economies of the less developed countries has been theconsequent facility to export products whic:h otherwise posed too manytransportation problems for their producing countries. Primary productshave always played an important part in devreloping economies: forestand agricultural products such as logs, roughsawn timber, wood and paperpulp, plywood, rubber, copra, nuts, hides, wool cotton, fruit,vegetables, eggs and meat are obvious examples. Sea products such asfish, shell-fish and even seaweeds are also of importance.

If this list is examined it will be seen that, historically,of all the products mentioned, those which have been least able tocontribute to their producing country's export trade have been thosewhich have required fairly sophisticated methods of handling andshipment not readily available to the country concerned. The mostobvious examples are the perishable commodities where no facilities mayhave existed for pre-cooling, storing at low temperatures, delivering covessel in the required condition, and the transportation across theocean. Yet these products, by and large, are those which are mostreadily cultivated and gathered. Theoretically they are the mostpotentially viable products for a developing nation's economic growth

The trade in bananas is a prime example of how this situationoperates in practice. The product is one which is available throughoutthe year and the market in bananas is accordingly fairly stable. It salso one of the most popular fruits for developed nations to import.This was the case with Japan, for example, and the pattern has tendedbe repeated in other developing nations of the Far and Middle East.(See Table 1.1).

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Table 1.1

Exporting and Importing Countries of Bananas(Unit: 1,000 tons)

Exports Import

Exporting ImportingCountries 1983 1985 1987 Countries 1983 1985 1987

Costa Rica 1,009 857 943 U.S.A. 2,458 3,067 3,043.Ecuador 910 1,075 1402 Japan 576 680 775Colombia 786 783 962 Germany 459 589 699Panama 652 686 676 France 441 426 442Philippines 612 789 775 Italy 321 358 359Guatemala 316 366 380 U.K. 307 324 359U.S.A. 188 197 188 Canada 250 265 324Martinique 156 154 171 Saudi Arabia 130 85 70Taiwan 121 135 128 Netherlands 93 114 130Brazil 92 105 81 U.S.S.R. 89 70 47

World 6.227 6.823 7.521 6.066 7.132 7.508

Source: FAQ Trade Year Book 1988

In this connection it is interesting to note that the UnitedNations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) at a meeting heldin Geneva, Switzerland, in 1980, emphasized "the utility of an updatingof the study on maritime and inland transport of bananas, particularlywith regard to technical innovations - inter alia, containerization andmeasures designed to reduce transport costs of bananas..."

The summary and recommendations of the report issued by theUNCTAD secretariat in April 1982 commenced with the statement that

"final demand for bananas (i.e. by consumers) tends tobe elastic. It is therefore important to make everyeffort to stem the ever-rising tide of transportcosts. The largest single element in the margin bywhich the c.i.f. (cost, insurance and freight) priceof bananas exceeds the f.o.b. (free on board) price isthe transport costs.... A further reason is thatbananas ideally require refrigeration all the timefrom cutting to retailing. However, precisely becausethe transport cost is so high, it is the one which itwill be most useful to seek to reduce.n

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The summary goes on:

"Containerization of bananas is becoming increasinglypopular, particularly in the United States of Americawhere it is expected to become the dominant method oftransportation, if not the only one, before the end ofthe decade. Since containerization increases theproportion and hence the quantity of top qualityfruit, it provides an incentive to adopt this mode oftransport. Banana-producing countrieis which alreadyparticipate in or plan to participatei in the transportof bananas, particularly to the United States, mustbear this fact in mind when considering the purchaseof new tonnage ......

"It would appear that most growers and producingcountries benefit from unitization through lowerlosses of bananas during transport and the ability tomarket a larger percentage of top quality fruit....The choice between the two types of containers,integrated and isothermic, will depend on a largeextent on the import area, its inland distances andits climate.'

The foregoing illustrates the impiortance of refrigeratedcontainers as a tool to facilitate the expansion of a developingeconomy, by fostering expanded agriculturaL production (hence greateremployment and improved local diets) while earning foreign exchange.Bananas are but one product: the efficiency and advantages ofrefrigerated containers are however, common to virtually all perishableproduct transportation.

One of the major break-throughs in recent time has been theintroduction of the liquid bulk refrigerated container. Both the reeferand the standard liquid bulk container have enabled less developedcountries to import and export liquids such as cooking oil, fruitjuices, palm oil, wines and rum with much greater efficiency and atreduced costs. In particular, for some small island countries, theliquid bulk reefer has enabled them to enter the export market for thefirst time with chilled fruit juices - even though they only producevery small quantities each month. Such trades are now firmlyestablished in the southern Pacific. The reefer containers can be usedin two way trades since they are not difficult to clean - i.e., cookingoil inward - fruit juices outward are examples.

1.4 Introduction of Refrizeration Technologv and Development

The pioneering days of refrigerated transport, which go backto the mid-19th century, saw solutions of the major problem oftemperature control (i.e. maintaining precise temperature) as dependent

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upon ensuring that the cargo was precooled to the right level and wassufficiently insulated during transport. This achieved, it was thennecessary to maintain the level of refrigeration during transportationand to avoid delays which might adversely affect this requirement.Although recognition of the many factors which exert an influence onthis situation, and the sophistication of techniques for handling them,have improved in the intervening century, the basic problem remainsunchanged.

The development of the refrigerated container is of much morerecent origin, the earliest forms dating from the 1930s, although it wasonly in the late sixties that ship design permitted the transportationof large numbers of refrigerated containers in any one vessel. Indeedthe first presentation we have found on record of a system describingthe transport of cargo inside a refrigerated container on a vehicle wasas recent as 1971.

Although the technology had long been available to allow thetransportation of temperature-sensitive products in refrigeratedcontainers, at precise, predetermined temperatures, and to maintainthose temperatures throughout the loaded cargo, while controlling gaslevels and humidity, it was not generally utilized until recent times.There were a number of reasons for this delay, but it was mainly theresult of a resistance to change by suppliers of the produce andpotential users of the equipment who were concerned at the possibilityof increased costs, as well as the potential problems of operating andmaintaining sophisticated equipment.

Several factors generally regarded as affecting the carriageof temperature-sensitive cargoes, can be singled out:

Air flowTemperature controlTemperature differentialsRelative humidityRipening gasesArtificial atmospheres

1.4.1 Air Flow

Involved in this consideration are:

(a) The volume of air flow at various static pressures. 7T1.,higher the speed of air on a surface, the higher is the heat exchangebetween the surface and the air. Accordingly, the volume of air flowparamount in ensuring a satisfactory cooling effect.

(b) Air delivery pattern, including top or bottom evaporatorair supply as well as the flooring system and the stacking pattern.Live cargoes, such as fruit and vegetables, breathe (or respirate);oxygen is absorbed, breaking down their carbohydrates into carbon

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dioxide and water, thus producing heat. It is essential that the aircirculates efficiently round the cargo to avoid any warm pockets.

(c) The quantity of air recommended for the particularcommodity being transported, i.e., air changes per minute. Commoditieswith high breathing rates require high air flow when accuratetemperature is necessary; with lower air speeds the increase intemperature between blown and return air can be higher than thetemperature accuracy allowance. As an example; a 20 ft. containerloaded with 10,000 kg of bananas, with a respiration heat of 40watts/ton at 12 C (53°F) with a ventilation rate of 30 volumes/hour(1200m3/hour), exhibits a difference of temperature between blown andreturn air, due to the fruit breathing, of 1C (1.8°F) and is lower than0.4*C (0.7°F) with a rate of 80 volumes/hour (35,000 m3/hour). Thus,because considerable accuracy is necessary, the figure of 80volumes/hour is usually adopted in order to ensure the preservation ofmany fruits over long periods.

1.4.2 Temperature Control

The transportation of perishable commodities in refrigeratedcontainers has been very dependent upon the! ability to introduceevaporator air into the cargo space with a tolerance of less than 0.5°C.This was not so important when only deep frozen goods were beingtransported. The only criterion then was to keep temperatures below agiven limit in order to stop bacterial development and arrest chemicalchanges which would result in flavor changes.

1.4.3 Temperature Differentials

The difference in temperature within the cargo space,especially the difference between supply and return is dramaticallyresponsive to the introduction of various factors in the refrigerationtechnique such as:

* the capacity of the control system* the volume of evaporator air* the effectiveness of floor design* the proper stacking pattern of cargo

1.4.4. Relative Humidity

The lower the air temperature, the lower is the admissiblequantity of water in it. As most refrigerated cargoes are mainlyconstituted of water (80/90% of total weiglat in the case of fruits), thedrier the air, the higher is the water exclhange, and hence the greaterthe loss of weight suffered by the product. This is an importantconsideration: product weight loss affects not only the appearance, thetaste, and the quality of the product, but has a direct effect on theeconomics of shipping the product, as many commodities are sold onarrival by weight.

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To maintain high relative humidity, it is necessary to have asophisticated capacity control system, a large evaporator coil and goodevaporator air flow. It is also possible to program relative humidityto pre-determined levels of high or low humidity, but this increases thecomplexity of the system, complicates its reliability, is extremelycostly and results in loss of utilizable space.

1.4.5. RiDenine Gases

Living cargoes breathe out carbon dioxide. This gas has adifferent effect on different commodities. It can, for example,increase storage life of certain varieties of fruit, yet can causedisease in some apple varieties. Other gases can also have an influenceon the storage of fruit. Ethylene stimulates the ripening of bananasand is produced by their breathing. As these gases have effects in verylow concentrations and as their rates are difficult to measure, the onlysolution is to allow a sufficient intake of air.

Most container refrigeration systems today include a way ofintroducing fresh air and rejecting contaminated air, i.e. aircontaining various ripening gases. They also have a method forextracting a small quantity of inside air to detect levels of ripeninggas. It is theoretically possible to provide a sensing element andvalve arrangement which would introduce outside air in response to thegas level. But this would also add enormously to the cost as well asreducing internal cubic capacity and affecting the system's reliability.

1.4.6. Artificial Atmospheres

It is quite normal for artificial atmospheres, consistingprincipally of nitrogen, to be introduced to the loaded container at thebeginning of a voyage. The Air Products group of companies produce aliquid nitrogen container system called the Cryo-Guard. The BritishOxygen Company markets a system called Polarstream. Basically liquidnitrogen is injected from a number of spray heads situated along thelength of the container roof. Droplets of the liquid nitrogen vaporizeinstantly, expanding 650 times their volume, pulling down thetemperature uniformly throughout the container from ambient to sub-zeroin under 30 minutes.

Much work has been done, and continues to be done, to developsystems which can be used to slow down the rate of respiration andextend the storage life by control of atmosphere. Some methods, such asthose mentioned above, are concerned with modifying the atmosphereinside the container. Others seek to modify the atmosphere inside theindividual package being containerized, or of utilizing substances whichwill absorb the ethylene evolved by ripening fruit. Still others workby the application of a liquid coating to certain fruits. There is alsothe hyperbaric system which seeks to alter the air pressure. We shallbe commenting on these various methods in more detail later in thisTechnical Paper.

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1.5. Microchip Technologv and Remote Monitoring

The development of larger ships with more reefer capacity,2 aswell as the increase in reefer handling capacity at ports and terminals,made it necessary to have some form of remote monitoring, or automatedsurveillance to replace manual observation. This started as a systemfor monitoring the performance of a group of refrigerated containersconnected to a central power supply, but has now extended to the abilityto monitor individual containers.

It was the advent of affordable micro-processors andsophisticated electronics which made this possible in a cost-effectiveway. The function of the micro-processor based reefer control anddiagnostic alarm system is to monitor and process signals fromtemperature sensors, switches, thermostats and pressure switches, toallow early detection of any failure, in order to prevent damage to thereefer unit or its cargo. The introduction of microchip technology intothe controlling functions of container refrigeration units provided anability to maintain a much more precise temperature control than waspreviously possible. At present more than half the fleet of integralcontainers have some form of micro-electronics and computerization.

2Typically, container ships are only fitted out to carry a smallpercentage of reefers because of the need to correct them to the ship'selectrical power system.

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PART TWO - REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS - TECHNOLOGY/ENGINEERING

2.1 What is a Refrigerated Container?

Refrigerated containers (or thermal containers as they aredefined in the International Standards Organizations's regulations)cover all freight containers that might be equipped with appliances forcooling or heating the cargo space. The basic design and testingrequirements are laid down in ISO 1396/2.3

The ideal refrigerated container would be designed to copewith all the varying demands of the different trades in which it mightbe used; it would handle all possible variations in climatic conditions;it would take care of every variety of product which needs to be carriedunder temperature-controlled conditions; and it would operate within thetotal range of temperatures which might be required. However, no suchunit exists and instead a variety of specialized units are used. Tables2.1 and 2.2, and Figure 2.1 provide interesting analyses of the worldrefrigerated container population by country of ownership, structure,age and region of operations.

There are two basic types of reefer containers used ininternational trade; the insulated box which is connected to a centralplant cold air circulation system on board ship, sometimes known as anisothermic, or port-hole container, and the plug-in type integralrefrigerated container which incorporates its own refrigeration unitwithin the standard module.

Technical developments in isothermic, or porthole, containershave been less dramatic than in the integral reefer containers.Generally the porthole or central plant container operations are onlyeconomically viable in trade routes which offer large, constant volumes(say, 200-300 containers per ship) of homogeneous products, operatingbetween a limited range of highly developed ports. The meat tradebetween Australia and Europe is a good example. The lack of demand forthese units, other than for replacement of old units, derives from theadvances in technology for integral unit relative to port-hole or clip-on units.

The integral refrigerated container, on the other hand, hasalways been considered the unit best suited for trades with under-developed or developing countries where shore-side cooling appliances orcold storage facilities cannot always be provided. More importantly,the integral refrigerated container offers maximum flexibility in termsof products, trade range and volume. The growth in demand for theseunits has been explosive in the last few years as shown in Figure 2.2.

3See ISO (Int. Standards Org.) for thermal containers 2.4.

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At present, the total inventory is estimated to be .25 million TEU.

An integral reefer carries its own refrigeration capability.It is generally able to maintain temperatures between at least -18' and+20-C. It allows the shipment of as many different products each withdifferent temperature settings as there are containers on board thevessel; and can carry frozen cargo on one voyage and chilled cargo onthe next.

The practical experience gained with the operation of reefercontainers, as well as the studies undertaken in controlled laboratoryconditions, has resulted in minimum risk carriage of a wide range ofprimary products. However, it is essential that close attention begiven to the preparation of the cargo and supervision of its carriagethroughout the transport chain. The most vital aspect of refrigeratedcargo care is, of course, the commodity/temperature relationship, inconjunction with the requirements of ventilation and storage life. Itis important to identify those cargoes which are sufficiently compatibleto be carried in the same container, and those that are incompatiblemust be segregated.

Table 2.1

Analysis of 20/40ft integral reefer and insulated container fleet bycountry and ownershi2 (actual units)

Country of Carrier Lessor Otherownershio 20ft 40ft 2Oft 40ft 20ft 40ft

UK 28,032 2,380 7,027 5,413 0 650USA 186 14,114 5,207 7,122 625 0Japan 11,841 8,617 0 0 100 6West Germany 11,536 696 997 1,507 0 0France 8,502 1,903 0 0 0 0Denmark 1,867 2,808 0 0 0 0South Africa 6,054 0 0 0 110 0New Zealand 4,790 0 67 0 1,159 0Netherlands 3,152 1,053 340 112 0 0Australia 3,630 0 740 0 302 0Poland 314 2,075 0 0 0 0Hong Kong 1,375 1,031 0 0 0 0Spain 2,680 300 0 0 0 0Belgium 2,252 198 0 0 0 0Sweden 1,686 271 0 0 0 0Taiwan 937 636 0 0 0 0Israel 205 815 0 0 0 0Italy 1,126 266 0 0 0 0Puerto Rico 0 528 0 0 0 0Singapore 532 200 0 0 0 0

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Table 2.2

Analysis of integral reefer and insulated container fleet by age andregion

Europe North Far East Mid-East Africa Austral- C.& S. TotalAmerica asia America

Pre 1970 1,335 1,966 840 0 0 3 900 5,0441970-75 19,002 6,147 2,750 0 14 2,181 10 30,1041976-77 14,861 1,404 4,351 369 0 2,903 100 23,9881978-79 16,557 4,397 1,392 42 5,946 1,308 142 29,7841980-81 15,208 5,812 2,019 308 200 549 0 24,0961982-83 13,633 6,528 3,793 130 480 1,343 0 25,9071984-85 14,656 9,903 6,955 187 0 2,401 1,772 35,874Total(units) 95,252 36,157 22,100 1,036 6,640 10,688 2,924 174,797Total(TEU) 116,774 62,259 31,593 1,851 6,651 10,688 4,176 233,992

Figure 2.1

40 so rEU (X THOUSANVJ

EUROPE

I f6 774

AO AERICA 62 259

FAR EAST 31593 20rr

AUSTRALASIA 10 688 AOT _

OTHER 12 67o'7erEs 50 '20 rorAL

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f?

- 14 -

Fizure 2.2

Integral Refrigerated ContaiLner InventorY

10 20 30 40I I I U

1988

1987 _

1986

1985 _

1984 j7 I_ DAian

I I * European

10 20 TEU ( x 7 000)

- 15 -

Treatment of cargo before loading it into a container is alsoimportant with many commodities, as is treatment immediately afterremoval from a container. Similarly, the container itself must besubjected to a pre-trip inspection prior to the cargo being loaded.This is particularly important if it has just been used on a"positioning" voyage, as an unrefrigerated general cargo container, toensure the correct functioning and calibration of the machinery.

2.2 Technical Factors

A great variety of technical factors have influenced thedevelopment of the reefer container. The more important issues are:

* design criteria* choice of material* insulation factors* temperature control- air distributionD capacity of refrigerating machinery* control of atmosphere* easy accessibility for repairs

2.2.1 Design Criteria

One of the aspects of reefer containers which has been subjectto great innovation has been the desire to reduce the loss of stowagespace as a result of incorporating a refrigeration unit into theintegral reefer container. The refrigerated container, always arelatively expensive piece of equipment, has become even more expensivewith every advance in technological development, such as the intro-duction of atmosphere control systems and microprocessors. Any abilitytherefore to increase the economic return for the cargo carried has tobe welcomed.

Clearly an increase in the volume of usable space is anobvious area, but there is a limit to the extent by which this can beachieved. The recommendations laid down by the International StandardsOrganization as to minimum internal dimensions of thermal containers, aswell as the regulations governing the external dimensions of ISOcontainers, are some constraints. This is clearly illustrated by thepreponderance of the 8.5ft standard height unit as shown in Figure 2.3The most successful manufacturers are those who have balanced theirtechnical advances with the requirement of maximum internal capacity.

2.2.2 Choice of Material

The refrigerated container, no less than the dry freightcontainer, has been the subject of much discussion between owners andoperators concerning the ideal construction material. Although therehave been protagonists of many different types of material, including

- 16 -

plywood and fibreglass, the main argument has centered around therespective merits of steel and aluminum.

Figure 2.3

Distribution of Reefer Containers by Height

66%IrTEGRAL

S 0% REFRINSUL A rED

77 065 rEu

j 8" S5fl 9t9fr5

There is a delicate commercial/engineering compromise betweenthe benefits of lighweight aluminum (in terms of savings in containertare and consequent ability to maximize cargo weight within legallimitations) and heavier steel containers (which enjoys the advantage oflower initial cost and cheaper subsequent repair costs). When appliedto refrigerated containers the issue has been complicated still furtherby the high initial purchase price of the equipment and the desire ofoperators to obtain maximum cargo utilization. There is also the needto extent the useful life of the reefers as long as possible, as well aspreserving their cosmetic appearance. This latter aspect is veryimportant when transporting foodstuffs.

It is necessary to distinguish between the 20 ft. and the 40ft. reefer container. Where there has been a move towards the steelcontainer, the preference for aluminum has nevertheless tended topersist in the case of the 40ft unit in order to keep tare weight as lowas possible. The data in tables 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 as well as Figure 2.4reveal that the integral reefer unit fleet increased in the periodJanuary 1983 to January 1986 by 42%. They also show clearly how the 40ft. reefer unit has gained in popularity and how the steel container hasgained in popularity despite the domination of the aluminum box in thecategory of 20ft units.

- 17 -

Table 2.3

Analysis of integral reefer and insulated container fleet bycladding and region

Steel Aluminium GRP/Plywood Total (units) Total (TEU)

Europe 19,959 27,509 47,784 95,252 116,774NorthAmerica 2,927 32,718 512 35,157 62,259Far East 1,504 19,723 873 2,100 31,593Mid-East 16 1,020 0 1,036 1,851Africa 16 10 6,614 6,640 6,651Australasia 1,158 6,083 3,447 10,688 10,688Central andSouth America* 682 1,342 900 2,924 4,176

Total 26,162 88,405 60,130 174,797 233,992

* Includes Caribbean

Table 2.4

Analysis of integral reefer and insulated container fleet by age andcladding

Steel Aluminium GRP/Plywood Total

Pre 1970 2 4,421 621 5,041970-75 838 20,903 8,363 30,lO.1976-77 131 9,755 14,102 23,9881978-79 2,291 9,516 17,977 29,78.1980-81 2,738 11,395 9,963 24,0961982-83 7,041 13,020 5,846 25,9071984-85 13,221 19,395 3,258 35,87-Total(units) 26,262 88,405 60,130 174,,79Total(TEU) 31,474 134,343 68,175 233,992

- 18 -

Table 2.5

Analysis of integral reefer and insulated container fleet byLength and cladding

(actual units) Steel Aluminiunm GRP/Plywood Total

20ft 20,891 38,454 52,085 111,43040ft 5,265 40,634 8,045 53,94435ft 0 6,254 0 6,254Other 106 3,063 0 3,169Total 26,262 88,405 60,130 174,797

Source: Containerization International "World Container Census,"published as a special report in September 1986.

Figure 2.4

Distribution of Refrigerated Containers by Cladding

}'YrEGRAL REEFER

INSJIA A rF

- 19 -

2.2.3 Insulation Factors

Containers are normally insulated with polyurethane foam,although PVC, glass and polystyrene foams are also used. The insulationthickness is usually 75mm for the side walls and about 100mm for roofand floor. Unfortunately, the foams tend to deteriorate mainly as aresult of uptake of water. As much as a 30% increase in heat inflow maybe experienced after six years in use. The rate of deterioration does,however, depend largely on the trade route and the number of handlingsper year.

2.2.4 Temperature Control

In the early days of containerization, as we have seen, mostcargoes were deep frozen and accurate temperature control was notcritical. But as the refrigerated trade has expanded into the field offresh produce, (carried in the chilled mode just above freezing point),it has become essential to maintain accurate temperature control.

As a result of the recent incorporation of microchiptechnology into temperature control units, temperatures can now becontrolled to within +/-0.2°C of set point. This is largely achieved byrunning the compressor continuously and reducing its cooling capacity byusing some of the discharge gas as an artificial heat load or byreducing the volume of refrigerant pumped by the compressor.

By-passing hot gas into the evaporator is a very precisemethod of temperature control. Unloading cylinders or the use ofthrottling valves are typical methods of reducing the volume ofrefrigerant pumped by the compressor. The Sea Containers' SEACOLDreefer machinery features a unique two stage combination of compressorcapacity reduction and fine control by modulated injection of hot gasinto the evaporator in order to achieve this accuracy of control.

2.2.5 Air Distribution

In order to ensure a good temperature distribution, it isessential to have air uniformly distributed throughout the load. Thisis achieved by proper stowage of the cargo within the container. Poorstowage will result in poor air distribution, giving rise to longerdrawdown times when produce is not pre-cooled, or to an excessiveproduct temperature range.

As far as container design is concerned, the type andfrequency of battens on the side walls, the T-section floor and size ofplenum chamber have a bearing on the efficiency of airflow as do thelocation and size of air grill and vents,

- 20 -

2.2.6 Capacitv of Refriferatina Machinery

Refrigerated containers are generally capable of maintainingan internal temperature of at least -18'C in ambient temperatures of38.5'C and some are able to maintain temperatures as low as -25°C inambient conditions of 50°C. Capacity is a function of the ambienttemperature, set-point for cargo, and condition/design of therefrigerated machinery and container.

2.2.7 Control of AtmosRhere

A large part of the development of the modern refrigeratedcontainer has been concerned with control of the atmosphere in thecontainer. As mentioned above, fruits and. vegetables take in oxygen andgive off carbon dioxide during respiration. If the proportion of oxygenand carbon dioxide in the surrounding atmosphere can be altered, therate of respiration can be slowed down and the storage life of theproduce extended.

2.2.8 Accessibility For Repairs

As technology has advanced and has been applied to increasethe utilisable space inside the refrigerated container, there has been areduction in size of refrigeration machinery. This should have made theinspection, servicing and repair of the maLchinery become theoreticallymore difficult, but this has not occurred. As the brochure of onemanufacturer points out:

"SEACOLD was designed to ensure that: the machinery issimple to put into service and easy to maintain. Dropdown doors over the electrical and control equipmentcompartments give convenient access to components atworking level; servicing is further assisted by aneasy to read wiring diagram used in conjunction withcolor coded and individually numbered electricalcables throughout." (see Figure 2.5).

The developments in microchip technology to provide remotemonitoring and diagnostic alarm systems have made servicing easier.

2.3 Description and Illustrations of Tyves of RefrigerationTechnologv

2.3.1 The Container

(a) Bottom Air Delivery

Three types of air distribution are used. The bottom airdelivery system is shown in Figure 2.5. An air space is provided

- 21 -

between the top of the cargo and the top of the container - the "loadline." The evaporator fans draw return air from this area and pass thisair through the evaporator coil. Here the air temperature is eithercooled or heated, depending on controller set point requirements andambient air temperature. The chilled or heated air is then passed downthe delivery air ducts to the delivery air plenum chamber, where the airis forced through the tee bar floor and reaches all the lower stowedcargo and the rear door.

The air is forced through the cargo by reason of the staticair pressure differential between delivery air and return air, and thefan volumetric flow rate. Sensors in the return air and delivery airenable the controller to regulate the delivery air to the correct setpoint values. Also recording sensors mounted in the delivery or returnair, permit a record to be kept on a chart recorder.

(b) Top Air Delivery

This system of air distribution was originally used mainly forpalletized loads on flat floors. Air is drawn from the bottom of thecontainer and is passed through the evaporator before being delivered tothe top of the box through ducted passages. This system operates in thereverse of the natural law which says that hot air rises. It has beenvery largely superseded by the bottom air delivery system, made possibleby the tee bar floor design. One benefit of this has been the avoidanceof damage to which the ducting was prone when the containers were beinghandled by forklift trucks.

(c) Side air delivery

This system of air distribution is considered obsolete. Someof the earlier forms of integral refrigerated container feature a systemwhere the cooling air was sucked in through the load and pushed acrossevaporator coils, down through the inner walls of the container, and outthrough the bottom. One such product used 8 cooling fans to replace theconventional single blower and ensure an even distribution of air at lowvelocity.

It is generally felt that the bottom air delivery method ofdistribution is the most effective.

(d) Refrigeration .Machinery

Although various designs of mechanical refrigeration units arebeing constructed for reefers by several manufacturers, they all employthe same basic princ:ples and generally provide the same technicalcoverage. The basic characteristics are:

- 22 -

(i) Electrically driven components suitable for operating on acompatible power supply.

(ii) Control of cargo temperature within predetermined limits.

(iii) Forced circulation of refrigerated air round and throughthe cargo.

(iv) Capacity control for the carriage of chilled cargo.

(v) Water and air cooled condensing for above and below ship'sdeck operation.

(vi) Built-in automatic controls, protective devices, and amethod of continuous temperature recording.

(e) The Integral and Porthole Tvyes

We have referred earlier to the basic differences betweenthese two systems of reefer container operation. A drawing of theCONAIR shipside cooling air supply system, Figure. 2.6, gives anindication of the way in which the porthole type containers areconnected to the central fixed refrigeration system of a ship. Some ofthe characteristics of this system have been described by themanufacturers as follows:

(i) accurate control of the temperature and the quantity ofrefrigerated air and prevention of tainting of one kind ofcargo by another;

(ii) accessibility of all parts of the system for operation,maintenance and repair;

(iii) flexibility for fitting into ships of all types andconnection to different kinds of refrigeration machinery,supply fans and coupling connections;

(iv) accurate alignment of the couplings on the supply andexhaust sides of the refrigerated air system to allowconnection instantly to the containers;

As for the integral reefer, there are two basic types. Thefirst incorporates a diesel generator unit as a permanent feature. Thesecond relies entirely on an outside power source. This outside sourcemay be a permanent electrical system on ship or shore, or a temporaryelectrical source, such as power pack, clip-on unit.

(f) Temperature Control and Data Logsl ng

The past few years have seen rapid development of equipmentdesigned to improve temperature monitoring, provide more accurate

- 23 -

temperature control, furnish better storage, facilitate retrieval ofoperational data, and automate pre-trip inspections. This has been madepossible entirely as a result of the incorporation of microprocessorsinto the integral reefer units.

Although much of this development can be attributed to theefforts of manufacturers to improve their existing systems and todevelop more sophisticated designs, tribute should also be paid to thework carried out by the Shipowners' Refrigerated Cargo ResearchAssociation (SRCRA), based in Cambridge, UK. The SRCRA has done atremendous amount of research on projects both in the field and in thelaboratory, working closely with both manufacturers and shipping lines.

In the 1970s the SRCRA developed a hot gas injection systemusing two solenoid valves which inject hot gas into the evaporatorsection of a container reefer unit, thereby reducing the effectiverefrigeration capacity of the compressor. The solenoid valves areopened and closed by an electronic temperature controller. One solenoidvalves is normally open in the compressor discharge line and the otheris normally closed in the bypass from the compressor discharge to theevaporator inlet. This system was field tested using Stafa ControlSystems (SCS) controllers which had been developed for the airconditioning industry. Although this system had its problems, iteventually proved reliable and enabled Geest Line to carry out somesophisticated trials with bananas over a period of several years. Moresophisticated temperature controllers were then developed by Ward Brookein UK, Refrigerating Machine Controls (RMC) in Switzerland, and others.

More recently SRCRA has collaborated with the UKmicroprocessor control manufacturer Stonefield in the development of anadvanced electronic control system with data logging and fault diagnosisfunctions which is described as "a total management concept forrefrigerated containers." This unit, named the Sentinel, combinesautomatic pre-trip inspection, monitoring, display of alarm conditionsin the reefer unit and data logging to long-term memory in a singleunit. Initiation of the pre-trip inspection with the Sentinel isachieved via a specially designed membrane keyboard. Operation of thereefer unit is monitored by a number of temperature, pressure andelectric current tranducers, with information processed and comparedwith pre-set reefer unit test data. Failure of any of the pass/failcriteria results in the appropriate alarm being displayed. As far astemperature control is concerned, when carrying frozen cargo, theSentinel controls return air at temperatures between 4°C and -30°C.When carrying chilled cargo, the delivery air temperature is controlledin the range 4'C to +30°C. The control system maintains the setpointwithin +/-0.25°C in the chill range and within +/-l°C in the frozenrange. The Sentinel specification is only an example of what has beenachieved.

- 24 -

Figure 2.5

Cutawav View of a Seacold Refrigerated Container

CUTAWAY AiEW OF SEACOLD REEFER

,, ,,".,, .. , ., ,,., 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~il,.,,.t

/,ti8

.,,,,,,, ......

-, l 'I,,. iI t.'' ' I. .. '.'.. lSI.

- 25 -

Fi2ure 2. 6

Conair ShiRside Cooling Air Supply System

Refrigerating

Machine Se

Pipes

FlexibleCoupling

Air Cooler 7 *Casi2ng

Below-DeckInsuiatedContainer

InsulacedSupply andExhaust Air Ducts _6 7 Z :t

26 -

Many other companies offer similarly equipment. CarrierTransicold has introduced its Accu-Temp capacity control system withDataCorder and DataReader to provide data integrity and economy ofmaintenance time, particularly at the pre-tripping stage. Thermo KingCorporation has developed a combined controller-recorder which they callthe Thermoguard. The Klinge Corporation offers the Therm Monitor basedon a hard-wired system and the portable Therm Logger data retrieval unitwhich, in conjunction with a keyboard and screen, transmits informationto the Term Monitor as well as retrieving data from its memory.Remonsys Ltd of the UK has produced a unit called the Autolog whichtakes data communication to the point where it can be transmitted via amodem over telephone/telex to an office or repair depot. This unit hasbeen employed with notable success in reefers carrying chilled lamb fromNew Zealand to Europe.

Despite the introduction of the data logger with its digitaldisplay, reefer operators continue to use the chart recorder which haslong been the instrument designed to provide a record of the refrigera-tion unit's performance over an entire trip. A major advantage of thechart recorder is that it displays reefer unit performance for an entiretrip, whereas the digital display of the data logger shows temperatureonly at the given moment. With the chart recorder, maintenancepersonnel making daily rounds of containers can spot departures fromnormal performance which occurred since the last inspection and aresymptomatic of unit malfunction.

Data retrieval with chart recordesrs is a simple matter ofremoving the recorded chart. The record of the trip can be seen at asingle glance. This has some advantage over having to study long linesof digital readout in order first to identify a particular container andthen to decipher the data to determine the performance of the refrigera-tion unit. Although it might have appeared from the advent of the datalogger that the chart recorder might become obsolete, this has notproved to be the case. Manufacturers of chart recorders, such asindustry leader Partlow Corporation, argued strongly for theirretention. Modified chart recorders are currently being produced by theSwiss manufacturer RMC with a smaller width and depth than thosepreviously available to the market, in order to fit the requirements ofthe reduced space in the new generation of slimline refrigeration units.

2.3.2 Liguid Bulk Refrizeration Containers

Reefer containers designed to carry liquid bulk consist of astainless steel pressurized cylindrical tank. The capacity of a twenty-foot unit is 18,000 liters. The working pressure of the tank is in therange of 30 psi. The end pieces attached to the cylinder are comparablein proportion to those of an ISO container. The tanks are used totransport cargo in either chilled or frozen state. The tank andsupporting refrigeration unit are designed to keep the liquid cargo at astable operating temperature (± 1°C) over a range of -20° + 50°C. Moreprecise control is required for chilled caLrgo than for frozen cargo.

- 27 -

The unit developed by Sea Containers uses a direct expansionregrigeration circuit operating on Freon gas. The coolant is a mixtureof glycol and water which is cycled through an external heat exchanger.The power for the refrigeration unit is provided by an external powergenerator.

2.3.3 Ancillary Equipment

(a) Power Packs

The power pack is a transportable generating station in a 20ftISO container. It is suitable for use on any type of ship as well as onland and can be handled and carried in the same way as any standard 20ftISO container. It has many applications beyond the supply of power torefrigerated containers. It can be used for supplying power tocontainer cranes and electrically heated tank containers, for lightingand heating of temporary on-site accommodation, and for any othersituation where portable electrical power is required.

The power pack developed by Sea Containers specifically forthe refrigerated container carrier and terminal operator is illustratedin Figure 2.7. Its equipment is shown in Figure 2.8. It is capable ofgenerating either 460V or 230V and can supply power to all normal typesof electrically powered refrigerated containers. Its two dieselgenerators supply power to 36 receptacles, the utilisable number ofwhich at any one time depends upon:

* ambient conditions* the temperature range required to be maintained* the electrical power demand of the refrigerated container

being used

The integral fuel tank has a capacity of 4523 litres (1195 Sgallons or 995 Imperial gallons) enabling the power pack to operatemore than three days without refuelling. The special features of t,_.versatile and useful system are shown on an appended sheet.

It may be asked why the reefer is not equipped with anindependent power source as a matter of routine and, indeed, somerefrigerated containers are equipped with diesel generators to prov4:-.independent electrical operation as an alternative to operation fromoutside electrical supply source. However, this means that the reefris carrying at least 1,000 lbs. of equipment which is not permanentl;required and that it has an initial cost substantially higher than t e

reefer which is not similarly equipped. Operators have found this fa.too high a price to pay for the convenience of occasional self-sufficiency. Furthermore, the development and growth of all-electricslimline reefer units, designed to maximize the utilization of theinternal container space, could only be achieved by removal of the spacerequired to accommodate the bulky and heavy diesel generator equipment

- 28 -

On the other hand, the all-electric units created a problemwhen the container was removed from its external source of electricpower. With the increase in volume of sensitive chilled cargo

movements, which required precise temperatuare control on a continuousbasis, it was essential to have a system which would continue to

generate the electric power needed to maintain this. There are two main

systems whereby this is achieved, clip-on and underslung dieselgenerators.

- 29 -

Figure 2.7

General Arrangement of the Power Pack

CC) . nl-ILe botles Air intake

i .:scha! e I taI:In g H-t te IIe C(D li cnchIng nozz! e Contict pamel ouvres

J. ;res ' \I

Radiator fariControl circuit

Gcnerator So I ' t anlfolrTners Generator No. 2

L Dirceracecane oni' of eni co Lo -:?:Cl a

Co, l rig , Ecin /vtcr ;Me

a . ~~~~~~~~~~Exhaust silencer II Exhaust silencer

Electriealii po'er inpts an. pd |C_Entrance|-

@% T . ........ . , k . I ~~~~~~door k

iReefer Exhaust p):pe i Luboratge ta , Exhaust pipe R eefer

| receptacle panel conr.ec: ion o,,an~! cor.ne- on epacepane!

I CO;ch-e-.fniligco ozj regn-con..rci

Electrical Po( er input and panel C(n - :-z

remo:e moni:torng socKets

X covers tnp anr ea CGENERAL ARRANGEMENT PLAN

I Power Receptacle 4 Methodsof RefuellingPanel tJ} 00 l _ I 1 ; o methiods of refuelling the Power

Pack tieI availabile:Each receptacle on both panels has its | I o ! * I I I kcont;IinertIsingano-. n interlocked circuit breaker for _iIrmoured hose fitted with quickprotection against overload and short u_Nase couplings. (This hose iscircuit. The circuit breakers also ii_ =supplied w;ith the Pow er Pack )ensure that the power output is 1 supplie with t o

s,Aichedffadonatomtical a IVn41 I'iborigh a fillinig pipe wsithi a '3sitched off andonaulomatically as I E llSI' screw connect ion forthe power plugs are w ithdraxvn or It: vNllE1 i3 ti ig b) other method.-inserted. The receptacles will receive I460V, 4 pin - 32 amp plugs, or230V, 4 pin -50 amp plugs. 5 Remote MonitoringDi ilerent receptacles can be fitted tomeet individual requirements The Po_ tr 11, k li it. own rt niote

! 4 _tiuilitoloiing s-;yt,.-III ak tlenloti?0 indlicator lmox which ciii he posiliooevd'-r' - - ao.uv t lo th t iit Ina locationon Ulitrol w. ai..... e: tv ral coue.,,ei for

.A free standing control panel containis Iflany of the waining lghts airallthe control and indication activlted on tli,- I tlmotet ndicaitol box

N equipment ofthe electrical systen_ an alaiIII will Therlie I re are foti0 ) w and generator shut-down control. All W u ning lights to li(I,O iie tthe

E p gi indicators are easihl visible from the fol lok%il gt o "A ide access door of tile ullit. I Geneiaioi l;hiu I.n tIhe caull' of

.- . tif ShI-d % IIh t .1nunthel bnl'ieort

94 E-ti~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s bY exantin.itii III It ie o inirolkii?n'l In the Po'' ~I P.Ick- It elf '3 Electrical Power

Input Requirement * _ V4 hen the Pow er Pack has notoperated for a long period it may be 2 5necessarv to supply electrical pow%er 6Emergencyfrom an eixternal source- A socket ic 6 Emse nfitted to the outside of the Power Pack Control Panelfor receiving and distributing this | nih uli u rl ni. ootrol panpowterto: ii i24 # X _' I I t it lie Powir P%i k s si(le act vssI the batterv charger; . .2. the engine water jacket heaters; I\imi , pnovidi, fti the follnitng3. the anti-condensation heaters in the A%.,f m n I I figh(inl

alternators, control cabinet andl .receptacle panels; 1117, 1 _ I t

Athe internal lightinig s-steni; c; the internal sockets for opriat .np

hand power tools. lt230\V AC po A er is required. P lii Pk oI l. i,n tfilit eml

.Ii IiV"ll i, - li d

3

- 31 -

(b) Clip-on Diesel Generators

The clip-on diesel generator as shown in Figure 2.9 is a self-contained portable generator set which clips on to the front end of thecontainer and provides the necessary power when it is being moved longdistances by road. This unit has been used with satisfactory resultsfor many years, but it has a number of drawbacks in practice. Theweight of the clip-on unit can restrict payload within the container andcan cause unbalanced front-end loading. It can cause uneven weightdistribution in places where axle weight limits are strictly defined,and it requires high-lifting equipment to install it on the container.These problems can be avoided with the other major system.

(c) Underslung Diesel Generators

The underslung diesel unit is of much more recent origin andhas taken an increasing share of the market since 1985. By virtue ofbeing mounted beneath the chassis on which the reefer is beingtransported, the underslung design is able to ensure even weightdistribution and maximum payload capacity in areas where strict axleweight limits are imposed. The underslung unit also eliminates problemsof unbalanced wear on chassis kingpins and rear bearings and permitsbetter visibility for the driver.

A typical design of an underslung unit is that manufactured byJohn Tate Inc. of California - the Power Source design. This unitfeatures a Deutz F8L-912W three-cylinder, four-stroke, air-cooled dieselengine and Lima brushless AC alternator rated at 15KW, 18.7kVA,connectable for 230V or 460V AC 3 phase 60Hz operation. A 50 gallonfuel tank is fitted as standard equipment, but the design allows foradditional fuel modules for extended overland service. It is claimedthat the unit can be fitted to the container in around 15 minutes.

2.3.3 Considerations

(a) Power Requirements

To operate under varying international conditions, therefrigeration machinery operates on electric power and, subject tospecification, can accept both 220V and 440V, 3 phase, 50/60 hertz.While aboard ship and on the quayside, the reefer is normally pluggedinto an electrical power supply. While on a truck or in and area whereelectricity is not available, the reefer can be attached to a portablediesel generator which will supply suitable 220/440 volt power asrequired. As a broad generalization, reefer containers draw in therange of 6-14 kVA. Ideally refrigerated containers are equipped withboth air-cooled and water-cooled condensors for maximum flexibilityaboard ship. This enables them to be stowed either on deck or in theship's hold.

Clip-On diesel generator.2105 mm (82 e8 in)

Cyclone prefater Ou'Ck release panel fasIene,V

air ntake ,

2

F Ihaust rnufllef @ lseiiii"

W -----..-.. °I3 .~~~~~~~...; um~&memmmr mut

t[>9|^;w|t 8s*S . , * , . , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~adi'ator fiffing cap

inl r teade -loc-y . unum

Sieacer- tloaiwrhg p.rung

=..VAN~~~~

678 mmmm um6mu69mun

low ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~u **~***mum mumummumumua~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~51-r

(19 n

y~~~~u ummemmmummum mummummumums~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~(41,n

b0f ~ mu umemu.

mum uumuum.mumuu~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ulf11n* F! __~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(,,, on- -a-. . -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~eCln

bl Th1C,n .

- 33 -

The tremendous disparity between electrical supplies indifferent parts of the world presents a constant logistical challenge inplanning reefer activities. A survey of supply4 voltages throughout theworld, produced by the British Standards Institution as an aid toexporters and shippers, reveals the variations in voltage. These occurnot only between countries but also within countries between the voltageprovided for domestic users, commercial users, and industrial users.

(b) Cable Connections and Multinational Sockets

In the same way that power supplies differ from area to area,so do the plugs and sockets employed. The use of varied types ofelectrical correctors has developed throughout the early period ofgrowth of containerization and can be readily equated with geographicalareas as a result of different shipping lines and operators adoptingtheir own preferred systems. Figure 2.9 gives an indication of the mostcommon types, their manufacturers and general areas of preference. In-line adaptors do exist, however, which allow connection of similarlyrated plugs to incompatible receptacles.

FiQure 2.9

Common Electrical Cable Connections

Voltages Current Plug tyDes Locations

250V AC 60A 3-phase Kokmosha P-4602B-A JapanMipco 634MP2 USAR&S F26540

380V-440V AC 32A 3-phase Kokosha P-W4333P-3H EuropeMipco 333MPCEE 173h

500V AC 30A Kokosha P-W4392B-A AustraliaWilco 430

480V AC 60A Kokosha P-W4613P-A USAMipco 634MP4 JapanR&S F26431

250V AC 50A Kokosha P-W4506B-A USAMipco 534MP JapanR&S F29400 Europe

250V AC 30A Kokosha P-W4301B-A USAMipco 334MP JapanR&S F21138C Europe

4See Annex F.

- 34 -

(c) Maintenance and Spare Parts

A rule of thumb for the failure rate of reefers, as for mostother industrial products, is around three percent. In the vastmajority of these cases, the initial failuLre will be corrected with noresultant product damage. There is howevetr, a direct correlationbetween reefer cargo losses and the emphasis the carrier has made intraining, investment in spare parts and manuals, regular pre-tripmaintenance, and load maintenance.

A responsible supplier will not be content merely with theprovision of the reefer machinery. He will supply engineering supportat start-up to ensure that the operators and mechanics are fullyacquainted with operating protocols and with stowage, maintenance andrepair of the equipment. Although the aim is to train the operator'spersonnel to be self-sufficient, engineering support should be continuedthrough a service contract. Furthermore an inventory of spare partsshould be recommended, based upon the number of units operating pervessel, the availability of spare parts in the product-originating area,the skills of the mechanics, and the frequency of service. These spareparts kits may be made available on a sale-or-return basis. As areference, Annex A, gives a very good example of the issues ofmaintenance, repair and spare parts provision for the banana trade.

(d) Ship/Shore Voltage Regulations

Typically the standards for electrical equipment on vesselsare covered by regulatory bodies such as Lloyds, Bureau Veritas and theAmerican Bureau of Shipping, whereas standards pertaining to shore-sideelectrical equipment will be governed by national electrical codes.

2.4 International Standards. Rezulatory Agencies and Regulations

In addition to the regulations governing the construction,testing, use and safety of freight containers generally, there are anumber of other rules and agencies specifically concerned withrefrigerated containers, as well as various bodies occupied with theconditions relevant to the carriage of perishable foodstuffs. A listsuch agencies, organizations and regulations, by no means exhaustive.would include the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)the United States Coast Guard (USCG), the British Standards Institut:.,n(BSI), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), theInternational Convention for Safe Containers (CSC), the Agreement on -h.eInternational Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs (ATP), the InternationalCommission on Rules for the Approval of Electrical Equipment (CEE), aswell as the major classification societies; Lloyds, the American Bureauof Shipping (ABS) and Bureau Veritas (BV).

The work of international standardization in the field offreight containers is carried out by Technical Committee 104 of ISO.

- 35 -

The secretariat is held by ANSI, the ISO member body for the USA, andclose liaison is maintained with other ISO technical committees and withmember countries spread throughout the world. ISO standards in the areaof freight containers are concerned with dimensions, ratings,specifications, testing procedures, terminology and markingrequirements. They are subject to constant revision, particularly inthose areas where there is continuing development and where technologyis constantly evolving.

The standards for the refrigerated container, or thermalcontainer as it is described by ISO, is continually updated with themost recent revision of ISO 1496/2-1979 (Thermal Containers) beingproduced in 1987. The scope and field of application specified on thefirst page of this document states: "ISO 1496 lays down the basisspecifications and testing requirements for ISO series 1 thermalcontainers which are suitable for international exchange and forconveyance by road, rail and sea, including interchange between theseforms of transport." ISO 1496 applies itself to dimensions and ratings,design requirements, testing, and electrical aspects of thermalcontainers.

The range of container types to which ISO 1496 applies isgiven in Table 2.6. Of particular relevance to this Technical Note are:

the thermal container - a freight container built withinsulating walls, doors; floor and roof designed to retard therate of heat transmission between the inside and the outsideof the container;

the insulated container - a thermal container having nodevices for cooling insulated heating; and

the mechanically refrigerated container - a thermal containerserved by refrigerating appliance.

The conditions, specified by ISO are drawn on extensively byother bodies concerned with regulating, inspecting or testing equipmentwhich is the subject of ISO considerations. For example, the AmericanBureau of Shipping (ABS), in its rules for certification of cargocontainers, has a detailed section on refrigerated cargo containersconcerned with such areas as rating, marking, temperature indicators andcontrols, openings and drains, refrigerants, cooling unit, insulation,air leakage, heat transfer, and loading tests. Other inspection bodiesfollow roughly the same procedures. These bodies focus on theconstruction and use of the refrigerated container equipment.

There are also a number of agencies which are concerned withthe cargo being carried in these containers. The "Agreement on theInternational Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs and on the SpecialEquipment to be Used for Such Carriage" (ATP) defines standards ofinsulation and refrigeration equipment performance. It also defines

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maximum temperatures for frozen produce and chilled produce, but doesnot include fruit and vegetables. Examples are shown in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7

Temperature Conditions for the Carriage of Certain Cargoes

Quick (Deep) Frozen and Frozen Foodstuffs:

-20°C Ice cream and frozen concentrated fruit juices-18'C Frozen or quick (deep) frozen fish-18'C All other quick (deep) frozen foodstuffs-14'C Butter and other frozen fats-12'C Frozen red offal, egg yolks, poultry and game-10°C Frozen meat-10°C All other frozen foodstuffs

Foodsuffs Which Are Neither Quick (Deep) Frozen Nor Frozen:

+30C Red offal+ 6'C ButterT 4°C Game+ 4°C Milk for immediate consumption4'C Dairy products (yoghurt, cream and fresh cheese)

+ zC Fish (must always be carried "in ice")+ 6C Meat products+ 7°C Meat (other than red offal.)+ 4°C Poultry and rabbits

The European Economic Community has issued directives onintra-community trade in fresh meat where it is directed, for example,that

"fresh meat must be chilled immediately after thepost portem inspection and kept at ia constant internaltemperature of not more than +7eC for carcases andcuts and +3'C for offal ........ Fresh meat forfreezing must, after slaughter and the subsequentstabilization period, undergo rapid freezing. Thefrozen meat must be stored at a temperature of -12 Cor colder."

The United States Department of Agriculture has its ownspecial requirements for treating fruit in refrigerated containers inorder to ensure the demise of various kinds of fruit fly and othercontaminating bodies. A document entitled Plant Protection andQuarantine Treatment Manual (PPQ), produced by the USDA, specifies thetype and series of containers permitted to be used for the importationof fruit into the USA. It also lays down conditions governing:

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Table 2.6

Classification of Thermal Containers

Type Maximurn heat leakageD.code Type U* (WIK) lfo freight containers Design !emp.,atur.s

design. tD J C. tCC t8. 18B Il 1A,A Ins;de Outsidetlon K f" c K c

30 RQ tCef r atetdt 5 26 7 4d 2.5S -l tt I I T expendable refrigeit2nt

31 MechanicJly - 25 J7 255 -t 3t F3tefrv3erated is 26 7 4 5 -a 31 43

a, cefngerated and 15 311 .3heated d 1 255 -18 253 -20

,3 Heated 15 26 37 48 18 23 -2Si

34 Spare

35

26 Mech.anicany

refnigerated. 15 26 37 a Ms -TS .t 38

3J7 Refrigerated and J? q t 4 6 311 Zs7;15 25 716 311 .2heated, ielf-oowefed 1S 2S5 -t8 253 -20

'3 |Heate- SS 15 25 37 | C13 - 15 253 -20s tlf-r?ovvwd

f9 f jr - ___

X9 ~ ~ ~ ~_ ___. I I 40 Reff'gerated andfor

heated. "th remnov-able equipment. 15 26 | 37t

|oofriance locatedexternattlly

41 Reafrierated and/orheated, vith remov-ab(e equiprnent. 5S 261 37 4S g Vaporiance located

42 RafnVerjted and/orheated* w.ith remov-&ble erqu;ment. |26 46 | 6 86 | |ppli;.nce iocated3 Stematly I I I I I

45 Inujlted j 1 Z5 37 |_

| 46 Insulated |26| 46 | 6 as

47 |S'a |

I) The .alue aof U_. foe haa..ly .nslated contuners IryPes 30. 31. 32.23 .33 40 4t, 41 1A f eleLiaed an aooro.vmate coetfl,c,nt of hejt ttansfer. K. of 0,4 W/m'.

The volves of U_ for rGghtly in,td conrs-ers (rroei 42 0rd 4'61 are 'ated to en *ooro- mAe coeflc;ent ofheat transfer. K. of 0.7 W/m.

21 A converion tabte for t .hnns/degrvee Crls;us 11 Q;ven for convene'ence In table 2.

31 Tnis category does not have so.c.red temoealtuee Gerurs: the C'l*l DeofforYSnce r dePendent on thecaoab.hry of the erquipment anached tn any tif nsorti mrode.

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- the pre-cooling of the fruit before it is loaded into thecontainer;

- the methods by which loading into containers is to befollowed;

- the types and application of temperature recorder and probes,the forms of documentation to be employed, and

- the schedules of treatment which are permitted.

These special requirements have been summarized by the Hoboken MethodsDevelopment Center of the USDA. They are an example of the stringent

.conditions applied to perishable foodstuffs and are included in Annex B.

Finally, the International Convention for Safe Containers(CSC) should be mentioned. The purpose of the CSC is primarily toassure safety of human life and to facilitate international containertransport and it has established a system of approving the initialcontainer manufacture, and its subsequent examination and maintenance insafe condition. The container initially has to be provided with anapproval plate and then has to be re-examined periodically. Although itis not specifically related to refrigerated containers, it has been amatter of much concern to manufacturers, owners, repairers and operatorsfor many years. Officially enacted in 1977, it has been the subject ofdelays, negotiations and misunderstanding since its inception and stillhas problems of interpretation issues, particularly as it relates toresponsibility in case of accident or death.

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PART THREE - REFRIGERATED CONTAINER TERMINAL AND TRANSPORT LOGISTICS

3.1 Logistics Reguirements for Reefers in Existing (Small) Ports

There are four major points to be considered in attempting toassess the logistical requirements relevant to the handling of refrig-erated containers in existing ports, particularly small ports which arelackinf in the more sophisticated handling equipment found in largerports.

First, it is necessary to estimate the probable throughput ofrefrigerated containers as this will initially be governed by theexisting infrastructure and will dictate the requirements for additionalinfrastructure. Second, the question of whether the containers beingmoved through the port will be loaded with export or import cargoes orboth must be addressed. Third, the requirements, facilities andproblems associated with holding loaded reefer containers in the portarea will have to be considered. Finally, the problem of providingtemperature monitoring, servicing and repair facilities at the port hasto be faced, including the decision as to whether these facilities areable to be provided or should be deferred.

A general cargo vessel might bring in 2 or 3 reefers, or adedicated fruit carrier might bring in 300 reefers. A holding area mustto be provided for these boxes. A proper paved or gravel bed standingarea will be required. It should be marked out with provision foraccess to the machinery for reading temperatures or servicing and to therear doors for examination of contents.

Inbound reefers arriving at a port, loaded with cargo, willneed transportation facilities for directly delivery to consignees, orwill need to be held at the port with some form of electrical power.This latter requirement can be satisfied by providing fixed powerreceptacles and sufficient electrical power to service the maximumquantity of loaded reefers held at any one time. In the absence offixed power, a power pack can be provided, or the reefers can be placedon chassis with underslung diesel units, or clip-on diesel unitsprovided. Outbound reefers arriving at the port will also need someform of electrical power at the port area while they await. the arrivalof the vessel.

Shipping lines are notoriously lacking in uniformity inequipment power requirements and electrical equipment. Some sevendifferent types of reefer plugs are used by different operators and are

5Container handling equipment could also appropriately be dealt withhere, but this is covered in section 3.2 below in respect of inlandfreight stations. Similar considerations apply in ports.

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operated with different nominal voltages. If the port's decision is toprovide receptacles for 460V, it will also need to make provision fortransformers to handle those customers which require 230V. Receptaclesare available which will accommodate interchangeable inserts/plugs.Another method is to fabricate extension jumper cables with theappropriate male/female connections. Assuming 1OKW for each reefer, 10receptacles would require approximately l50kVA capacity for thetransformer load, plug cabling and protection circuit breakers.

A port's customers expect the port to provide a temperaturemonitoring service. The port will therefore have to train personnel inthis function or contract the task to a private contractor. Theprovision of this service raises the issue of responsibility forproviding skilled reefer technicians. Is this the responsibility of theshipping line or the port? There is no siLmple answer to this questionas it is very much subject to the practices of the port in question andthe importance attached by the shipping line to a call at thatparticular port. The absence of trained personnel at a particular portmight not, in itself, be sufficient to deter a shipping line. In such acase, the shipping line might well provide its own personnel if otherconsiderations are regarded as more important. However, some provisionwill be essential to cope with the situation of reefer temperaturesgoing out of range, i.e. deviating from set point at other than defrostintervals.

Refrigerated containers are moved using the same equipment asother containers, i.e.:

* forklift truck with top lift attachment (20 ft./40 ft.spreaders) for up to 35 tons lift;

* shifter;

* straddle carrier;

* side loader;

* mobile cranes with a swivelling spreader (reach stacker);

* rubber-tired gantry cranes;

* rail-mounted gantry cranes;

* chassis storage/yard tractors

The choice will be governed by the existing containeroperations in the port, land constraints, and local port practices aswell as by the volume of containers being moved. Span requirements andheight of lift are other factors which may be determined by theavailable facilities and the required throughput. These will, in turn,affect the cost of operation. One effect of selecting the type of

- 41 -

handling equipment, is to reduce the potential damage to the reefercontainer. Figure 3.1 gives comparisons of different types of handlingequipment, showing benefits and drawbacks to the various systems.

While it is apparent that the high capital costs of procuringcontainer handling equipment may be a problem for some freight stations,as it is for some ports, there are a number of ways in practice wherebythis problem may be ameliorated, if not solved. Sometimes the operator,be it the shipping line or the shipper, will agree to provide theequipment, usually against the quid pro quo of a reduction in handlingcharges. More frequently the freight station operator, or portauthority, will lease the equipment - or the shipping line or shipperwill lease the equipment to the port. This system actually has severalside-benefits, which will be discussed later in Part Five.

3.2. Minimum Equipment/Installation Requirements for TransportingReefers by Truck and/or Train

The main way in which the transport of reefers by truck ortrain differs from the transport of any other type of ISO container isthe need to make some form of provision for electricity supply. Thiswill only be necessary on those occasions when the cargo may besusceptible to damage should the temperature fail to be maintainedwithin prescribed limits throughout the period of transport. Thus, themovement of a consignment of deep frozen meat, in a relatively lowambient temperature over a short distance, may only need the normalinsulation provided inside the reefer container in order to ensure thatthe product is still perfectly acceptable some days later. On the otherhand, chilled produce, which is highly sensitive to temperature change,would require continued refrigeration if transport persisted for morethan a few hours. It is much easier to provide this electrical powerwhen road transport is involved than when the movement is by rail. Thetwo main methods by which power is supplied to a container loaded on aroad vehicle when it is not equipped with its own diesel generating setare an underslung diesel generating set or a clip-on unit.

For reefers transported on trains, electrical power must beprovided to several boxes. This can be done through a fixed or mobilegenerating unit mounted on one of the rail cars.

3.3 Size. Types and Logistical Parameters Governing DedicatedReefer Container Vessels

The selection of an appropriate vessel for carrying refrige-rated containers involves several considerations including:

* number of slots required;

* container sizes, i.e. 20 ft., 40 ft., or a mix;

- 42 -

* voltage requirements, power consumption and ship'sgenerator capacity;

* receptacle standard to be used;

* positioning of receptacle to allow for standard 60ftreefer cable fitted;

* access to reefer machinery for monitoring and servicing;

* under deck operation - cooling water and fittings;

* remote monitoring and requirements;

* cranes needed for loading/discharging;

* trained electricians and reef-er engineers;

* gas monitoring (fruits)

The size of the vessel will be governed by the maximum numberof reefer slots required per voyage. In the typical banana service, forinstance, around 300 x 40ft reefers are carried per voyage.

The hatch covers and cells should incorporate 20ft and 40ftfittings. Hatches are normally dedicated to the size of reeferrequirements, but some vessels incorporate methods of converting a 40ftslot into 2 x 20 ft. slots.

A ship's generator will normally operate on 380V-5OHz/440V-6OHz. However some USA services use 230V for the reefers' receptacles.Power requirements of around lOkW per reefer should be allowed, makingabout l500kVA of generator capacity for every 100 reefers carried. Themost popular receptacles by geographical area are:

(a) for European services: CEE 17, amp, 3H, 440V;(b) for the USA; Mipco 334MP, 230V, 30 amp;(c) for Australia; Wilco 440V, 30 amp.

Normally a group of 10 or 12 receptacles will be provided perhatch. They will be located in a suitable position to enable the reeferpower cable to reach. In default of this, extensive cables need to beprovided by the vessel. This is undesirable because it involvesadditional work to stow the extensive cables and to roll them out foruse. Also there is a higher voltage drop which could result in a lowvoltage supply to the reefer. In the event of extension cables beinglaid on deck, there is an increased risk of an ingress of sea water intothe receptacles.

The vessel should be equipped with remote monitoring. Thesystem to be used is dictated by the type of reefer being used. Most

- 43 -

use a small plug system with cables going to a central control panel onthe bridge. Equipment is also required to monitor C02 levels in fruitsproducing carbon dioxide/ethylene gas, so that correct regulation of thefresh air vent is carried out to remove the gases.

The maintenance of regrigerated containers onboard ship can bemanaged by the ship's engineers if there are only a few reefers carriedon the vessel. However, where large numbers of reefer containers arecarried, specialist refrigeration engineers and mechanics will have tobe aboard, especially where chilled cargo is concerned and time is at apremium for carrying out a repair if ripening of cargo due to risingtemperatures is to be avoided. In order to enable temperatures to bemonitored and to allow the equipment to be checked, as well as toprovide for repair of any breakdowns, it is important to permit accessto the machinery on deck and in the cells.

3.4 Under-deck Overation

Modern refrigerated containers ideally can be both air-cooledand water-cooled. The former is sufficient when the reefers are carriedon the deck of the vessel. For underdeck stowage, however, the water-cooled system is imperative. This implies the need for fresh waterquick release connections to be provided below deck, and for these to becompatible with the fittings on the reefers.

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PART FOUR - PRODUCT STOWAGE AND PRESERVATION

4.1 Packagin2/Stowinz of Cargoes in Reefers

Many perishable commodities are transported in some form ofcarton. The quality of carton tends to depend on the value of theproduct as well as, occasionally, the length of journey. Packagedesigns which improve cooling rates and maintain small temperaturegradients in the load usually have perforations to allow air to movefreely through the carton. Pratically all fibreboard has a poor wetstrength so there is a limit to the height at which cartons of fruit canbe stowed without the load gradually sinking. A good quality tray pack/carton can be stowed about nine high for a period of six weeks withoutcollapsing. The effect of collapse is to reduce air gaps, make dunnagebattens useless and increase the pressure drop through the load with aconsequent reduction in the volume of air being circulated.

4.1.1 Types of Packaging

The design of package plays an important part in transferringheat from the product to the cooling air. Two extremes can beillustrated. A citrus fruit may be packed unwrapped (althoughoccasionally it may have a light paper wrapper) in ventilated cartons,thus achieving maximum cooling and heating rates, in contrast, wrappedpears in telescopic cartons with polyethylene liners, have a very slowrate of cooling. Some comparisons are provided by the following table:

TABLE 4.1. AVERAGE HALF COOLING TIMES OF PALLETIZEDCARTONS

Pears 72.0 hours (polyethylene wraps)Traypack apples 60.0 hours (ventilated cartons)Wrapped citrus 48.0 hours (ventilated cartons)Unwrapped citrus 28.6 hours (ventilated cartons)

Half cooling time is defined as the time taken for the productto cool through half the difference between its initial temperature andits store temperature. Individual cartons will cool at a faster orslower rate depending on the type of cooling system. The rate of aircirculation within the container also has an effect on heat transferfrom the package. It is possible to obtain improvements in cooling ofcartons up to a maximum rate of air circulation of 90 times the emptyvolume of the space per hour. Above this level the returns are small asthe increase in heat transfer coefficient from the surface is offset bythe insulating effect of the carton material. The effect of differentrates of air circulation on the cooling of palletised fruit is shown inTable 4.2. Generally, fruit and vegetables which have a high metabolic

- 45 -

heat production should always be carr'ied in packages which have a highrate of heat transfer to the surrounding air.

Table 4.2

Average Half-Cooling Times With Different Air Circulations

60 Air Changes 90 Air Changes

Non Ventilated Cartons 69.1 hours 54.6 hoursVentilated Cartons 26.6 hours 24.5 hours

4.1.2 Palletization

Palletization had been used for many years prior tocontainerization as a system of assembling cargo into unit loads ofmanageable size. After the advent of containerization many shipperscontinue to be devoted to this system, even when the cargo is destinedto be containerized. There were a number of reasons for this, but theforemost is that shippers and receivers are often unable to acceptcontainers at their premises due to space Limitations.

The early days of refrigerated ccntainer development witnesseda period of dispute between adherents of the palletization approach tothe movement of fruit and vegetables, and the growing number ofproponents of the reefer container. To somne extent this was resolved bythe practice of putting pallets into conta:iners. At first this practicewas regarded as valuable only for cargoes with high stowage factors,such as butter, which would otherwise have underutilized internalcontainer space, i.e., cargoes that "weigh-out" before they "cube-out."However, because of the realization that the use of pallets withincontainer resulted in a very much reduced iLncidence of damage, thissystem became more acceptable to shippers of exotic produce, such asgrapes or kiwi-fruit, despite their low stowage factor.

Also it was quickly recognized that containerization has moreadvantages than palletization, the major advantage being faster andcheaper loading and discharge. Since containers are handled veryquickly, there is much less likelihood of product damage. Also,refrigeration control within containers is better than on pallets, sothat control of product quality, which is reflected in price, is muchbetter.

4.1.3 Air Circulation Reguirements

When designing stowage patterns, it is necessary todistinguish between the air circulation requirements of frozen productsand those of chilled products.

- 46 -

Figure 4.1

Top Airflow Pattern for Frozen Products

A.! Duct

L I

Figure 4.2

StovaRe Pattern for Frozen Product

- 47 -

Fi2ure 4.3

Horizontal Airflow Stow

. Air Duci

v--!!--- -- --

Figure 4.4

Horizontal Airflov Stoivage Pattern

i ,ieooIr Ok.Jck I ni ,,y rj(I.ale fHIcCKS

- 48 -

(a) Stowing Frozen Products

The stowage pattern that ensures proper air circulation forfrozen commodities is simple. The cargo is stacked as a solid block,with virtually no ventilation between the stack and little or noseparation between the cargo and the walls, front, or back of thecontainer. The height of the solid stack should allow a minimum of 3"of air space between the top of the stack and the ceiling of thecontainer. Figure 4.1 illustrates the airflow pattern for frozenproducts. Figure 4.2 illustrates the stowage pattern.

This stack allows refrigerated air to circulate evenly roundthe cargo, ensuring that heat penetrating the container does not come incontact with the cargo. The reason for this is that the products areloaded when frozen and only rise in temperature when affected by heatpassing through the walls, floor and ceiling of the container. Aircirculation around the load is necessary to remove this heat before itenters the product.

(b) Stowing Chilled Products

The significant difference in stowage patterns for chilledproducts is that refrigerated air must be circulated through the cargo.This is because the heat in the container is not only generated from theoutside, it is also generated by the product itself. Respiration fromthe load requires that air circulate both around and through the load toremove respiratory heat.

There are three standard loading patterns for transportingperishable food products, viz: horizontal airflow stow, block stow, orpalletized cargo stow. The loading pattern is dictated by thecommodity, the airflow characteristics of the carton, and the type ofcontainer being used.

(i) Top air-delivery reefers require the horizontalairflow stow illustrated in Figure 4.3 and the stowage pattern shown inFigure 4.4. The loading pattern is critical - it maximizes the exposureof all cartons to the flow of circulating air. This pattern also makesefficient use of space in the container.

Because the corrugated interior walls permit airflow down theoutside of the load, cartons can be stacked directly against the sideand front walls of the container. Space must be left to permit airflowbehind the load down to the T-floors, enabling the airflow to returnunder the load to the evaporator section of the refrigeration unit.

Because air takes the path of least resistance in returning tothe refrigeration unit, it is important that all air passages beapproximately the same size. Nonuniform spacing between cartons causesundesirable variations in temperature through the load.

- 49 -

(ii) Bottom air-delivery reefers require a block stowpattern as illustrated in Figure 4.5 in order to optimize performance.The cargo must cover the entire floor, beyond the rear floor airrestrictors, to ensure proper temperature distribution. The mostdesirable pattern is a weave (bonded block) stow. To permit properreturn air movement, the load must be stowed no higher than the red lineon the reefer wall.

(iii) For bottom air-delivery reefers carrying palletizedloads, the stowage pattern illustrated in Figure 4.6 is recommended.

4.1.4 Description of Floor

A typical form of reefer construction provides an exteriorfloor of steel cross members welded to bottom rails with aluminum panand fitted with electrolytic barrier tape. The interior floor is anall-welded pan T-section of aluminum extrusions permitting alongitudinal airflow.

4.1.5 Details of Weight Restrictions

The maximum permissible gross weight (which is not actuallypermitted in all countries) is 25,000 kgs (55,115 lbs) for 20'ft.containers and 32,570 kgs (71,650 lbs) for 40 ft. containers. Thiscontrasts with the weights according to ISO recommendations which are20,320 kgs. (44,800 lbs) for 20 ft. containers and 30,480 kgs. (67,200lbs) for 40 ft. containers. Thus, the equiLpment is designed and testedto far more stringent standards than those which apply to its actualuse. This margin exists to improve safety and reduce damages throughmore solid construction.

Reefer containers at one time suffered from tare weights inexcess of 4,000 kgs. This rose to in excess of 5,000 kgs. with dieselgenerator sets. The weight restriction on cargo capacity with legalweight limits made the use of the integral refrigerated containerexpensive. The loss of cubic capacity taken up by refrigerationmachinery and diesel generator sets added to this expenses. As aresult, modern slimline designs were developed which utilize a minimumof space and have, reduced the tare weight (without diesel generator) toa mere 3,000 lbs.

- 50 -

Figure 4.5

Block Stow Pattern

Re Li!ne

Figure 4.6

Block Stow Pattern for Palletized Cargo

Urn,tizea Alternate plan BTop View (Nosel

* 4e- | 40- 1

Tepal End is Rpa P>ositioning n s'I I _ , t w ~~~~~~~1 T.mes To Rep>eal Th,Si ., L ~~~~Ta,' Ena Of p os,oonno

Tee FiooI 9 Times To

Tail End OfTee Ffoor

- 51 -

4.2 Car2o Description/Information and ProductPre2aration/Preservation

4.2.1 General Aspects of Storage

The quality and condition of a perishable commodity is theconcern of everyone involved in its production and transportation. Fromthe moment it is produced, until it is finally consumed, it is essentialto maintain the quality at a high standard. This is complicated by thevast variations in preservation requirements of different commodities.The shelf life of strawberries may be measured in hours, while onionsmay be kept for many months without any effect upon their quality.

The major consideration of this preservation process is therate at which the different products breathe. Respiration is a complexseries of chemical reactions, but basically it involves the conversionof starch to sugars and the transformation of these sugars into energy.During the normal process of respiration fruits take in oxygen and giveoff carbon dioxide, water vapor, and a cons:iderable quantity of heat.

The rate of respiration will tend to increase with ambienttemperature, i.e. the higher the outside termperature, the hotter willbecome the commodity and the greater will be its rate of respiration.However, different commodities vary considerably in their respirationrate for any given ambient temperature. An avocado, for instance, willrespire ten times faster than a lemon, and will generate ten times asmuch heat.

The patterns of respiration will also differ. Some fruits areable to ripen and sweeten after they have been harvested. In thesecases a state known as the climacteric is experienced at the beginningof the ripening process, when the respiration rate of the product willsuddenly rise. Ethylene gas is emitted and this will, in turn,stimulate the ripening process in adjacent fruit. Apples, tomatoes,bananas, avocados and pears are examples of this type of fruit. On theother hand, most vegetables, citrus fruits aLnd grapes do not ripen afterpicking and their respiration rate remains constant at a given storagetemperature.

Another process which continues after harvesting istranspiration, or loss of water by evaporation, making it important tostore harvested produce in an environment which protects it fromexcessive water loss.

4.2.2 Deterioration of Fruits and Vegetables

Amongst the different kinds of deterioration which can affectthe quality and appearance of fresh fruits and vegetables are thefollowing:

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(a) Physical Deterioration

Physical injuries sustained during harvesting, packing,transporting or any intermediate handling are undesirable for severalreasons. Any open wounds provide a means of ingress for diseaseorganisms which are always present on or near fresh produce. Roughhandling causes a rise in the rate of respiration which reduces the lifeof the product and bruising which can spoil its internal or externalappearance. The effects of these injuries may not be immediatelyapparent, but will make their appearance at some later stage in thetransportation chain. Common examples are increased decay, unsightlybruising, and physical damage caused by insects.

(b) Physiological Deterioration

Heat damage, caused by exposure to temperatures which are toohigh, will in due course result in shrivelling of the product or achange of color. If exposed to too low a temperature, sensitivevcommodities may succumb to chill injury, with pitting and decayingexteriors, darkening of the flesh, and loss of flavor.

Excessive ventilation may result in obvious dehydration.Where small products are involved, with a high ratio of surface area tomass (grapes and baby carrots are examples), water loss is soon apparentand the commodities are prone to wilting. The same situation pertainsto leafy vegetables. On the other hand, too little ventilation resultsin a deficiency of oxygen and a build-up of carbon dioxide, whichinterferes with the normal process of respiration and can lead todiscoloration of internal tissues.

Another physiological process is sprouting, generallyapplicable to potatoes and other tubers, onions, ginger, etc.

(c) Chemical Deterioration

Any miscalculation in the concentration of chemicalpreparations used to protect fresh produce from fungal attack may causeinjury to the product tissues.

(d) Pathological Deterioration

Pathological deterioration is a symptom of disease resultingfrom attack by fungi or bacteria. It frequently arises from thephysical, physiological or chemical damage described above. Fungicharacteristically produce an external mould growth which not onlyspoils the product thus affected, but by production of ethylene willhave an adverse affect on healthy produce in the vicinity. Bacterialcontamination results in foul-smelling rots.

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4.2.3 Handlinz Techniques to Reduce Det:erioration

(a) Post Harvest Practices

After harvesting it is essential that commodities prone todehydration be appropriately treated once their water supply has beensevered. A few crops, such as onions, may be deliberately left in thefield for some time after harvest to dry their external tissues. Other,such as potatoes, are "cured" by being subjected to high humidity andmoderate temperatures. Most commodities, however, are promptlycollected and stored.

It is at this stage that they are washed, sprayed, orchemically dipped to control decay. They mnay also be waxed to cut downevaporation of water. Specific chemicals will also be used at thisstage to prevent future physiological disorders.

(b) Pre-shipment Practices

It is often desirable to pre-cool produce which is to becarried under refrigeration. Whatever the cooling capacity of thecarrying medium, the higher the temperature of the cargo upon loading,the longer it will take to reduce to carryiLng temperature. This isparticularly important when the produce is to be carried in refrigeratedcontainers. It should be realized that fresh produce can sustain verysubstantial damage within only a few days umder unsuitable conditions.Peaches may ripen so quickly that they have virtually no shelf-life uponarrival. Whilst carrots loaded in apparently perfect condition may bedischarged covered with black mould.

Important, too, is the method of stowage within the container.All fruits and vegetables, whether packed in cartons, boxes, or bags,and whether refrigerated or ventilated, must be stacked in the containerin such a way that adequate circulation of air can be achieved. Themethod of storage must take into account the position of the air ventsin the particular container and must ensure the stability of the cargoin transit.

The principle of ensuring that air goes through the stowrather than around the extremities is an important difference betweenlive cargoes and frozen cargoes. When frozen goods are carried, thesole object is to prevent ingress of exterrnal heat, whereas with livingcargoes their own heat has to be dissipated from the middle of the stowby the circulating air.

(c) Discharge

In container transport one of the most common causes ofdeterioration is delay after discharge from the vessel. If any delaywill be experienced at the port of discharge, it is essential that thereefer container be connected to an appropriate cool air supply. This

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is far more critical in the case of live (chilled) produce than in thecase of dead (deep frozen) produce. For the former, any delay indischarging the cargo from the container, or in connecting the containerto a supply system which will ensure its continued refrigeration, willpermit a build-up of the products of respiration (carbon dioxide, watervapor and heat) and may lead to a deterioration of the cargo.

4.2.4 Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables

If we look at the various conditions which will aid thepreservation of perishables, while helping to delay their deterioration,we can identify a number of common factors:

(a) Temperature

This is the most important of the environmental factorsbecause of its effect on respiration as described above. As a generalrule, an increase of temperature of lO@C will result in an approximatedoubling of the respiration rate. Furthermore, reducing temperaturewill inhibit the development of micro-organisms, whereas increasingtemperature will speed the growth of moulds and bacteria.

While it is true, within limits, that lowering the temperaturewill ensure better preservation of the product, some caution has to beexercised. The produce must not be frozen. Although water freezes atAC (32'F), fresh fruits and vegetables can normally sustain slightlylower temperatures as the substances in their juice, such as sugars,will inhibit freezing. Generally, the sweeter the fruit, the lower thetemperature at which it will freeze.

Care must also be taken with some produce to avoid the

phenomenon known as "chilling". Many commodities are susceptible tophysiological injury from exposure to temperatures well above their

freezing points. Tropical fruits such as mangoes, pineapples, avocados,bananas and plantains are typical of those products which have to bekept at a relatively warm temperature during transit. This isparticularly important when they are being shipped to areas where theambient temperatures may be low enough to induce chill symptoms, such asparts of Europe during the winter months. Other produce subject toinjury from lower temperatures include citrus fruits, tomatoes,cucumbers and aubergines. The temperature requirements for differentcommodities and their compatibility are presented in Annexes C and E.

(b) Relative Humidity

The majority of fruits and vegetables need a high relativehumidity so as to avoid dehydration by evaporation. Only a fewcommodities, such as onions, garlic, ginger and dates, require a dryatmosphere. Loss of moisture is undesirable because it can adverselyaffect the appearance of the product; can result in significant weightloss, and can pre-dispose the product to invasion by micro-organisms.

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On the other hand, too high a humidity may also be detrimental. Warm,over-moist conditions may lead to bacterial invasion and superficialmould growth.

Regulation of relative humidity is a more difficult problemthan the provision of controlled temperatures. For example, attemperatures only slightly above 0OC the relative humidity in theaverage refrigerated vessel approximates 85-90% and only minor changescan be achieved by adjustment of fresh air vents and refrigeranttemperatures.

(c) Controlled Atmospheres

Fruits and vegetables take in oxygen and give off carbondioxide during respiration. If the proportion of oxygen and carbondioxide in the surrounding atmosphere can be altered, the rate ofrespiration can be slowed down and the storage life of the productextended. Much work has been done to develop systems which can be usedto provide an artificial atmosphere. The introduction of gases,principally nitrogen, into containers prior to shipment permit longdistance transport of such commodities as strawberries and iceberglettuces. An alternative method is to modify the atmosphere inside theindividual packaging by using polythene bags with varying thicknessesand therefore varying permeability to different gases. Another methodis to utilize permanganate granules, either within the individualpackages or throughout the container, to absorb the ethylene emitted byripening fruits, thus extending their storage life.

The atmosphere may also be controlled by altering thepressure. Certain commodities benefit fromi being stored under reducedpressure since the rate of respiration is effectively reduced. This isknown as hypobaric storage. Hypobaric conditions may be described as"very low pressure," meaning less than ambient atmospheric pressure.However, this term is used to describe a system which preservesperishable commodities with a combination of less-than-ambient pressure,temperature control, ventilation and relative humidity control.

A means of utilizing its process has been developed under thetrade name Dormovac for the storage and transport of certain fruits andvegetables. In this system a vacuum pump continuously operates tomaintain the desired low pressure setting, while a vacuum breakerinjects precise amounts of filtered ambient air back into the cargosection. Thus, the desired low pressure is maintained, harmful gasesare withdrawn from the commodity, bacterial growth is inhibited, andseveral air changes per hour take place, flushing the expelled gases outof the cargo section. This system has one important limitation. Itrequires a very robust sealed container to maintain reduced air pressurethroughout the transit period. The higher cost for this container makesthis method appropriate only for high value commodities.

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PART FIVE - REEFER TRANSPORT ECONOMICS

5.1 The Transition from Bulk to Container Reefer

About half of the world's refrigerated cargoes are carried inbulk form in specialized vessels operating on a "tramp" basis. Thenature and requirements of the tramp trade resulted in the developmentof a range of vessel types of different sizes, speeds and cargo-handlingmethods.

Refrigerated vessels have 4 or 5 holds, which are then dividedinto different groups of rooms which enables vessels to carry differentcommodities at different temperatures at the same time. Because reefercargoes tend to be measured by cubic capacity rather than weight, vesselsize/capacity is measured as "cubic foot bale capacity" rather thandeadweight tonnage.

The vessels are expensive to build and to operate and ownersfind it essential to minimize ballast, or positioning voyages.Therefore, some refrigerated ships are constructed to carry othercargoes such as cars, tractors, light general cargo and bagged cargoeson voyage legs when refrigeration is not required. Although thisincreases the versatility of the vessel, it also increases the capitalcost. The recent demise of the Salen Group of Sweden which, togetherwith the Lauritzen Group of Denmark, had dominated the reefer shipindustry, owing about 50% of the entire industry between them, wasattributed very largely to their failure in managing their dry cargooperations. As a result, the tendency of the past few years has beentowards dedicated refrigerated container vessels, operating in the linertrades. On other routes, bulk reefer ships have been replaced bycontainerships with part-reefer container capacity.

Initially, the containerships were built with their ownrefrigeration machinery and either a refrigerated hold, or the necessa,.ductings and couplings to permit the carriage of insulated portholecontainers. More recently, vessels carrying integral reefer containershave begun to dominate especially for trades in sensitive perishablecargoes shipped in a chilled state. The premium outturns which thesecontainers deliver has permitted the commodities to achieve a premiumthe marketplace.

The number of vessels carrying reefer slots has increasedconsiderably over the last decades. Currently about 55% of thecontainer vessels with capacity in excess of 100 TEU have provisions :crrefrigerated containers. The majority of the vessels have 50 or lessTEU of refrigerated container capacity as shown in Figure 5.1. However,about 3% of the container vessels have reefer capacities in excess of300 TEU. The distribution of reefer slot capacity according to vesselsize shown in Figure 5.2 indicates that about 2/5 of the slots are on

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vessels over 1500 TEU but about 1/3 is on vessels of 500 TEU or less.Thus the availability of reefer capacity is widely dispersed among the

world's container fleet.

Figure 5.1

D i st.r i Dut i on of ;eefer Capac i ty

Per Vessel 1989

20%

t-25 51-100 201-300 401-500: 601-70026-50 101-200 30 .- 400 ';01-600 >700

NiaDer of TEU of ;eefer CaD&cIty

Figure 5.2

Percentage of Peefer Capacit,

in vessel Size Groups

2S.

2

15%

<=2 0 501-150 1001-1500 2001-2500 3001-4000251-5G0 751-1000 1S01-2C00 2500-3000

vessel Ce68eity in TEU

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Figure 5.3

Percentage of Vessel Capacity

Used for Peefers by Size Group

IA%

=250 501-750 7001-1500 2001-2500 3001-4000251-5C0 751-1000 1501-2000 2500-3000

VeSeI Caeclty in MBJ

For those vessels which have reefer slots, an average of 9% oftheir capacity is available for refrigerated containers. As show inFigure 5.3, this percentage is higher for the larger vessels, averagingabout 11% for vessels over 1000 TEU. Most vessels with reefer capacityhave between 5% and 20% of their capacity set aside for this purpose.

5.2 Problems Associated with Dead-heading of Empty Reefers

Since there are no disposable refrigerated containers, adecision to containerize means facing up to the problem of containerpositioning. This provides no difficulty where the trade is balancedand the reefer container can be used in both directions. Unfortunately,this is rarely possible. While reefer containers may be employed tosome extent for return loads of nonrefrigerated cargoes, their limitedinternal cubic capacity makes them unsuitable for a wide range ofcommodities.

The cost and inconvenience of dead-heading a large proportionof a refrigerated container fleet can be significant. One of thebenefits of the development of slimline units is that they occupy farless room. This increases the internal usable cubic space. Whencombined with the adoption of the clip-on or underslung diesel units (inplace of generating equipment fitted permanently to the container), thereefer containers become more economically viable for carrying returnloads of general cargo.

59 -

5.3 Cost Comparison: Reefer Vessels Versus Refrigerated ContainerShipments

The container has shown its advantage in most forms of generalcargo movement: less damage, reduced pilferage, lower insurance rates,and faster rates of handling. In the trade between developed countries,saturation has been reached. All cargo that is containerizable has beencontainerized. In fact, there is even a tresnd away from containerstowards pre-slung cargo systems in certain very regular trade routeswhere this type of technology provides an opportunity to reduce transitcosts and to eliminate the costs of the container itself. What then arethe advantages of using refrigerated containers, and what costs savingscan be achieved by their use?

For most refrigerated cargoes, shipping by conventionaldedicated reefer ships is cheaper than using refrigerated containersprovided there is a reasonable volume per shipment, making it worthwhilefor a reefer vessel to call. This is particularly the case where thereis a steady year-round volume of refrigerated cargo which lends itselfto being pre-slung; where the route is equipped with modern tonnagehaving wide main deck hatches and 20-ton cranes; and where very littleof the route is travelled empty. A typical example of this type oftraffic is the transport of boxed Australian beef to the United States'markets with fruit and other products being carried on the return legsvia Japan.

The principal benefit of containerizing perishable products isthe almost complete avoidance of losses and spoilage that occur withnormal handling without containers. For example, each carton of bananaswill be handled as many as six times before reaching its finaldestination, resulting in bruising and other damage. Furthermore,containerized fruit will have remained at a steady temperature from thetime of stuffing to the moment of stripping. Thus the final quality ofthe fruit is far higher and it will command a better price compared tofruit transported by other means. Market studies show that this qualityconsideration can be worth as much as US$1.50 per carton. Typicalpremiums are US$1.00 for bananas and US$0.80 for pineapples.

Table 5.1 provides a comparison between conventional reefertransport and that of reefer containers for the transport of bananas andpineapples from the Cote d'Ivoire to France. It should be noted thatfreight rates used for conventional reefer vessels are rather low,reflecting the age of the vessels which has enabled them to bedepreciated to low book values. The table describes the individualactivities concerned, and shows where savings might be made. Thebackground material to the calculation of the container freight rate,including the return haul, and allowing for a small profit on theoperation is presented in Annex D through Tables D.1-D.8. On a straightline cost basis, conventional shipping is cheaper than usingrefrigerated containers, but the reduction in carton handlingcontributes a significant advantage and helps to balance the costs.

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When the premium for outturned fruit quality is applied, the resultsdemonstrate the real benefit of using refrigerated containers.

Table 5.1

Summary of Shippinz Costs for Bananas and PineapolesUsing Reefer Vessels and Refrigerated Containers

Conventional RefrigeratedBANANAS Reefer Vessel Container

Stuffing of Container/loading truck 5,000 5,000Transport from Shed to port (i) 5,000 5,625Unloading truck (ii) 4,000 1,628Reloading onto pallets and sorting 2,800 -Loading onto vessel and storing 2,000 included in

freightSea freight 39,640 68,180Off loading at port of discharge 2,500 included in

freightHandling, sorting, reloading onto truck (iii) 22,500 5,000Transport to end destination (i) 6,000 6,750Unpacking/stripping container 6,000 6,000

CFA 95,440 98,183US$ 333.71 343.30

6% loss (iv) 19.08

352.79 343.30Increased Value 8.9% -30.83True Comparison 352.79 312.47

Note: Costs per metric ton

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Table 5.1 (Cont.)

Cost per metric ton (1,000 kilos)Conventional Refrigerated

PINEAPPLES Reefer Vessel Container

Stuffing of container/loading truck 6,000 6,000Transport from shed to port (i) 6,000 6,750Unloading truck (ii) 5,000 1,860Reloading onto pallets and sorting 4,900 -Loading onto vessel and storing 2,240 included in

freightSea freight 53,011 77,590Offloading at port of discharge 2,800 included in

freightHandling, sorting, reloading (iii) 14,352 5,000Transport to end destination (i) 7,000 7,850Unpacking/stripping container 7,000 7,000

CFA 108,300 112,050US$ 378.68 391.78

7$ loss (iv) 26.51

405.19 391.78Increased value 8.9% 405.19 34.87

True cost comparison $405.19 $357.91

Notes:

(i) Due to the weight of the container the transport cost per tonof cargo is higher.

(ii) Conventional costs at the port are high due to the number oftimes the individual cartons are handled.

(iii) Handling and sorting is a major item at destination. In manycases this happens many times.

(iv) 6% loss of cargo resulting from damage/pillage increases thecosts of transport for the balance.

(v) Due to improved outturn the containerized bananas fetches anaverage $1.25 more per carton or 8.9%.

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Finally, it should be noted that the container freight rate isbased on a profitable service being operated with northbound cargoalone. If even a small volume of southbound cargo was obtained then thenorthbound freight rate can be reduced substantially making the argumentfor containerization even more compelling.

5.4 Purchase Versus Leasing: The Role of the Leasing Company

The growth of containerization has been accompanied by anincreasing reliance by ocean carriers upon leasing companies for asubstantial portion of their container needs. More than 50% of theworld container fleet is leased to ocean carriers and other containerusers. This proportion is virtually double what it was a decadeearlier.

The benefits of leasing include the ability to lease equipmentas, when and where needed, thereby achieving higher equipmentutilization and conservation of capital. Leasing also allows the oceancarrier to avoid accumulations of containers at locations where morecontainerized cargo is imported then exported. It also allows the oceancarrier to exchange types of equipment whose initial usefulness may havebeen outgrown, for other types of equipment more relevant to currentneeds.

These benefits apply to all container leasing. The leasing ofrefrigerated containers offers further benefits. The refrigeratedcontainer is a very high-technology piece of equipment. Developments inthe field of refrigerated technology are rapid and persistent. Becausereefer equipment is so expensive, it may require an amortization periodof several years. Therefore, an investor in reefer equipment may findthat his capital expenditure has tied him to a piece of equipment whichis relatively obsolescent. However, a leasing company will be able totailor a lease agreement which restricts the user to a fairly short andlimited period after which the lessee can exchange the containers fornewer, more appropriate equipment. The lessee may even be able toarrange early termination of an agreement in order to replace equipmentas required. He will be able to take advantage of short-term changes inequipment requirements by virtue of sudden increases or reductions indemand. This can be done without having to risk capital in purchaseswhich may be of only temporary necessity.

Leasing is fundamentally a method of transferring risk. Therisks are taken by the leasing company. Because it is involved with alarge number of lessees operating in a variety of trades worldwide, theleasing company is in a far better situation to dispose of surplusequipment than the individual user.

In a field where technical developments are taking placerapidly, (even dimensions have been changing with the introduction of"hi-cube" boxes), the risk area is that much greater. The leasingcompany will have its own technical department and will be able to keep

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abreast of all developments in the refrigerated container field. Insome cases, the leasing company will provide the impetus for suchdevelopments. In addition to being able to offer the user the latest,most technically-advanced equipment, the leasing company can offerafter-sales technical and management service.

Thus far, the focus has been on the leasing of containers.There are also companies which are able to put together a total packagecomprising containers, port and terminal handling equipment, chassis andother types of road transport vehicles, power packs, and even vessels.These companies, by virtue of their more diversified marketingopportunities, are able to risk investment in equipment and ships whichcould be beyond the scope of an individual operator. This providesgreat scope for shipping lines, producers, shippers, or marketingcompanies to develop unitized services in areas where, without thesupport and advice of the leasing company, no such service might befeasible. As an example, in a 1980 proposal for a venture involving themovement of bananas from Central America to the United States, the termsof reference included:

(a) The provision of an initial vessel on a "where is" basis.

(b) The provision of refrigerated containers, diesel generating setsand chassis.

(c) The provision of additional vessel and equipment as and whenrequired.

(d) The provision of power packs, as necessary, both on vessel andat ports and terminals.

(e) The provision of shore container handling equipment, mobilecrane for ship/shore transfer.

(f) The provision of technical support, both at the planning stageand subsequently.

(g) The provision of spare parts kits on sale or return basis, and

(h) The availability of trained personnel in the commercial, dieseland refrigeration fields as well as crane and vessel operations,with the possibility of offering traLining to local personnel.

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Annex A

BANANAS - A COMMODITY STUDY

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BANANAS - A COMMODITY STUDY

There are a number of ways in which the banana trade differsfrom that of other commodities. The volume of movements of bananas isgreater than for any other fruit. The supply is not subject to the sameseasonality as other fruits, but demand fluctuates relative to theseasonal availability of local fruits. There are also importantdifferences in handling and transport requirements. Bananas tend to bethe most sentitive of all the major perishables. Also the transit timeof bananas from point of origin to that of destination is used as partof their ripening period.

One apparent result of the trend to refrigeratedcontainerization has been a noticeable shift in banana trading patterns,presumably as a consequence of the desire to reduce the transit time andincrease utilization of this more sophisticated method of shipment.Thus, Japan has tended to import bananas from the Philippines in placeof Ecuador, services to the USA have commenced from Honduras and CostaRica, other recent services are operating from the Cameroon in WestAfrica to France, while the UK maintains a somewhat protectionist policytowards its traditional West Indies suppliers.

Bananas are often the first 'luxury' fruit imported bydeveloping nations. Consumption tends to grow until such time as publictaste and, possibly, an increase in the level of disposable incomeencourages the substitution of somewhat more exotic fruits. Consumptionthen drops to a lower level where it remains relatively stable.

Traditionally, bananas were carred on the stem in refrigeratedvessels. In 1958 cartons containing "hands" of bananas were introducedto reduce the labor required to handle the produce. The use of these '3to 18 kg cartons rapidly became universal. Although this system was agreat improvement on normal handling operations, it was still highlylabor-intensive. This was reasonably acceptable in the producingcountries which, by and large, had large pools of inexpensive labor, bU-it created problems in the importing countries where the added labor 4aSexpensive.

The desire to reduce handling costs still further resulted :Mthe growth of palletization. But for logistical reasons it was rare:;possible to palletize at point of loading. Since the pressure forpalletization came from the importers, whose labor costs were general;;much higher, various methods were devised to effect this introducepallets at the importing end. In Japan, palletization is often carriedout in the ship's hold before discharge. Elsewhere the bananas areloaded onto pallets in the port area after discharge.

The transition from palletization to containerization, whichinvolves even less handling, received its impetus from the continuing

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increase in labor costs, both in the importing and exporting countries.United Brands experimented with the idea of carrying bananas inrefrigerated containers as long ago as the early 1970s. The resultswere so promising that in 1972 they inaugurated a twice-weekly servicebetween Cortez, Honduras and Gulfport, Mississippi, employing two smallself-sustaining cellular reefer vessels. The ships spent one dayloading, one day discharging, and 2.5 days at sea. Each ship carriedninety 40 ft. integral containers. Each container carried 940 cartonsor 17 tbns of bananas, a constraint introduced by road regulations whichdid not permit greater axle loads.

Although containerization produced its own problems, it wasseen as the solution to the major problem of banana handling. Bananasneed to be refrigerated as soon as possible after picking. They need tobe transported green and need to be careful:Ly handled to avoid damage.refrigerated containers provide far better control of the transit time,temperature and conditions for transport of bananas than loose orpalletized shipments. The result of improvement in quality and themarketing of a superior product is a major explanation for thesuccessful adoption of containers in this trade.

Containers doubled their share of the banana trade in 1981when Standard Fruit began a two vessel service using Salen Reeferservices. The Salen Reefer Services operated ships on behalf of Castle& Cooke. This service used two containers ships of the Ro-Ro Striderclass, each of 325 TEU capacity. They operated between Honduras,Guatemala and Texas.

Next, Delta Steamship Company started a five vessel serviceand Compagnie General Maritime (CGM) containerized the French trade.CGM used containers of the porthole type in four vessels of 892 or 915TEU. Since the inland leg in France is of very short duration, no morethan one day, while the sea voyage is in excess of one week, thecontainers are cooled sufficiently en route for them to maintain theirtemperature during the journey to the main wholesalers. As a result.1983 the USA was importing about 15% of its requirements in containerswhile France was taking about 60%. These percentages have continuedincrease since then.

In 1983 the Geest Line began a containerized service betwee7the UK and the Caribbean Windward Islands. Since it controlled thefruit from producer to distributor, it was able to optimize thetransport system. It had already begun to unitize with pallets in 19 :

In 1984 the two small vessels of United Brands, were placedwith a single ship which carried 290 40 ft. containers. In place of :herefrigerated containers with their own generators, the cooling systemwas built on the ship. For transport over the road in the USA, skeletaltrailers were equipped with clip-on diesel generators. This is similarto the system used by Standard Fruit.

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CGM identified the following principal advantages ofcontainerization of its Antilles trade (from Guadeloupe and Martinique):

* Better fruit conservation and increased value,* Reduction in number of handling,* Higher quality handling at the distribution end,* Reduction of theft,* Better temperature maintenance and control,* Finer limits of temperature variation over the whole

journey, and* Reduction of the maximum risk from entire hold to single

container.

The CAROL Lines introduced a containerized liner service fromthe Caribbean to Europe which offered refrigerated capacity forisothermic containers. Five fully cellular containerships of around

1,400 TEU offer 290 reefer slots on a ten-day service. Because of thelonger voyage time associated with this multiport liner service, theCAROL service therefore tends to be used more as a back-up toconventional refrigerated services.

The UNCTAD report on bananas has the following to say aboutthe infrastructure and other requirements for a container service.

"The type of containers to be used must becarefully considered. In trade to the United States,40 ft. containers appear to be the dominant choice.In view of the excellent infrastructure between mostplantations and the ports, this has not presented anyserious problems in the exporting countries underreview, but local conditions in other producingcountries may make this size of container lesssuitable.

The refrigeration machinery used in integralcontainers for bananas must be very powerful to enableit to extract the field heat from the bananas and itmust have ventilation facilities to purge the gasesreleased in the ripening process. Ventilation shouldbe vertical from bottom to top and this means thatordinary reefer machinery, which is built to "hold" acertain temperature, but not to "draw it down," isincapable of handling fresh bananas. An attempt toload bananas into ordinary reefer containers was oncemade - with disastrous results.

Before containerization was introduced, bananaswere not refrigerated prior to loading on board thevessel. Whether containerization should change thisprocedure is an unresolved argument. The two servicesbetween Central America and the United States both

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start up the refrigeration as soon as the stuffing ofthe containers begins, the other services do not. Ifno cooling is provided prior to loading, no electricalpower is required in the producing area. Ifrefrigeration is needed, however, the power supply tothe reefer machinery can come either from individualgenerators (generator sets) or from a central powersupply. Individual generator sets for each container

generally consume one US gallon of diesel oil an houron average, which is somewhat expensive, but largegenerator sets which can supply a nunmber ofrefrigerated containers are available.

If integral containers are to be used, maintenanceand repair facilities for containers, reefer machineryand generator sets will need to be established. Suchfacilities can very well be located in the producingcountries where they will provide employment for quitea number of people. The use of isoth,ermic containerseliminates the need for special shore-side reeferrepair shops, but not, of course, for container repairfacilities which should be available at both ends ofthe trade.

The container repair facilities muist consist of aworkshop capable of carrying out routine repairs,including repairs to the insulation, as well as asimple sand blasting and painting facility. The costof the workshop depends on the extent of equipmentinstalled and it is difficult to provide guidancefigures, but a sand blasting shed capable of treatingone container a day can be set up in Honduras at acost estimated by the surveyor to be about $5,000.

The reefer machinery and generator set repairfacilities are more complex. They should ideally becovered and contain separate workshops for compressorsand generator sets. A large spare parts store mustalso be kept. Additionally, it would be necessary tohave container checking facilities at each end of theservice to check and locate damage and to refuel allthe generator sets.

Finally, a training facility would have to beestablished to train reefer and general mechanics,etc. in sufficient number to handle the day-to-dayrepairs of the containers utilized in the particularservice."

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Annex B

USDA Requirement for Shipment

By Refrigerated Container

Source:

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture

Hoboken Methods

Development Center

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USDA REOUIREMENTS FOR SHIPMENT BY REFRIGERATED CONTAINER

(a) Container

1. Type and series must be USDA approved (see PPQ TreatmentManual M390.614).

2 Must be sound, in good working order, and the doors musthave a tight seal.

3. Must be precooled to treatment temperature or below priorto loading.

(b) Fruit Precooling

1. Some fruit needs to be preconditioned at certaintemperatures prior to precooling, to minimize chillinginjury.

2. Fruit must be precooled to treatment temperature, or to auniform temperature not to exceed 4.5'C.

3. Fruit temperature must be checked manually before loadingand the warmest fruit placed in the last quarter of theload.

4. Fruit must be loaded directly from the precooling storagearea to the container, so the fruit temperature does notrise.

(c) Loading

1. Each container must contain only one type of fruit loadedin one type of carton.

2. Fruit must be loaded so that the floor is completelycovered and the load is of equal height throughout thecontainer.

3. Bottom air delivery units must be loaded using "solidblock" stow. Top air delivery units must be loaded using"horizontal air flow" stow.

4. A numbered seal must be placed on the loaded container.

This must not be removed before the load has been clearedat the port of destination.

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5. Fruit temperatures must not be allowed to rise afterloading and during the transfer of the container to thevessel.

(d) Temperature Recorder and Probes

1. iust be USDA approved.

2. Temperature probes must be calibrated and placed in thefruit at the time the container is loaded. This must bedone under USDA supervision or, in countries with whichthe USDA has a cooperative agreement, these activitiesmust be conducted by qualified officials from thatcountry.

3. Calibration is conducted using a mixture of ice and freshwater in clean insulated containers. The ice must becrushed and completely fill the container to the waterlevel. The probes must be submerged in the ice watermixture without touching the sides or bottom of thecontainer. The mixture must be constantly stirred andthe reading stabilized at the lowest temperatureobtainable must be recorded. Any probe which reads morethen plus or minus 0;5°C from the standard of 06C must bereplaced. The calibrations should be recorded to thenearest one-tenth of one degree.

4. Records of temperature are required from at least threelocations. One sensor must be placed in the return air atthe front of the load. Two fruit pulp sensors must beplaced approximately 5 feet from the end of the load for40 ft. containers and approximately 3 feet from the end ofthe load for 20 ft. containers. One sensor must be placedin a center box and one in a box at a side wall, both atone-half the height of the load.

5. Recorder must be mounted on the outside of the containerso that fruit temperatures can be reviewed periodically.

6. Recordings of all temperature probes must be made everyhour and printouts must be made available to the PPQofficer at the port of destination for final clearance ofthe container.

7. In addition to the recorder sensors in the container, eachcontainer must be equipped with one type "T" thermocouplewire sensor. This wire sensor is inserted into the fruitnear one of the recorder sensors. The wire ends must belocated on the outside of the container. The thermocouplewire sensor provides the means to measure fruit

- 72 -

temperature by use of a compatible portable temperatureindicating instrument. Temperature measurements are to betaken and recorded at the time of discharge and comparedto the temperatures from the temperature recorder.Discrepancies between these values should be furtherinvestigated by taking manual fruit pulp readings.

(e) Documentation

1. A document must be prepared and signed by an approvedofficial in the country of origin including theinformation as shown in the sample document "Certificateof Loading and Calibration for Cold Treatment in Self-Refrigerated Containers."

2. "Instructions to the Captain" and "Location of TemperatureProbes" documents must be prepared and signed.

3. Distribution of the documents is as follows:

(i) Original to the captain of the vessel(ii) Copy to captain to be given to PPQ officer(iii) Copy sent to PPQ office at port of destination(iv) Copy sent to Hoboken Methods Development Center

(f) Treatment Schedules

For treatment schedules see United States Department ofAgriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service administrativeinstruments 319.56.2d and the Plant Protection and Quarantine TreatmentManual Section VI, T107-T109.

For further information contact the Hoboken MethodsDevelopment Center, Plant Protection and Quarantine, Animal and PlantHealth Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 209 RiverStreet, Hoboken, New Jersey, 07030, USA.

- 73 -

Annex C

Characteristics of Fruits and Veeetables

Affecting Transport

Source:

Tropical Products Transport Handbook

By: Brian M. McGregor

- 74 -

Table 4: Compatability groups

Group 1: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 360F), 90-950/o relative humidity. Manyproducts in this group produce ethylene.

apples grapes (without parsnipsapricots sulfur dioxide) peachesAsian pears horseradish pearsBarbados cherry kohirabi persimmonsbeets, topped leeks plumsbernes (except longan pomegranates

cranberries) loquat prunescashew apple lychee quincescherries mushrooms radishescoconuts nectarines rutabagasfigs (not with oranges' (Florida turnips

apples) and Texas)

*Citrus treated with biphenyl may give odors to otner products.

Group 2: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 20C (32 to 36°F), 95-1000/% relative humidity.Many products in this group are sensitive to ethylene.

amaranth' corn, sweet' parsley'anise' daikon' parsnips'artichokes' endive' peas'asparagus escarole' pomegranatebean sprouts grapes (without raddichiobeets sulfur dioxide) radishes'Belgian endive horseradish rhubarbberries (except Jerusalem artichoke rutabagas'

cranberries) kiwifruit salsifybok choy kohirabi' scorzonerabroccoli' ieafy greens snow peasbrussels sprouts' leeks' (not with spinach'cabbage' figs or grapes) turnips'carrots' lettuce waterchestnulcauliflower lo bok watercress'celeriac' mushroomscelery' onions, green' (notcherries with figs, grapes, mushrooms,

rhubarb, or corn)

'these products can be top-iced

Group 3: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 20C (32 to 36°F), 65-750/o relative humidity.Moisture will damage these products.

garlic onions, dry

Group 4: Fruits and vegetables, 4.5°C (40°F), 90-95% relative humidity.

cactus leaves lemons' tamarilocactus pears lychees tangelos'caimito Kumquat tangerines'cantaloupes'' mancarin' ughi fruit'clementine oranges'(Calif yucca rootcranberries and Arizona)

pepino

citrus treated with bipMenyl rnay give odors to other products.'can be top-iced.

- 75 -

Table 4: Compatability groups-Continued

Group 5: Fruits and vegetables, 100C (50°F), 85-90% relative humidity. Many of theseproducts are sensitive to ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chilling injury.

beans kiwano pummelocalamondin malanga squash, summerchayote okra (soft shell)cucumber olive tamarindeggpiant peppers taro rootharicot vert potatoes, storage

Group 6: Fruits and vegetables, 13 to 15°C (55 to 60°F), 85-90%/o relative humidity.Many of these products produce ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chill-ing injury.

atemoya granadilla papayasavocados grapefruit passiontruitbabaco guava pineapplebananas jaboticaba plantainbitter melon lackfruit potatoes, newblack sapote langsat pumpkinboniato lemons' ramOutanbreadfruit limes' santolcanistel mamey soursopcarambola mangoes sugar applecherimoya mangosteen squash, wintercoconuts melons (except (hard shell)feijoa cantaloupes) tomatiliosginger root tomatoes, ripe

.citrus treated wth tbiphenyl may give odors to other products.

Group 7: Fruits and vegetables, 18 to 210C (65 to 70°F), 85-90% relative humidity.

jicama sweetpotatoes- watermelon'pears tomatoes, white sapote

(for ripening) mature green yams

'separate from pears and tomatoes due to ethylene sensivity.

Group 8: Flowers and florist greens, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 90-95% relative humidity.allium treesia peony, tightaster, China gardenia budsbouvardia hyacinth ranunculuscarnation iris, bulbous rosechrysanthemum lily squillcrocus lily-of-the-valley sweet peacymbidium orchid narcissus tulip

adiantum (maidenhair) ground pine rhododendrencedar ilex (hoily) salal (lemondagger and wood juniper leaf)fems mistletoe vacciniumgalax mountain-laurel (huckleberry)woodwardia fern

- 76 -

Table 4: Compatability groups-Continued

Group 9: Flowers and florist greens, 4.50C (400F), 90 -950/c relative humidity.acacia delphinium orchid,alstromeria feverfew cymbidiumanemone forget-me-not ornithogalumaster, China foxglove poppybuddlela gaillardia phloxcaiendula gerbera primrosecalla gladiolus proteacandyluft gloriosa ranunculusclarkia gypsophilla snapdragoncolumbine heather snowdropcoreopsis laceftlower staticecornflower Iilac, forcea stephanotiscosmos lupine steviadahlia marigolds stockdaisies mignonette strawflowerviolet zinnia

adiantum (maidenhair) eucalyptus myrtus (myrtle)asparagus (plumosa. hedera phulodendren

sprenger) lex (holly) pittosporumbuxus (boxwood) leatherleaf (baker pothoscamellia fern) scotch-broomerncroton leucotrice, drooping smilax, southerndracaena magnolia woodwardia fern

Group 10: Flowers and florist greens, 7 to 10°C (45 to 50°F), 90-95% relative hu-midity.

anemone eucharis orchid, cattleyabird-of-paradise gioriosa sweet williamcamellia godetia

chamaedora corcyine (ti) palmpodocarpus

Group 11: Flowers and florist greens, 13 to 15°C (55 to 600F), 90-95% relative hu-midity.

anthurium heliconia poinsettaginger orchid, vanda

diffenbachia staghorn fern

- 77 -

Chill Sensitivity Most tropical products are subject to chilling injury when transported or stored atlower than recommended temperatures. This damage often becomes apparent af-ter the products warm up. Products injured may show pitting, discoloration, watersoaked areas, decay, and failure to ripen. The following Table 5 lists tropical andother products that sensitive to this injury.

Table 5: Products sensitive to chilling injury

atemoya guavas plantainavocados haricot vert pomegranatesbabaco jaboticaba potatoesbananas jackfruit potted plantsbeans jicama pummelobitter melon kiwano pumpkinsblack sapote langsat rambutanboniato lemons santolbreadfruit limes sapodiliacalabaza malanga soursopcalamondin mamey squashcanistel mangoes sugar applecantaloupe mangosteen sweet potatoescarambola melons tamarillochayote okra tamarindcherimoya olive taro rootcranberries oranges (California tomatillocucumbers and Arizona) tomatoescustard appie papaya tropical flowerseggplant passionfruit ugli fruitfeijoa pepino watermelonginger root peppers white sapotegranadiila pineapples yamgrapefruit

Freeze Sensitivity Many products are recommended to be transported or stored at temperatures only1 ° to 3°C (2-6°F) above their freezing points. Thermostats, however, on sometrailers and van containers are set 1 0 to 30C (2-6°F) higher than the recommend-ed temperature of 0°C (320F) for chilled products to avoid freezing. The followingTable 6 lists a small number of products according to their sensitivity to freezing.Most tropical products are damaged by chilling injury before they freeze.

Moisture Loss Sensitivity Most products need to be transported and stored at a high relative humidity. Someproducts are more susceptible to moisture loss than others. Moisture loss resultsin wilting and shriveling. To reduce moisture loss, products must be adequatelyprecooled before transit. Some products also are waxed, film-wrapped, package-iced, or top-iced.

Relative humidity during transit and storage must be maintained as much as possi-ble. Table 7 lists products by their moisture loss rate in storage.

- 78 -

Table 6: Products susceptible to freezing injury'

Most susceptible: Moderately susceptible: Least susceptible:apricots lettuce apples onions (dry) beets wlo topsasparagus limes broccoli, oranges brussels sproutsavocados okra sprouting parsley cabbage.bananas peaches cabbage, new pears mature or savorybeans, snap peppers, sweet carrots w/o lops peas datesbernes (except plums cauliflower radishes, w/o tops kale

cranbemes) potatoes celery spinach kohlrabicucumbers squash, summer cranberries squash, winter parsnipseggplant sweetpotatoes grapefruit rutabagaslemons tomatoes grapes salsify

turnips w/o tops

The most susceptible products will be injured by one light freezing, moderatefy susceptible productswill recover from one or two light freezings, wnile least susceptible procucts can be iigntly frozenseveral times. Fresh products that are lightly frozen should not be handled Thawing stiouid be done at40C (400F).

'Source Hardenburg, Watada, and Wang (7)

Table 7: Moisture loss rate of products'

High Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate:apricots avocados parsnipsblackberries artichokes' pearsbroccoli' asparagus peascantaloupes' bananas pepperschard' beets' pomegranatescherries brussels sprouts' quincesChinese vegetables cabbage' radishes'figs carrots, topped' rhubarbgrapes cauliflower, rutabagas'green onions unwrapped sweet potatoesguavas celeriac' squash, summerkohirabi celery' (soft shell)leafy greens' coconuts tangerineslycnees corn, sweet' tomatoesmangoes cranberries yamsmushrooms endive'papayas escarole' Low Loss Rateparsley' grapefruit applespeaches green beans cauliflower, wrappedpersimmons leeks' cucumoers, waxedpineapples lemons eggpiantplums and prunes lettuce garlicraspberries limes ginger rootstrawberries nectarines kiwifruitcut flowers okra melonsvegetables with tops oranges onions, dry

potatoespumpkinssquash. winter

(hard shell)

'can be top-iced.

'Source: largeiy from Safeway Stores. Inc. (25)

- 79 -

Ethylene Sensitivity Never transport or store fruits and vegetables that produce a lot of ethylene withproducts that are sensitive to it. Ethylene can cause premature ripening of someproducts and will ruin others, such as plants and cut flowers. Cucumbers andcelery turn yellow in the presence of ethylene, while lettuce will turn brown. Potas-sium permangante pads can be used to absorb ethylene during transit andstorage. Table 8 lists products that produce ethylene along with products that aresensitive to it.

Table 8: Products that are ethylene producers or ethylene sensitive

Ethylene producers: Ethylene sensitive:apples manaontaen bananas, unripe leafy greensapricots nectarines Belgian endive lettuceavocados papayas broccoli okrabananas, ripening passionfruit brussels sprouts parsleycantaloupes peaches cacbage peaschermoya pears carrots peppersfigs persimmons cauliflower potted plantsguavas plantains chard spinachhoneydew melons plums cucumbers squashKiwifruit, ripe prunes cut flowers sweetpolatoesmnamey quinces eggplant watercressmangoes rambutan florist greens watermelon

tomatoes green beans yamskiwifruit, unripe

Odor Sensitivity Never transport or store odorous products with products that will absorb the odors.Table 9 lists products that produce odors with products that can absorb them.

Table 9: Products which produce or absorb odors

Odor produced by: Will be absorbed by:apples ...................... cabbage, carrots, celery, figs, onions,

meat, eggs, dairy productsavocados ...................... pineapplescarrots ...................... celerycitrus fruit ...................... meat, eggs, dairy productsginger root ................ ....... eggplantgrapes fumigated w/ ................. other fruits and vegetables

sulfur dioxideleeks ...................... figs, grapesonions, cry . ...................... apples, celery, pearsonions, green ........ , corn, figs, grapes, mushrooms, rhubarbpears ............... ....... cabbage, carrots, celery, onions,

potatoesootatoes .... .................... apples, pearspepoers. green . ....... .... pineappless.ror!iy scentec ...... citrus fruitvege!aIeS

- 80 -

Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life forfruits and vegetables.

Temperature RelativeProduct °C OF Humidity Approximate

(percent) storage lite

Amaranth 0-2 32-36 95-100 10-14 daysAnise 0-2 32-36 90-95 2-3 weeksApples -1-4 30-40 90-95 1-12 monthsApricots -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-3 weeksArtichokes, globe 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeksAsian pear 1 34 90-95 5-6 monthsAsparagus 0-2 32-35 95-100 2-3 weeksAtemoya 13 55 85-90 4-6 weeksAvocados, Fuerte. Hass 7 45 85-90 2 weeksAvocados, Lula, Booth-1 4 40 90-95 4-8 weeksAvocados, Fuchs, Pollock 13 55 85-90 2 weeksBabaco 7 45 85-90 1-3 weeksBananas, green 13-14 56-58 90-95 1-4 weeksBarbados cherry 0 32 85-90 7-8 weeksBean sprouts 0 32 95-100 7-9 daysBeans, dry 4-10 40-50 40-50 6-10 monthsBeans, green or snap 4-7 40-45 95 7-10 daysBeans, lima, in pods 5-6 41-43 95 5 daysBeets, bunched 0 32 98-100 10-14 daysBeets, topped 0 32 98-100 4-6 monthsBelgian endive 2-3 36-38 95-98 2-4 weeksBitter melon 12-13 53-55 85-90 2-3 weeksBlack sapote 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-3 weeksBlackberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days

Blood orange 4-7 40-44 90-95 3-8 weeksBlueberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2 weeks

Bok choy 0 32 95-100 3 weeksBoniato 13-15 55-60 85-90 4-5 months

Breadfruit 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-6 weeksBroccoli 0 32 95-100 10-14 daysBrussels sprouts 0 32 95-100 3-5 weeks

Cabbage, early 0 32 98-100 3-6 weeksCabbage, late 0 32 98-100 5-6 months

Cactus Leaves 2-4 36-40 90-95 3 weeks

Cactus Pear 2-4 36-40 90-95 3 weeksCaimito 3 38 90 3 weeksCalabaza 10-13 50-55 50-70 2-3 months

Calamondin 9-10 48-50 90 2 weeks

Canistel 13-15 55-60 85-90 3 weeksCantaloups (3/4-slip) 2-5 36-41 95 15 days

Cantaloups (full-slip) 0-2 32-36 95 5-14 days

Carambola 9-10 48-50 85-90 3-4 weeks

Carrots, bunched 0 32 95-100 2 weeksCarrots, mature 0 32 98-100 7-9 months

Carrots, immature 0 32 98-100 4-6 weeKsCashew apple 0-2 32-36 85-90 5 weeksCauliflower 0 32 95-98 3-4 weeks

Celeriac 0 32 97-99 6-8 monthsCelery 0 32 98-100 2-3 monthsChard 0 32 95-100 10-14 days

Chayote squash 7 45 85-90 4-6 weeks

- 81 -

Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and aipproximate transit and storage life forfruits and vegetables-Continued

Temperature RelativeProduct °C F Humidity Approximate

(percent) storage life

Cherimoya 13 55 90-95 2-4 weeksCherries, sour 0 32 90-95 3-7 daysCherries, sweet -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 2-3 weeksChinese broccoli 0 32 95-100 10-14 caysChinese cabbage 0 32 95-100 2-3 monthsChinese long bean 4-7 40-45 90-95 7-10 daysClementine 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeksCoconuts 0-1 5 32-35 80-85 1-2 monthsCollards 0 32 95-100 10-14 daysCorn, sweet 0 32 95-98 5-8 daysCranberries 2-4 36-40 90-95 2-4 monthsCucumbers 10-13 50-55 95 10-14 daysCurrants -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-4 weeksCustard apples 5-7 41-45 85-90 4-6 weeksDaikon 0-1 32-34 95-100 4 monthsDates -18 or 0 0 or 32 75 6-12 monthsDewberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 daysDurian 4-6 39-42 85-90 6-8 weeksEggplants 12 54 90-95 1 weekElderberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-2 weeksEndive and escarole 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeksFeiioa - 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 weeksFigs, fresh -0.5-0 31-32 85-90 7-10 daysGarlic 0 32 65-70 6-7 monthsGinger root 13 55 65 6 monthsGooseberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 3-4 weeksGranadilla 10 50 85-90 3-4 weeksGrapefruit, Calit. & Ariz. 14-15 58-60 85-90 5-8 weeksGrapefruit, Fla. & Texas 10-15 50-60 85-90 6-8 weeksGrapes, Vinifera -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 1-6 monthsGrapes, American -0.5-0 31-32 85 2-8 weeksGreens, leaty 0 32 95-100 10-14 daysGuavas 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 weeksHaricot vert 4-7 40-45 95 7-10 daysHorseradish -1-0 30-32 98-100 10-12 monthsJaboticaba 13-15 55-60 90-95 2-3 daysJackfruit 13 55 85-90 2-6 weeksJaffa orange 8-10 46-50 85-90 8-12 weeksJapanese eggplant 8-12 46-54 90-95 1 weekJerusalem Artichoke -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 4-5 monthsJicama 13-18 55-65 65-70 1-2 montnsKale 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeksKiwano 10-15 50-60 90 6 monthsKiwitruit 0 32 90-95 3-5 monthsKohlrabi 0 32 98-100 2-3 monthsKumquats 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeksLangsat 11-14 52-58 85-90 2 weeksLeeks 0 32 95-100 2-3 monthsLemons 10-13 50-55 85-90 1-6 monthsLettuce 0 32 98-100 2-3 weeksLimes 9-10 48-50 85-90 6-8 weeks

- 82 -

Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate tran4it and storage life forfruits and vegetables-Continued

Temperature RelativeProduct 0C OF Humidity Approximate

(percent) storage life

Lo bok 0-1 5 32-35 95-100 2-4 monthsLoganberries -0 5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 daysLongan 1.5 35 90-95 3-5 weeksLoquats 0 32 90 3 weeksLychees 1.5 35 90-95 3-5 weeksMalanga 7 45 70-80 3 monthsMamey 13- 5 55-60 90-95Mangoes 13 55 85-90 2-3 weeksMangosteen 13 55 85-90 2-4 weeksMelons:

Casaba 10 50 90-95 3 weeksCrenshaw 7 45 90-95 2 weeksHoneydew 7 45 90-95 3 weeksPersian 7 45 90-95 2 weeks

Mushrooms 0 32 95 3-4 daysNectarines -0 5-0 31-32 90-95 2-4 weeksOkra 7-10 45-50 90-95 7-10 daysOlives, fresh 5-10 41-50 85-90 4-6 weeksOnions, green 0 32 95-100 3-4 weeksOnions, dry 0 32 65-70 1-8 monthsOnion sets 0 32 65-70 6-8 monthsOranges, Calif. & Ariz. 3-9 38-48 85-90 3-8 weeksOranges, Fla. & Texas 0-1 32-34 85-90 8-12 weeksPapayas 7-13 45-55 85-90 1-3 weeksPassionfruit 7-10 45-50 85-90 3-5 weeksParsley 0 32 95-100 2-2.5 monthsParsnips 0 32 95-100 4-6 montnsPeaches -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-4 weeksPears -1 5 to -0.5 29-31 90-95 2-7 montnsPeas, green 0 32 95-98 1-2 weeksPeas, southern 4-5 40-41 95 6-8 daysPepino 4 40 85-90 1 monthPeppers, Chili (dry) 0-10 32-50 60-70 6 monthsPeppers, sweet 7.13 45-55 90-95 2-3 weeKsPersimmons, Japanese t 30 90 3-4 montrisPineapples 7-13 45-55 85-90 2-4 weeksPlantain 13-14 55-58 90-95 1-5 weeksPlums and prunes -0 5-0 31-32 90-95 2-5 weeksPomegranates 5 41 90-95 2-3 monthsPotatoes, early crop 10-16 50-60 90-95 10-14 daysPotatoes, late crop 4 513 40-55 90-95 5-l0 montnsPummelo 7 9 45-48 85-90 12 weeksPumpkins '0'13 50-55 50-70 2-3 monthsQuinces -0 5-0 31-32 90 2-3 monthsRaddichio 0-1 32.34 95-100 2-3 weeksRadishes, spring 0 32 95-100 3-4 weeksRadishes, winter 0 32 95-100 2-4 monthsRambutan 12 54 90-95 1-3 weeksRaspberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 daysRhubarb 0 32 95-100 2-4 weeksRutabagas 0 32 98-100 4-6 months

- 83 -

Annex D

Comparison of Transport Costs

for Bananas and Pineapples

From Cote D'Ivoire to France

The following tables - D.1 and D.8 were developed to enable Table 5.1 onpages 60 and 61 to be built up.

- 84 -

Table D.A

Seasonal Fluctuation In Production OuantitiesAccording to figures received from a planters association

a) BANANAS

PAYLOAD: 18,000 Kgs Net per 40' SEACOLD reefer CONTAINER

TONNAGE PRODUCED TOTAL TONS NUMBER OFDURING THE NET DAYS WEEKS PER REEFERSFOLLOWING PERIOD TONS WEEK PER WEEK

Oct. 1-Jan. 31 30,600 123 18 1741 97Feb. 1-May 31 24,650 120 17 1438 80Jun. I-Sept. 15 8,400 107 15 550 31Sept. 15-Sept. 30 2,400 15 2 1120 62

66,050 365 52 NA NA

N.B.: The apparent error in the column tons per week is due to decimalstaken into account by the computer when calculation(123 days - 17.57 weeks.)

b) PINEAPPLES:

PAYLOAD: 14,500 Kgs Net per 40' SEACOLD reefer CONTAINER

TONNAGE PRODUCED TOTAL TONS NUMBER OFDURING THE NET DAYS WEEKS PER REEFERSFOLLOWING PERIOD TONS WEEK PER WEEK

Sept. 1-May 31 38,500 273 39 987 68Jun. 1-Aug. 31 6,100 92 13 464 32

0 0 0 0 0

44,600 365 52 NA NA

N.B.: The fact that the computer takes decimals into account whencalculating explain the "apparent" calculation errors.

REMARKS:

The above tonnage is only part of the total yearly export.Other cargoes should normally be available in case of need.

An average of: 77 Reefers Bananas ) seems to be a71 Reefers Pineapples ) good mix

- es -

Table D.2

Summary of Costs

c) CONSOLIDATED COSTS AT PORT COST FOR COST FOROF LOADING AND DISCHARGE BREAK BULK BREAK BULKIn French Francs per 1000 kgs. BANANAS PINEAPPLES

Discharging the trucks at Abidjan 69 98Loading on board 60 100Freight 811 1,060Discharging on quay 343 475Sorting, etc. (relevage) (average) 93 93

1,376 1,826

d) COMPARISON OF COSTS BREAK BULK CONTAINERSPER CONTAINER LOAD IN FRENCH F. FRENCH FR. FRENCH FR.

Bananas 18,000 kilos 24,776 20,320Pineapples 14,500 kilos 26,480 20,320

e) COMPARISON OF COSTS BREAK BULK CONTAINERSPER CONTAINER LOADS IN US$ US$ US$

Bananas 18,000 kilos 4,331 3,552Pineapples 14,500 kilos 4,629 3,552

- Unfortunately costing per each item both in Abidjan and LE HAVRE werenot available. Cost for a "grouped" series of handling were receivednot itemized.

- Although sorting according to brands, maturity, etc. are effected attime of loading in Abidjan, it is common knowledge that thisoperation has to be done again at least for 60% of the cargo at thedischarge of the conventional vessel in Marseilles. This expensiveoperation called relevage is avoided when using containers.

- 86 -

Table D.3

Costs for a Container Vessel

1) CURRENCY: 1 US$ - 5.72 French F. & 286 CFA - F. FR 50

2) BUNKERS: Red wood nr. 1 - 100.00 US $Marine diesel oil - 150.00 US $

3) BOOKINGS & FREIGHTS:

ABIDJAN container number of payload freight type of total freightMARSEILLES type containers kilos p.container currency in US$

Bananas RFS 40' 77 18,000 1,016,000 C.F.A. 273,538Pineapples RFS 40' 71 14,500 1,016,000 C.F.A. 252,224

Total 148 NA NA NA 525,762Total freight per round trip per vessel 525,762Total Costss 27,329,068Expected Total Profit/(Loss) for the Service 10,568

Cost: of the Transport: Bananas 56.44 C.F.A. per kiloPineapples 70.07 C.F.A. per kilo

- 87 -

Table D.4

Vessel Costs for a Reefer 'Vessel

a) Number of days: 365 user days

b) Vessels:

1) Number of ships: 3 vessels in service

2) Allocated speed: 16 knots

3) Vessel's CHARTER rates and main details:

BOXER CHARTER R. DWT CAPAC TEU's 40' Nbr. PLUGSTYPE US$/DAY METRIC/T. CAPACITY CAPACITY AVAILABLE

Ship nr 1 8,000 9,000 570 275 150

4) Vessel's FUEL consumption : Main engines & Avxiliaries

BOXER MAIN ENGINE Red Wood Nrl at : Auxiliaries (M.D. OIL)TYPE -------------- ---------------------------------------------------

VESSEL 15 knots 16 knots 17 knots 18 knots Reefer conf. Normal conf.

ship nr 1 25.00 33.00 42.50 58.00 7.50 2.50

5) Voyage details at a speed of : 16 knots

days at sea:days at sea:days in port:days in portFROM TO DISTANCE in REEFER in STANDARD in REEFER in STANDARD

configur. configur. configur. configur.

Abidjan Marseilles 3,350 0.00 0.00 2 0Marseilles Abidjan 3,350 8.72 8.72 1 0

Total 6,700 8.72 8.72 3 0Allocated number of days 9 9 3 0Number of days per R.T. Theoretical 20.45 Allocated 21.00Theoretical number of round trips per vessel 17.38Theoretical number of round trips yearly with 3 vessels 52.14Allocated total number of round trips per year for weekly departures 52

- 88 -

Table D.4 (cont.)COSTS TO OPERATE A DEDICATED REEFER CONTAINER SERVICE WITH 3 VESSELS

1) Charter Cost Per Vessel

RATE IN US$ PER DAY NUMBER OF DAYS CHARTER COST IN USS

8,000 365 2,920,000

Total Charter Cost in US$ 8,760,000

2) Fuel Cost Main Engine(s) Per Vessel:100 US$ Per Metric Tons Red Wood nr.l

per days at days at total days consumption cost in total fuelround sea in sea in at metric tons US$ per cost intrip Reefer CFG STDRD CFG sea day round trip US$

Ship nr 1 9.00 9.00 18.00 33.00 59,400 1,032,429

Total Fuel Costs Main Engines 178,200 3,097,286

3) Fuel Cost Auxilliaries (or Power Packs) in Reefer Configuration Per Vessel

pr days days US$ per consumptionround trip at sea in port m.t./MDO m.t./day round trip US$

Ship nr 1 9.00 3 150 7.50 13,500 234,643

Total auxilliaries fuel cost in reefer configuration 40,500 703,929

4) (bis) Fuel Costs Auxilliaries in Non Refrigerated Configuration Per Vessel

per days days US$ per consumptionround trip at sea in port m.t./MDO m.t./day round trip US$

Ship nr 1 9.00 0 150 2.50 3,375 58,661

Total auxilliaries fuel cost in non reefer configuration 10,125 175,982Total fuel cost main + auxilliaries 228,825 3,977,196

- 89 -

Table D.5

Expenses in Port for Refrigerated Containers

1) Call Costs

Abidjan 1,800,000 C.F.A. per callMarseilles 31,000 French F. per call

2) Stevedoring Costs

Abidjan empty containers 26,050 C.F.A. per containerfull containers 33,300 C.F.A. per container

Marseilles empty containers 1,000 French F. per containerfull containers 1,000 French F. per container

d) Miscellaneous Expenses:

1) Commission on Cargoes

Freight In 2.50 % on freightsFreight Out 5.00 X on freightsForwarders 0.00 % on freights

2) Miscellaneous Other Expenses:

Cost of study and travelling exp. 125,000 US$ lump-sumCoordination center Abidjan 50,000,000 C.F.A. per yearReefer Engineers 50,000,000 C.F.A. per year (2 men)

PORT EXPENSES

Abidjan C.F.A. per Number of US$ TotalDescription of the operations Container Containers per call US$

Discharging empty 40' containers 33,300 1L48 17,232 896,073Loading full 40' containers 26,050 148 13,480 700,982P.T.I. on reefers 22,400 1.48 11,592 602,764Harbour dues, tugs, etc. 1,800,000 1 6,294 327,273Repositioning empty units 0 0

Total Abidjan Port Expenses 48,598 2,527,091

- 90 -

Table D.5 (cont.)Marseilles French F./ Number of US$ TotalDescription of the operations Container cont./ship per call US$

Discharging full 40' containers 1,000 148 25,874 1,345,455Loading empty 40' containers 1,000 148 25,874 1,345,455P.T.I. on reefers 500 0 0 0Harbour dues, tugs, etc. 31,000 1 5,420 281,818Repositioning empty units 0 0

Total Marseilles Port Expenses 57,168 2,972,727

Grand Total Port Expenses 5,499,818

Freights CommissionsCommissions in US$ in US$

Agency outwards 5.00 % on freights 27,339,636 1,366,982Agency inwards 2.50 % on freights 27,339,636 683,491

-Total Commissions 2,050,473

Freights InsuranceInsurance on cargo in US$ in US$

1.25 Z on freights 27,339,636 341,745

Total Cargo Insurance NA 341,745

Total inMiscellaneous US$

Cost of study and travelling exp. 125,000 US$ lump-sum 125,000Coordination center Abidjan 50,000,000 C.F.A. per year 174,825Reefer engineers 50,000,000 C.F.A. per year 174,825

Total Miscellaneous Expenses 474,650

Grand Total Other Expenses 2,866,869

- 91 -

Table D.6

Rental. Maintenance and Insurance Costs for Containers

Rentals

Container Number of US$ Rate Number of Total RentalTypes Containers Per Cont. Days in US$

Reefer Containers 815 17.50 365 5,205,813

Total Rental Costs in US$ 1,825 5,205,813

Maintenance Cost

Container Number of US$ Rate Number of Total RentalTypes Containers Per Cont. Days in USA

Reefer Containers 815 3.00 365 892,425

Total Maintenance Costs in US$ 1,825 892,425

Insurance Costs

Container Number of US$ Rate Number of Total RentalTypes Containers Per Cont. Days in US$

Reefer Containers 815 0.43 365 126,947

Total Insurance Costs in US$ 1,825 126,947

- 92 -

Table D.7

Costs for Containers and Power Packs

1) Containers and Power Packs (only for vessels without plugs) to be rented:

Container Number Total Total Number Of Total NumberType Per Vessel At Sea On Shore Spare Parts of Units

Reefers 40' 148 444 296 75 815

2) Container & Power Pack Rental and Other Costs

Container All rates are expressed in US dollars per dayType ----------------------------------------------------------

Rentals Maintenance Insurance

Reefers 40' 17.50 3.00 0.426750

3) Container Capacity

Average Payload Tare Weight Gross Weight InternalCapacity per in in in Voluine inContainer Type Kilos Kilos Kilos Cubic M.

Reefers 40' 28,077 4,432 32,509 131

4) Power Packs: Only for vessels without or without sufficient power plugs

Number of reefer plugs per unit 36Fuel consumption (Marine diesel oil) 39 L/H (full power)A tank container of 21.500 liters 21 days supply (F.P./36 plugs)

5) PTI (pre trip and inspection) of reefer containers

Abidjan 22,400 C.F.A. per PTIMarseilles 500 French F. per PTI

- 93 -

Table D.8

Summary of all Income Per. Port

Freights FreightsIn US$ In US$

Gross Freight Collected Per Round T. Total

Abidjan/Marseilles 156,382,720 27,339,636Marseilles/Abidjan 0

Total Gross Freights in US$ 156,382,720 27,339,636

Costs Costsin French F. in US$

Summary of all Expenses Per Main Item Tot.al Total

Charter costs 50,107,200 8,760,000Fuel costs 22,749,564 3,977,196Containers and power packs rental costs 29,777,248 5,205,813Container & power packs maintenance costs 5,104,6571 892,425Container & power packs insurance costs 726,139 126,947Port Expenses 31,458,960 5,499,818Commissions to agents & forwarders 11,728,704 2,050,473Cargo insurance 1,954,784 341,745Miscellaneous expenses 2,715,000 474,650

Grand Total of all Costs 156,322,270 27,329,068

French F. US$

Expected Profit (Loss) 60,450 10,568

- 94 -

Annex E

Carrying Temperatures and Compatibility

For Various Commodities

Source:

2nd Container Technology, 1978

- 95 -

Carrying Temperatures for Various CommoditiesCommodities Carrving Temperature Freezing Ventilation Storage

Temperatures Limits Temperatures Life Days

1. FruitsApple 0 -0.5/2 -1.5 below 3%CO2 -Apricot 0.5 -0.5/0 -I Yes 20Avocado 4.5/12.5 -0.5 Yes 30BananaGrosMichel 12 12.'13 -1 .Uaximum 24Cavendish 12 12'13 -1 Possible 24Robusta 12 12/13 -I When 24Valery 12 12,113 -1 Cooled 24Lacatan 14 14/15 -1 24

Bluebernes -0.5 -1/0 -1 Yes 30CapeGooseberry -0.5 -1/0 -1 Yes 30/40Cherrv -0.5 -1/0 -1.5 Yes 20Chinese Gooseberrv -0.5 -0.5/0.5 -1.5 Yes 40(Kiwi Berry)Cranberry 2 2/4.5 -1 Yes 60Grape -0.5 -1/0.5 -1.5 Yes 50/,100Grapefruit 10 4.5/15.5 -1 1%CO2Max 40LemOn 10 0/15.5 -1.5 1%C02 Max 80Lime 10 4.5/15.5 -1.5 1 CO2Max 50Litchi 0 -0.5/1.5 - Yes 40,50Mandarin 4.5 0/7 -1.5 1%CO2 Max 40Mango 9 7/10 -1 Yes 20 40Mangostecn 4.5 4.5/10 - Yes 40MelonHoneydew Casaba 10 10/21 - Yes 90Canteloupe 3 2/4.5 - Yes 15Water 10 4.5/10 - Yes 15

Nectannes -0.5 -0.5/0.5 -1 Yes 30Olive(fresh) 7 7/10 -1.5 Yes 35Orange 4.5 0/7 -11-0.5 1%orMax 40'50Passion Fruit(Granadilla) 7 5.5/10 - Yes 30Pawpaw(Papaya) 7 4.5/10 -1 Yes 20/30Peach -0.5 -0.5/-I -1 Yes 30Pear -0.5 -1/0.5 -1.5 3%C02 60/150Persimnmon -0.5 -1/0.5 -2 Yes 30/60

- 96 -

Carrying Temperatures for Various Commodities

Commodities Carrying TemperEtum Freezing Ventilation StorageTemperstures Limitu Teirn tures Life Days

Pineapple 8.5 7/10 - yes 30Plantuin 12 12/13 -1 Max 24PlumC, -0.5 -0.5/0.5 -1 Yea 20/35Pomegrnate 0 0/2 -3 Yes 30Pommelo 10 4.5/15.5 -1 1%orMa. 40Quince 0 -0.5/4.5 -2 Yes 60TargeruneOrange 4.S on -1.5 1%C02MaX 40(Satsuma. Clementine)2; VegetablesArtichokeGlobe 0 -0.5/4 -1 Yes 14/20ArichokeJerusalem 0 -0.5/4 -1 Yes 60Asparagus 0 0/1 -0.i Yea 20Aubergine(EggPlant) 7 7/10 -0.5 Yes 14BeansGrten 0 0/7 -0.5 Yes 20Shelled 0 0/2 -0.5 Yes 14

Beetroot 0 0/1 -0 5 Yes 60/90BroccoliSprouting 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 10WinterCauliflower 0 0/1 -Oi Yes 30BmtselSptouts 0 0/1 -0.5 Yea 30Cabbage 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 20Carrots 0 -0.5/0.5 -1 Yes 70Cauliflower 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 30Celery 0 0/1 -0.5 Yea 60/90Chicory(Witloot) 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 14/20Cucumber 7 7/10 -0.5 Yes 14Garlic 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 150Ginger 4.5 1.5/12.5 - Yes 150Leek 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 60Lettuce(Iceberg) 0 0/1 -0.5 Yes 40(othiervaneties) 0 0/1 0 Yes 20

Marrow(Courgette, 7 7110 -0.5 - 60Summer Squash, Zucchins)

Onions 0 0/1 -0.5 - 30/120Peasinpod 0 0/1 -0.5 - 7/20Pepper(sweet) 6.5 7/10 -0.5 - 20PotatoesWame 7 4.5/10 -0.5 - 60 upwardSeed 4.5 1.5/7 -0.5 - 150

Pumpkin 10 10/12.5 -0.5 - 60/90Rhubarb 0 0/1 4 5 - 15/30Salsify 0 0/1 -l - -Squash Winter 10 7/12.5 4 5 - 60/90SweetPotato 12.5 12.5/15.5 -1 - 120TomatoGreen 12.5 10/15.5 -0 5 - 20Fir, ripe 7 7/10 -0.5 - 14

3. OtherItemsBacon(oruafrozen) -1 -2/4.5 - No 30BeefChilled -1.5 -1.5/0 - No 40Quarter -1.5 -1.5/0 - seenote3 70Package -1.5 -1.5/0 - No 70

Beer 2 0.5/3 - No 120Bulbs(1) 21.5Unidentifiedmixed 4,5 0/12.5 - -Daffodil/narcissus 10 2: 12.5 -1.5 YeS 120Gladiolus 10 3/10 -3 Yes 150Lily 0 -1/3 -1.5 Yes 10Tulip 10 4.5/20 -2 Max 120Dahlia 4.5 4.5/7 -1.5 Yes 150

Buter oruafrozen 0 -1/4.5 - No 30Caviar 0 -/l - No 150

- 97 -

Carrying Temperatures for Various Comrmodities

Commodiuics Carryig Tempeature Freezing Venulauon StorageTemocratum~ L±cmitj Tempertumes LifeD0 ays

3. OLtheriemsi3acon(orafrozen) -1 -2/45 No 30

BccfChillcd -1.5 -1No/0 4No0

Quarter .1.5 -I.S/O seenote3 70

Package -1.S -1.5/0 No 70

Beer 2 0.5/3 - No 120Uulbs(l) Z1.5 - -

Unidcntiired rixcd 4.s 0/12.5 -

Daffiodi,nurcissus 10 2/12.5 -1.5 YaS 120Gladiolus 10 3/10 -3 Ycs 150

ily 0 -1/3 -1.5 Ycs ISO

Tulip to 4 5/20 -2 Max 120

)ahlia 4 5 4 5/7 *1.5 Ycs 150

Butter or as frozen 0 -1/4.5 - No 30

Caviar 0 -2/1 No ISO

Chcesc(2) 2 0/10 YcsChocolatc 7 4.5/12.5 - No l50

Confcctionary 7 4.5/12.5 - No 150

Crcamors&frozcn 0 -1/0.5 - No 10

Shell,liquidasfrozen 0 -1/0.5 -3 Ycs ISO

Fats 0 -1/4 5 - No -

F:shIced -0.5 -1.5/0 - NO 14/20Sall -0 5 -214.5 - No 150

1 rozen -0. -Z/4.5 - No 150Flowers,cut(4) 0 -0.5/4.5 -0.5 Yes -

FlonsLsgrcers 0 -.05/4.5 -0.5 Ycs upto30

Gameora,frozcn 0 1 5/0 14Ham -0 5 1.5/0.5 No

Fresh currantorasfrozen anned 4.5 0/10 - No

flops 4 5 -V210 - Yes I

LAmb& mutton -1.5 -1I5/0 - No 30Packaged -1 5 -15/0 - No 70(1)

Lard 0 -1.5/4.5 - No ISO

Margarine 0 -I.S/O.S - No ISO

Mcat products or as frozen -05 -I.S/0.S - No

Mi,lk

1'asturiscd 0 40 5!1 - No 14

Stcrlised 0 40.5/1 - No 30

Concectrated 0 -0.5 / - No

NutsChestnluts, lIra?sl 0 -1/1 5 - No IS0

Othir, 21 -1,10 . No

['[jots . 01 5 - Yrs

l'urkorasfrozet S -I 5/ - No Ict

Salt 4$ -1,7 - No 120

P'oultr yorasfrozcn - -1 5,1.5 - No 14

Secd 0 .li O No 300

irecs 0 0'2 Y Ycs

WinV}C i) 4 /12.S - No

Aci,'c 2 4. S; No 14

D)redor as froicn d 10 . No

Il) 1tp.,,,,I1',.-,/ .ro. .,,t., vt........... tt, . -..... Thf r.t/l ¶03W,t tif ssp.ratt,

(2) 1

;;rMperatwerl -y Wvy Wao it I-/ bitee,c - tt -t1 , t f s ,rItv; '.:r it' ,d ,trl jf rI,, iov.t" r

(j) 1)tt h'"'cv, r*rt :rlURUJfhof r. 0 ] C0)2--hec, v 1,rdcfo/ a^ .. bs-ar ...l ta m etvssdy ... e, on(4) (i f-t Fuh rs A o, i ... i twc ii rcqw,eird fi.r aOtt 1

7uwcr lskcly to bC Carrted aufr fghtA. : r j,;IQja .t of t',ao u..o i. ln....r wCrA

lHomcers w... h el u I " a h i1 'h.r ftc...pcraui rc. e g orchids have a shArt stumgr life. Advice sh.a.d.. Ie bUc sou if at till fritsible

- 98 -

Table 4: Compatability groups

Group 1: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 360F), 90-95% relative humidity. Manyproducts In this group produce ethylene.

apples grapes (without parsnipsapricots sulfur dioxide) peachesAsian pears horseradish pearsBarbados cherry kohirabi persimmonsbeets, topped leeks plumsbemes (except longan pomegranates

cranberries) loquat prunescashew apple lychee quincescherries mushrooms radishescoconuts nectarines rutabagasfigs (not with oranges' (Florida turnips

apples) and Texas)

'Citrus treated with tipnenyi may give odors to other products.

Group 2: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 95-100O/o relative humidity.Many products in this group are sensitive to ethylene.

amaranth' corn, sweet' parsley'anise' daikon' parsnipsartichokes' endive' seas'asparagus escarole' pomegranatebean sprouts grapes (without raddichiobeets' sulfur dioxide) radishes'Belgian endive horseradish rMu0arbberries (except Jerusalem artichoke rutaoagas

cranbermes) kiwitruit saisifybok choy kohIrabi' scorzonerabroccoli' leafy greens snow peasbrussels sprouts' leeks' (not with spinach'cabbage' figs or grapes) turnips'carrots' lettuce watercnestnutcauliflower lo bok watercress'celeriac' mushroomscelery' onions, green' (notcherries with figs, grapes, mushrooms,

rhubarb, or corn)

'these products can be top-ced.

Group 3: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 360F), 65-750/o relative humidity.Moisture will damage these products.

gartic onions, dry

Group 4: Fruits and vegetables, 4.5°C (401F), 90-950/o relative humidity.cactus leaves temons' tamarillocactus pears lycnees tangelos-caimito kumquat tangerines'cantaloupes'- mandarin' ughi fruit'clementine oranges-(Calif yucca rootcranberries and Arizona)

pepino

citrus trealed wii, nifnenyi may give odors to otner oroaucis* can oe top-iced

- 99 -

Table 4: Compatability groups-Continued

Group 5: Fruits and vegetables, 100C (500F), 85-900/o relative humidity. Many of theseproducts are sensitive to ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chilling injury.

beans kiwano pummelocalamondin malanga squash, summerchayote okra (soft shell)cucumber olive tamarindeggplant peppers taro rootharicot verl potatoes, storage

Group 6; Fruits and vegetables, 13 to 15°C (55 to 601F), 85-900/o relative humidity.Many of these products produce ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chill-ing injury.

atemoya granadilla papayasavocados grapetruit passiontruitbabaco guava pineapplebananas laboticaba plantainbitter melon lackfruit potatoes, newblack sapote langsat pumpkinboniato lemons' rambutanbreadfruit limes santolcanistel mamey soursopcarambola mangoes sugar applecherimoya mangosteen squash, wintercoconuts melons (except (hard shell)tetjoa cantaloupes) tomatillosginger root tomatoes, ripe

'CitruS treated witn biphenyl may give odors to otmer products.

Group 7: Fruits and vegetables, 18 to 21°C (65 to 70°F), 85-900/o relative humidity.

jicama sweetpotatoes - watermelon'pears tomatoes, white sapote

(for ripening) mature green yams-

'separate from pears and tomatoes due to ethylene sensiv,ty.

Group 8: Flowers and florist greens, 0 to 20 C (32 to 360F), 90-95% relative humidity.

allium freesia peony, tightaster, China garcenia budsbouvardia hyacinth ranunculuscarnation iris, bulbous rosechrysanthemum flly squillcrocus lily-of-the-valley sweet peacymbidium orchid narcissus tulip

adiantum (maidenhairi grourd oDne rhododendrencedar iex hOlly) salal (lemondagger and wood unioer leaf)terns mistletoe vacciniumgalax mourtain-laurel (huckleberry)woodwardia tern

- 100 -

Table 4: Compatability groups-Continued

Group 9: Flowers and florist greens, 4.50C (400F), 90-95% relative humidity.

acacia delphinium orciad,alstromeria feverfew cymtidiumanemone forget-me-not ornitrogalumaster, China foxglove poppybuddleia gaillarcia phloxcalendula gerbera primrosecalla gladiolus proteacandytutt gloriosa ranunculusclarkia gypsopnilla snapdragoncolumoine heather snowdropcoreoosis laceflower staticecornflower Jllac, forced stephanotiscosmos luOine steviadahlia marigolds stockdaisies mignonette strawflowerviolet zinnia

adiantum (maidennair) eucalyptus myrtus (myrtle)asparagus (plumosa. hedera philodendren

sorenger) ilex (holly) pittosporumbuxus (boxwood) ieatherleaf (baker pothoscamelia fern) scotch-broomerncroton leucothoe, drooping smilax, southerndracaena magnolia woodwarCia fern

Group 10: Flowers and florist greens, 7 to 100C (45 to 50F), 90-95%0 relative hu-midity.

anemone eucharts orchid. cat:leyabird-of-paradcse giocrosa sweet williamcamellia gocetia

chamaeoora corcvline (ti) oalmpodocarpus

Group 11: Flowers and florist greens. 13 to 150C (55 to 600F), 90-950/% relative hu-midity.

anthurium heliconia potnsettaginger orchid, vanda

ditfenoacnia stagnorn fern

- 101 -

Chill Sensitivity Most tropical products are subject to chiling injury when transported or storec atlower than recommended temperatures. This damage often becomes apparent af-ter the products warm up. Products injured may show pitting, discoloration, watersoaked areas, decay, and failure to ripen. The following Table 5 lists tropical andother products that sensitive to this injury.

Table 5: Products sensitive to chilling injury

atemoya guavas plantainavocados haricot vert pomegranatesbabaco jaboticaba potatoesbananas jackiruit potted plantsbeans licarna pummelobitter melon kiwano pumpkinsblack sapote langsat rambutanboniato lemons santolbreadfruit limes sapodillacalabaza malanga soursopcalamondin mamey squashcanistel mangoes sugar applecantaloupe mangosteen sweet potatoescarambola melons tamarillochayote okra tamarindcherimoya olive taro rootcranberries oranges (California tomatillocucumbers and Arizona) tomatoescustard apple papaya tropical flowerseggplant passionfruit ugii fruitfeiloa pepino watermelonginger root peppers white sapotegranadilla pineapples yamgrapefruit

Freeze Sensitivity Many products are recommended to be transported or stored at temperatures only1 ° to 3°C (2-6°F) above their freezing points. Thermostats, however, on sometrailers and van containers are set 10 to 30C (2-6°F) higher than the recommend-ed temperature of 0°C (320F) for chiiled products to avoid freezing. The followingTable 6 lists a small number of products according to their sensitivity to freezing.Most tropical products are damaged by chilling injury before they freeze.

Moisture Loss Sensitivity Most products need to be transported and stored at a high relative humidity. Someproducts are more susceptible to moisture loss than others. Moisture loss resultsin wilting and shriveling. To reduce moisture loss, products must be adequatelyprecooled before transit. Some products also are waxed, film-wrapped, package-iced, or top-iced.

Relative humidity during transit and storage must be maintained as much as possi-ble. Table 7 lists products by their moisture loss rate in storage.

- 102 -

Table 6: ProdUcts susceptible to freezing injury'

Most susceptible: Moderately susceptible: Least susceptible:apricots lettuce aoples onions (dry) beets w/o topsasparagus limes broccoli, ornanges Drussels sproutsavocados okra sprouting parsley cabbage,bananas peaches cabbage, new pears mature or savorybeans, snap peppers, sweet carrots w/o tops peas datesberries (except plums cauliflower radJishes, w,o tops kale

cranberries) potatoes celery spinach Kohirabicucumbers squash, summer cranoerries squash, winter parsnipseggplant sweetpotatoes grapefruit rutabagaslemons tomatoes grapes salsify

turnips wlo tops

The most susceptiole products will be injurea Oy one lighit freezing, rroderately sisceptioie productswill recover from one or two light treezings. wni,e least susceptiole products can oe lightly frozenseveral times. Fresh products that are ligniy frczen should not oe nandlecd Thawing sriouid be done at4OC (40OF)

'Source: Hardenburg, Watada, and wang (7)

Table 7: Moisture loss rate of products'

High Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate: Medium Loss Rate:apricots avocados parsnipsblackberries artichokes' pearsbroccoli' asparagus peascantaloupes' bananas pepperschard' beets' pomegranatescherries brussels sprouts' quincesChinese vegetables cabbage radishes'figs carrots, topped' rhuoarbgrapes cauliflower, rutaoagas'green onions' unwrapped sweet pctatoesguavas celeriac' squasn, summerkohirabi celery- (so't shell)leafy greens' coconuts tangerineslychees corn, sweet' tomatoesmangoes cranberries yamsmushrooms encive'papayas escaroie' Low Loss Rateparsley' graoefruit applespeaches green oeans cauliflower, wrappedpersimmons ieeKs cucu moers, waxedpineapples emons eggpiantplums and prunes ,etuce garlicraspberries lmes ginger rootstrawberries nec:ar "es kiwifruttcut tlowers oKra melonsvegetables with tops' crar;es onions, ory

cotatoes- mpkinssquasn, winter

(hard shell)

'can be top-iced.

'Source: largely Ifrom Safeway Stores. Inc (25)

- 103 -

Ethylene Sensitivity Never transport or store fruits and vegetaoles that produce a ot of ethylene withprocucts that are sensitive to it. Ethyene can cause premature ripening of someprocucts ana will ruin others. such as plants and cut flowers. Cucumbers and

celery turn yellow in the presence of ethylene, while lettuce will turn brown Potas-sium permangante pads can o)e used to absorb ethylene during transit andstorage. Table 8 lists products that procuce ethylene along with procducs that aresensitive to it.

Table 8: Products that are ethylene producers or ethylene sensitive

Ethylene producers: Ethylene sensitive:apoles mangosteen bananas, unripe leafy greensapricots nectarines Belgian endive lettuceavocados papayas broccoll okrabananas, ripening passiontruit brussels sprouts parsleycantaloupes peaches cabbage peascherimoya pears carrots peppersfigs persimmons cauliflower pctted plantsguavas olantains chard spinachhoneydew meions plums cucumbers squashwiwifruit, ripe prunes cut flowers sweetpotatoesmamey quinces eggplant watercressmangoes ramoutan fiorist greens watermelon

omatoes green beans yamskiwitruit, unripe

Odor Sensitivity Never transport or store odorous products with products that will absorb the odors.Table 9 lists products that produce odors with products that can absorb them.

Table 9: Products which produce or absorb odors

Odor produced by: Will be absorbed by:apples ........................ cabbage, carrots. celery, figs, onions.

meat, eggs, dairy productsavocados ......... ,.............. pineapplescarrots ........................ celerycitrus fruit ........................ meat, eggs, dairy productsginger root ........................ eggplantgrapes fumigated w/ ................. other fruits and vegetables

sulfur dioxideleeks ........................ figs, grapesonions, dry .. ...................... apples, celery, pearsonions, green ........................ corn, figs, grapes, mushrooms, rhubarbpears ......................... cabbage, carrots, celery, onions,

potatoespotatoes ................ apples, pearspeppers, green ....................... pineapples

strongly scented ............. .... citrus fruitvegetaoies '

- 104 -

Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage lite forfruits and vegetables.

Temperature RelativeProduct 0C OF Humidity ApDroximate

(percent) storage life

Amaranth 0-2 32-36 95-100 10-14 daysAnise 0-2 32-36 90-95 2-3 weeksApples -1-4 30-40 90-95 1-12 monthsApricots -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-3 weeksArtichoKes, glooe 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeksAsian pear 1 34 90-95 5-6 monthsAsparagus 0-2 32-35 95-100 2-3 weeksAtemoya 13 55 85-90 4-6 weeksAvocados. Fuerte, Hass 7 45 85-90 2 weeksAvocacos, Lu,a, Booth-I -1 40 90-95 4-8 weeksAvocacos, Fuchs, Pollock 13 55 85-90 2 weeksBabaco 7 45 85-90 1-3 weeksBananas, green 13-14 56-58 90-95 1-4 weeksBarbados cherry 0 32 85-90 7-8 weeksBean sprouts 0 32 95-100 7-9 daysBeans, dry 4-10 40-50 40-50 6-10 monthsBeans, green or snap 4-7 40-45 95 7-10 daysBeans, lima, in pods 5-6 41-43 95 5 caysBeets. bunched 0 32 98-100 10-14 daysBeets, topped 0 32 98-100 4-6 monthsBelgian endive 2-3 36-38 95-98 2-4 weeksBitter melon 12-13 53-55 85-90 2-3 weeksBlack sapote 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-3 weeksBlackberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 daysBlood orange 4-7 40-44 90-95 3-8 weeksBlueberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2 weeKsBok choy 0 32 95-1C0 3 weeKsBoniato 13-15 55-60 85-90 4-5 monthsBreadfruit 13-15 55-60 85-90 2-6 weeksBroccoli 0 32 95-100 r0-14 daysBrussels sprouts 0 32 95-100 3-5 wee;sCaDbage. early 0 32 98-100 3-6 weeksCabbage. late 0 32 98-100 5-6 monthsCactus Leaves 24 36-40 90-95 3 weeksCactus Pear 2-4 36-40 90-95 3 weeksCaimito 3 38 90 3 weeksCalabaza 10-13 50-55 50-70 2-3 monthsCalamondin 9-10 48-50 90 2 weeksCanistel 13-15 55-60 85-90 3 weeKsCantaloups (3/4-slip) 2-5 36-41 95 1D daysCantaloups (full-slip) 0-2 32-36 95 5-14 days

Carambola 9-10 48-50 85-90 3-4 weeKsCarrots, bunched 0 32 95-100 2 weeKsCarrots, mature 0 32 98-100 7-9 monthsCarrots, immature 0 32 98-100 4-6 weeksCashew apple 0-2 32-36 85-90 5 vveeKs

Cauliflower 0 32 95-98 3-4 weeksCeieriac 0 32 97-99 6-8 monthsCelery 0 32 98-100 2-3 monthsChard 0 32 95-100 10-14 daysChayote squash 7 45 85-90 4-6 weexs

- 105 -

Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life forfruits and vegetables-Continued

Temperature RelativeProduct °C OF Humidity Approximate

-(ercent) storage life

Chenrnoya 13 : 90-95 2-4 weeksCherries, sour 0 32 90-95 3-7 daysCherries, sweet -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 2-3 weeksChinese broccoli 0 32 95-100 10-14 CaysChinese cabbage 0 32 95-100 2-3 monthsChinese long bean 4-7 40-45 90-95 7-10 daysClementine 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeksCoconuts 0-1 5 32-35 80-85 1-2 monthsCollards 0 32 95-100 10-14 daysCorn, sweet 0 32 95-98 5-8 daysCranberries 2-4 36-40 90-95 2-4 monthsCucumbers 10-13 50-55 95 10-14 daysCurrants -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-4 weeksCustard apples 5-7 41-45 85-90 4-6 weeksDaikon 0-1 32-34 95-100 4 monthsDates -18 or 0 0 or 32 75 6-12 monthsDewberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 daysourian 4-6 39-42 85-90 6-8 weeKsEggpiants 12 54 90-95 1 weekElderberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-2 weeksEndive and escarole 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeksFelfoa 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 weeusFigs, fresh -0.5-0 31-32 85-90 7-1,3 zasGarlic 0 32 65-70 6-7 -- '-'-sGinger root 13 55 65 ' 6 'r-sGooseberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 3- eGranadilla 10 50 85-90 3-4 sGrapefruit. Calif. & Ariz. 14-15 58-60 85-90 6-3Grapefruit. Fla. & Texas 10-15 50-60 85-90Grapes, Vinifera -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 -Grapes, American -0.5-0 31-32 85 28 ..

Greens, leafy 0 32 95-100 . '0.sGuavas 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 ..

Haricot vert 4-7 40-45 95 7- ':Horseradish -1-0 30-32 98-100 10- 2 --Jaboticaba 13-15 55-60 90-95 2-3 Z3,iJacktruit 13 55 85-90 2-6 ̂Jaffa orange 8-10 46-50 85-90 8-12 4*-')

Japanese eggplant 8-12 46-54 90-95 1 wee?Jerusalem Artichoke -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 4-5 ^----Jicama 13-18 55-65 65-70 1-2 -c-sKale 0 32 95-100 2-3 ,eewsKiwano 10-15 S0-6 9 6 morrsKiwitruit 0 32 90-95 3-5 Ctcr'ls

Kohlrabi 0 32 98-100 2-3 mon-sKumquats 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeKsLangsat 11-14 52-58 85-90 2 weeKsLeeks 0 32 95-100 2-3 monthsLemons 10-13 50-55 85-90 1-6 monthsLettuce 0 32 98-100 2-3 weeksLimes 9-10 48-SO 85-90 6-8 weeks

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Table 10: Recommended temperature and relative humidity, and approximate transit and storage life torfruits and vegetables-Continued

T emperature Reiative

Product °C F Humidity Aoproxirate--.i-., --- -'.(percent) storage iife

-to bok- - 0-1.5 32-35 95-100 2-4 months

Loganbernes -05-0 3t-32 - - 90-95 2-3 daysLongan - 1 5 35 90-95 3-5 weeks

Loquats 0 32 90 3 weeKs

Lychees 1.5 35 90-95 3-5 weeksMlatanga - - -. 7 45 70-80 3 montrsMamey 13-1 5 55-60- - 90-95lManooes 13 55 85-90 2-3 weeks

Mangosteen 13 55 85-90 2-4 weeks

Mulons:Casaba - 10 50 90-95 3 weeks

Crenshaw 7 45 90-95 2 weeksHoneydew 7 45 90-95 3 weeks

Persian - 45 90-95 2 weeKs

Mushrooms 0 32 95 3-4 days

Nectarines -0C5-0 31-32 90-95 2-4 weeks

Okra 7-1^0 45.50 90-95 7-10 days

Olives, fresh 5-10 41-50 - 85-90 4-6 weeks

Onions, green 0 32 95-100 3-4 weeks

Onions, dry . ' 32 6 65-70 -'- 1-8 monthsOnion sets - 0 -- 32 65-70 6-8 months

Oranges, CaJ4.P & Ariz.' 3-9 : 38-48 .. 85-90 3-8 weekSOranges, Fla.-& Texas 0-1 32-34 85-90 8-12 weeks

Papayas --. 7-13 7 45-55 85-90 1-3 weeks

-Passiontruit - . '7-10 45-50 - 85-90 3-5 weeKs

Parsley 0 - 32 95-100 - 2-2.5 montrsParsnips 0 32 - 95-100 - - 4-6 montns

Peaches -0.5-0- 31-32 90-95' 2-4 weeKS

Pears -1.5 to -0 S .- 29-31 . 90-95' 2-7 mor.ths

Peas, green . ' 0 . 32 - 95-98 12 weeKs

Peas. soutnern .a-s .- 40.41- . *. 96 daysPepino 4 40 85-90 1 montn

Peppers, Chili (dry) 0-10 - 32-50'. 60-70 56 months

Peppers, sweet 7-13, . - 45-55 - 90-95 . 2-3 weeks

Persimmons, Japanese *1 30 90 3-4 months

Pineapples 7-13 - 4;-5: 85-90 2-4 weeksPlantain 13-14 55-58 - 90-95 1-5 weeks

Plums and prunes -0 5-:: 31-32 90-9S5 2-5 weeKs

Pomegranates. 5 41 90-95 - 2-3 montns

Potatoes, early croo 50-60 90-95 10-14 days

Potatoes, late crop 4 5-13:, 40-55 90-95 5-10 monTms

Pummelo . 7-9 45-48. 85-90 -2 weeKs.

Pumpkins 10-13 50-55 . 50-70 ' 2-3 montis

Quinces -0 5-0 31-32 90 - 2-3 monrtns

Raddichio 0-1 32-34 - - 95-100 2-3 weeKs

- Radishes. stno 0 3 2 9i1 -00 34 weksRalJlS1eS WlTe -0 ;2 95-100 - . 2-4 m0ntl1SRaOisl,es, winter-

Ramoutan : 12. - 54 90-95 - 1-3 weeKS

Raspoerries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days

Rhubarb 0 32 95--10 Oa 2-4 weeKs

RuraDagas 0 32 9B 100 4.6 monrns.