RESTRICTED

WI[ Id2L LIAW18Vol. 3

This report was prepared for use within ihe EBank and its affiliated organizations.They do not accept responsibility for its a::curacy or completeness. The report maynot be published nor may it be quoted as representing their views.

TMTrVPMATT!OTNMAT RANK TT(O 1' 1OP C'C'NTqTPITjrTTC'OM ANDT Th1VELOT (PMTIYT

TMTPITRNPATTC)TNTAT TDPV'PT.T PMPNT ASC'OT ATTCn

THE CURRENT ECONOMIC POSITION

AND PROS]PECTS

OF

GIANA

(in ten volumes)

VOLUME, III

POPULATION, EMPLOYMENT AND EDUCATION

October 26, 1970

Western Africa Department

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CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS

1 New Cedi. Us$0.98

1 dollar N, 1.02

THE MISSION

This annex is based on the findings of a mission in Apriland May 1970 to Ghana composed of:

Mr. Barend A. de Vries Chief of Mission

Mr. Fateh Chaudhri General Economist

Mr. Thomas Klein Balance of Payments & External Debt

Miss Katharine Mortimer Population, Employment & Education

Mr. M. Taher Daiani* Fiscal

Mr. Ved Gandhi Fiscal

Mr. Nake Eamranv Social Sector

Mr. Jivat Thariani Indsiirrv

Mr. Alfredo Soto Transnort

Mr- ann7 RSchIIlt-e Transport

Mr. rharles Metcalfe Agriculture

Mr Bruce Tnhnston** Agrilture

Mr. Merrill Batejmna-** Cocoa

Mr. Herm,an N4ssenbaum Pro4ect T4 S'-

Mr. John Wecfston Elecri Pnower

Mr. Edward Minnig Electric Power

Mr.- " . lRangachar iRxesearch-

Mis±s Beverley Baxter "crtary

L)cuiueu u)y LILe ttLLCtIIfl LiLJIIal MlUniCLt)ay X uIUu

** Consultants

IL]s volurme hlas been prepared by Miss Kaatharine rIortimer.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageN'eo.

I. The Present Size of the Population .... ......... 1

II. The National Family Planning Program .... ....... 1

III. Internal Population Movements .... .............. 3

a. Regional ........ .......................... 3b. Rural!Trh'nri Miornnt5 . - = = 5

TV Afrifrnn Migrnnt•o in Glhana- R-

V. Estimation of the T-Lnr Fnrce - 9

VI. Occupational St-ricturev~ and Skrill T evels of

the Labor Force ........................................ 10

VII. Manpower Policy and the Manpower Board ... ...... 13

VIII. The National Service Corps ..... ................ 15

IX. Education ........ .............................. 16

a. Structure ....... .......................... 16b. Pri,,ary Schools ........................................ L16c. Mliddle Sclhools ...... ...................... 18di. Secondary Schools ..... .................... 18e. Universities ...... ........................ 19r. Educational Finance ..... .................. 2k

g. The Development Budget ..... ............... 21n. Tne Recurrent Budget ..... ................. 23

Table No.

1. Regional Distribution of Popuiation 1960 and i970

2. Estimates of the 1970 Active Population

3. Analysis of Recorded Employees by Occupational. Groups,December 1968

4. Recorded Number of Employees, 31st December All Sectors

5. Enrollment in Ghana's University Institutions 1961/62-3969/70

6. Enrollment in Selected Courses at Ghana's UniversityInstitutions 1961-70

7. Public Primary Education by Region 1968/69

8. Public Middle School Education by Region 1968/69

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

9. Enrollment in Public Schools 1960/61-69/70

10. Central Government Development Expenditure by Type ofEducation 1966/67-69/70

11. Cetntral Government Recurrent ExDcnditure by TVDe of Education19,66/67-1968/69

VOLUME III

POPULATION. EMPLOYMENT AND EDUCATION

I. The Present Size of the Population

1. Extreme uncertainty surrounds the size of the Ghanaian populationdepnite ehe availahility of ear7v returns of the 1970 census. This arisesfrom the enforcement of the Aliens Compliance Order which required all non-Ghanaians to-r nqire residence nprmits or leave the countrv an from Decem-

ber 1969. Its enforcement led to the departure of large but impreciselyknown numbers of aliens, in all likelihood more than 150,000 recorded bythe authorities. The 1970 census results, however, are more likely jeopar-dized by conrsiderable -evasio. of the ennmaerat0rs b, persons fearinag theywere or might be affected by the Order. Thus there is reason to treat theprel.iaA.flay ---- us result of Q.546 ml.illon as a low estr ,ate rather than anexact figure. As a high estimate, the mission suggests 9.17 million (imply-ing a gro th ratwe of 3. 1S percent' on the basis of a previous est4-.e. I/The Mission's assumption involves adjusting the estimate of 9.5 million bysubtractin.g 200,000J expelled alliens and a f urther 150,000 f'or origin.al over

estimation of net immigration during the sixties.

II. The National Family Planning Program

2. The program's target for the first five years is to maintain a con-stant rate of populaXtiOn grVWLll t Ih Llth C UL UtChe fa o d lt:ins 11 LLe dath aLtLe fU

as much as one percent per year, which is more rapid than is actually likely.On the assumption that in common with experience elsewhere four contraceptiLveusers for one year prevent one birth and that similar drop-out rates will ex-ist in Ghana as elsewhere, 2/ the Program has adopted the following targets:

I/ S v Gaisie: r.amics of Population Growth ir. Gh.,ana.

.E Mt LaoLY a0 o LLf Io.tn Uing LuseIsrL.Lm pe.LLLIouLsL years.. L a ULIU L-

tion of continuing users from previous years.

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New ramily Prlanning Active at EstimatedYear Acceptors During Year End of Year Births Prevanted

1970 /1 54,000 36,000 9,000

1971 78,000 76,000 19,000

1972 96,000 116,000 29,000

1973 118,000 156,000 39,000

1974 144,000 200,000 50,000

/1 Owing to the delay in starting the program following the change of gov-ernment, there will be at least six months slippage in the targets.

These targets compare with an estimated maximum of 15,000 women presentLyusing contraceptives for a part or more of a year.

3. Ghana is the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to adopt an offfi-cial family planning program, and it also has one of the toughest situationsto tackle. The average Ghanaian woman has seven children over her lifetimeand she also wants seven children, although urban women have probably modi-fied their preference to five or six. But the rural population, about '70percent of the total, still prefers large families; 1/ this group is boththe most important and the most difficult to reach, persuade and to keep ac-tive once persuaded. However, preliminary work done in the rural areas bothby the PPAG 2/ and the program suggests that people in the rural areas aresusceptible to economic, and to a lesser extent health, arguments in favorof family planning.

4. Nonethel,ess, there is a strong attitudinal pressure to be faced,which the Ghanaian program recognizes by allocating to the education andinformation side equal status with the services side and 35 percent of thebudget. The Ministry of Information has major responsibility for the dif-ficult but crucial task of designing appropriate propaganda and information-al material both for mass media campaigns and for individual or small groupcommunication. The latter will be disseminated by existing field personnelof various Ministries including Health and Rural Development, extensionworkers of the Ministry of Agriculture, and hopefully teachers. 3/ How suc-cessful this campaign will be depends on how effectively the field workersare enlisted -- which may require some incentive scheme -- and how well-designed their training and material is.

1/ See Caldwell in Birmingham, Neustadt, and Omaboe. Study of ContemporaryGhana, page 95.

2/ Planned Parenthood Association of Ghana.

3/ UnfortunatP1y the Minitrv nf Edtnation has not yet been on-ontpte Lntothe Program.

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5. The nther half of the program dealing with the nrnvisiinn nf eon-traceptive services will have two broad approaches. On the one hand exist-inc, hCrnnitn1l hp:nlHtl rpntprc nr}nA hPnlth nnCtq Will All C>r-ntiinllV l*o A:rmyn

into the family planning dispensing network. At present there are 42 gov-ernment hospitals and 71 nrivant hnonit2nls A9 henlth centers (40n rural and9 urban) and 14 health posts. As of the launching of the program there were44 outlets for fam.ly planning servics andi adxvic. I/ Training of healthpersonnel for these services has already begun, with major emphasis beingplaced on tra i n ed nurs,e- m idwife specialists quoalified to provide all kinrdsof contraceptives and medical supervision. Part of their responsibilitywill De to establ4ish regular ViSie4ti-n cln 4 -n 4ir the rural reas aroundtheir base clinics. They will be supplemented by other para-medical staffwith carefully del4neated responsibilities, and by the PPA- nd other ex-

isting agencies. The other approach will be as massive as possible a dis-tribution of r.on-clinical contraceptives in the rural areas not covere- byexisting health facilities and where it is therefore unsafe to provide con-tracept.Lves w`LhI ich require regular m.edical supervision. kThULe distribution,will be done through commercial and as many other outlets as can be found.

6. The program is well designed in its various aspects, services,traLnining, infoLLLLtion andI.L e v a.Luation, and - deserves strong support . If t

appears ambitious, that is because the task is considerable and a smallereffort wouuu probably iLot prouuce signif-icant results. 'e cost is reason-

able at slightly less than NO 0.4 per capita from local funds, NO 323.5thousand from the first year of full operation. It appears tlhat finance isnot a bottleneck from the government's point of view, especially as consid-erable amounts or foreign assistance are likely. USAID and the Internation-al Planned Parenthood Federation are supplying budgetary assistance, sup-plies and training, and Ford Foundation, technical assistance. Additionaiscope for assistance is likely in training, technical assistance especiallyfor the educational side of the program, and for evaluation. It may alsobe desirable to include in the program expansion of maternal child healthfacilities to more areas than now covered, which would require furtherforeign assitance.

III. Internal Population Movements

a. Regional

7. The regional distribution of the population in 1960 and in 1970 isshown below in Table 1.

1/ 9 in Greater Accra, 11 in Ashanti including five health centers, 5 inEastern Region, 5 in Western Region, 4 in Central, 3 in Volta, 3 inBrong Ahafo and 4 in Northern and Upper together.

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Table 1: !Regional Distribution of Pnpulation 1Q60 andm 19?0

Gross Value Population as Population Density Percent,/Added as % Area as % of Total per square mile Urbanized

Reg Total. in- 1960 v' Tota-,1 1960 !Q70 /1 19o6 19O70 /1 1"60CI

G re a t e rAccra 20.6 1.1 7.3 9.9 494 853 8()V ) 22 2 00 9.3 0 L8 03 ) 26

Central ) 4.1 11.2 10.4 197 234 )E10astern 1 . 16 14.8 14Z 164 2()Ashanti 17.9 10.2 16.5 17.3 118 157 2'j

42 ~~ 1/C r /. 07 00 90 1,:rBrong Ahafo '.5 .6 8.7 8

Voltai 8.0 8.6 11.6 11.1 98 119 13\t_ ___t_ _ _9 t 9 0 C I 0 ' 7 \114 o r L le- -r-n I GU L.J u .' 0 . .J If , Z II

Upper 9.2 14.7 12.8 10.0 64 81 )H 4~~nn -in^ Iflfl fl1hGhana I1u 10v 1uu 1i( 792

/1 I Preiiminary/2 Population in centers of more than 5,000 people.

Source: Study of Contemporary Ghana Chapter 4, Birmingham, Neustadt andOmaboe, Gihana Population Census 1960 and 1970.

8. The regions which have been the major beneficiaries of internal mi-gration are Greater Accra, Ashanti and Brong Ahafo. Brong Ahafo has gained,although one of the poorer regions, because ot the growth of her cocoa areasand because of a uniquely low rate of emigration by natives of Brong Ahafo.The major losers through migration have traditionally been Upper, Northernand Volta regions, the poorer regions where least development has occurred.These gains and losses are compounded by fertility and infant mortality dif-ferentials favoring Ashanti and Brong Ahafo and against Northern and UpperGhana. 1/

9. Rlegional migration patterns appear to have continued since 1960except for Northern Ghana which appears to have increased its share of thepopulation. Since there is no obvious economic or health reason why thisgain should have occurred, it is probably illusory, due to errors inenumeration in the two censuses. There is also a presumption that duringthe sixties the focus of migration sh:Lfted away from the cocoa-growingareas towards non-agricultural employnent, in response to the decline inreal income from cocoa and to the increase in industrial activity. Asurvey of migratiorL in Greater Accra and the Eastern Region 2/ found that

1/ See S.K. Gaisie op. cit. p. 29 and J.C. Caldwell in Birmingham, Neustadt,Omaboe op. cit. p. 96-97.

2/ N.0. Addo: Internal Migration D:Lfferences and their Effects on Socio-Demographic aLange in South-Eastern Ghana.

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althou2h rural - rural mieration still predominates, rural/urban migrationwas increasing its share rapidly. Thus 53 percent of male immigrants intourban areas of the Eastern region had arrived there less than three yearsbefore the survey compared to only 32 percent in the rural areas.

10. The present urban population, defined as population living innenters of more than 5-000 neonle, will not be known until the 1970 nrnsai,

data has been analysed. Estimates range from 30-37 percent of the popula-t-ion i,mplyvng a rate of arowth of s-7 nercnent if the censuts populatior

figure is used and 6-8 percent if the higher estimate is used. Taking thegnrowth rateas 7 nrornt tlhp tirhnn nenriil ,ti on wouli bA 3m1 T llion. in 1970

compared to 1.6 million in 1960.

b. ural/Urban Migrants

11. Rural-urban migrants are proportionately more educated and propor-tionatell, younger thnr.a1 lrr. 1 . ig rnt w .A_o _1, en f1/4n m-4ve 4- a4 -_

tion are economic, the desire to earn higher incomes, and to earn more inLAIh VLUL oL mUoLry, WtL VVLwi.L to buy consu.uion goods. ,/ LLLhos iLLgr,LLs

with any education migrate to find jobs "suitable to the educated." Thema4or shnortcom .1ngs of rur a l life quoted by those surveyed we e Ade

quate water supply, necessitating frequent and time-consuming trips tofetcbh water, lack of work suitable for thle educated, lack of en.tertai.-.,.ent,the shortage of consumer goods, bad communications network, and lack ofhealth facilities. -

12. ~ :1 Hig uarba -ur.er,t-poyment does no' appear to damripen the urge to mi-*L gTi5L ULW l~lpLylL L L UU LLdkL L.U Itk~L LL~U~~L J

grate. This may be explained by the findings of one study 3/ that male mi-grants are more like'Ly to IndU WUoLrk LtIha L&ULo-LLgLLLtsLL. In LtLh uruan areasof Greater Accra, 85 percent of male working-age migrants were in workcompared to 67 percenLt of1 on-migrants anu a soulewhat larger differentialexists in the urban areas of the Eastern Region. Unemployment among mi-grants is also proportionately less. These figures include foreign immi-grants whose employment rate is higher than migrants' but the difference isstill there. Tne same study also shows that employment is highest amongthe non-educated migrants (most foreign immigrants are in this category)but among the educated employment increases with the level of educationattained. This is more evidence that the primary and middle school leaversare the hardest to employ.

1/ 1963 Rural/Urban Migration Survey, Demographic Unit, University ofGhana.

2/ The mission was told by those concerned with rural development that themost frequent order of priorities listed by villagers was road improve-ment, water supplies, health facilities; adequate roads are recognizedto reduce the need for on-the-spot health facilities, etc.

3/ N.0. Addo op. cit.

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13. In spite of the higher leveL of employment among migrants, thereappear to be significant waiting periods for new arrivals and the probabilityis that these have been increasing in recent years. The extended family sys-tem, some flow of goods and cash from the village, and occasional trading, orother service work, enables the migrant to wait out the period; the hope ofgetting a job, which, despite the falLing trend of urban real wages in t:hesixties, will almoEst certainly be more renumerative than rural work especial-ly in terms of wage - goods, and the desire to use his education sustain himduring the waiting.

14. Experience in other countries suggest that allowing conditions andstandards of living in the cities to deteriorate has little effect on migra-tion, although improvements in the cities do accelerate it, as does increas-ing the level of employment. 1/ Moreover, even narrowing the differentialbetween agricultural and urban incomes does not halt migration completely.It appears, therefore, in Ghana, as elsewhere, the most fruitful policywould be to accept urbanization as inevitable and concentrate on controllingand guiding the flow of migrants towards a larger number of smaller towns(about 50,000 people or less) rather l:han letting the bulk of the pressuredevolve, as now, on the regional capitals, especially Accra, Sekondi-Takaradiand Kumasi. Further study, however, ils warranted to discover whether thethree big cities genuinely are becoming economically and socially ineffi-cient. It is possible that, with adequate planning and firm implementationbased on a thorough. understanding of the economic structure and resources ofthe cities, their growth may still. be beneficial economically and socially.

15. The main advantages of the promotion of more smaller towns are (a)the benefit:s to the agricultural population in terms of increased access tomarkpts, bonti fnr the sale of outnut and the nurchase of innuts. ancillarvservices (such as equipment repair, banking, etc.), consumption goods, andixncrased ent-ertinmPnt and hpnlth fncAlitie. (^hana in a fond deficit

country and. therefore the stimulus to agricultural production created byimproving t.he market towns in the producing arepa wnold hp very welcome.Needless to say, a complementary policy of agricultural development (dis-riusaare in rhntrpa I and 5 of the Repoert) and of imnorving acaess roads tothe market town would be necessary to achieve the full potential of this,ot li4cX (b) T.. aex-itene-a of wall-ae¶ttinnad toie,wns within rea-^h of mnot

villages might itself lessen the desire to migrate, or at least limitmigration to the seasonal off-periods of agricultulre. TIt would al makereturn migration, which is already fairly substantial among the older age-

group,more attract-ive. (c) It tl4 I1 vid,te4Aa a mnirea enal ln4,ite ,r-regnira1

and intra-regional balance of development. (d) It will, providing ther,ucLeus of shops , markets and Wancillla Service4 is successfull0y set up,

if r __w__A__.1.__.J _ Afi^ _..... ......................... ............. ..~ 4 4-_ 4n..-....a.4... a.. ...4.... 4.......... XL VLLL Lr" fi_Lna n ar Ve-y rLesponsLlvet ay in crease in JVU vccL a CO i

evident from t'he volatility of the recorded unemployment figures es-pecially at the local level, though it appeared nationally follUw.ngthe Aliens Compliance Order at the end of 1969.

increase employment opportunities and raise skill levels. At present theseservices are either not available at all, or provided only in the largetowns so that demand is limited by the distance factor, or by extensionworkers who are diverted from their proper function by their responsibilityfor distributing inputs. The potential demand for such services will growas agriculture is developed and a considerable number of economically usefuljobs could be created if fully-functioning market towns were developed. (e)The increase in the labor force would be diverted away from the large urbanareas where almost all employment is industrially-based, even in the servicesector, and, in Ghana, unable to expand sufficiently to absorb the presentrate of increase of the urban labor force. Because agricultural-based em-ployment, over and above agricultural employment proper, is so undevelopedat present, its scope for growth is much greater. Furthermore, althoughagricultural-based employment in the sense used here would be also largelyin services the contention is that the services would belong to the modernsector to a greater extent than they do in the big cities at present and,by implication, would have higher productivity and greater linkages withthe production sector.

16. On the whole the GOG recognizes the possible advantages of smallor medium size town development 1/ and the Regional Planning Committees haveas one of their tasks the identification of the towns or villages which aremost advantageously located for such development. This is the most crucialand problematic part of the strategy, requiring in-depth information on theeconomic resources of the different regions of the economy and a clear viewof the structure of the economy and its likely development. Experience inother countries has shown that no amount of government expenditure willgenerate self-sustaining growth of an urban area if that area is not a po-tential focal point with respect to the economic life of the area around it.In this respect the provision of physical infrastructure, electricity, watersunnlyv roads, housing, to the towns once identified, presents relativelyfew problems compared to provision of economic infrastructure. Setting upbank offices. proDerly equipped and staffed repair shops, outlets for agri-cultural inputs, and so on, will tax the skill and managerial capacity ofthe couintrv considerablv. Probably some incentives to open branches in thetowns will have to be devised, perhaps along the lines used in developedrncintripq fOr their less develoned regions. but if the towns have been cor-rectly identified, there should not be too much resistance. Special effortsto train the local ponuilation of the town area in buildring; repairing and

other crafts will be required. However, the benefits of such a strategywould be worthwhile and the costs alnmost ce'rtainlv less than a np1ry ofrural development which tried to improve rural life on the basis of exist-ing villages 1 which are too m numerosic and too f mtal l to permi t the plic-y to-n

be economic. If the centers are correctly chosen, the cost would probablybe less also than trying to develop the large towns which would result

-L ILt Ls mentiLonLeu as a specif.c objective in the Ghana Population Polcy

document.

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mainly in increased migration to them, and in view of the limited prospec-tive for industry, more unemployment without any of the advantages of thesmall town scheme. It should be emphasized again, however, that the smalltown scheme will detpend at the start rery heavily on the successful de-velopment of agriculture.

IV. African Migrants in Ghana 1/

17. In 1960, 12.3 percent of the population (827,000) were non-Ghana-ians and 98 percent of these were African, mostly Togolese (one-third),Nigerian (one-quarter), and Voltaics (one-quarter). Nigerian and Togoleseimmigrants tended to be more permanent: settlers than those from the northerncountries and to be relatively well educated. This is in contrast to immi-grants from northern countries where opportunities for earning and educationwere significantly less than in Ghana and migrants came to make money andthen return home. Similarly, the Nigerians and Togolese were producing moreGhanaian born children than the other immigrants thus adding more to popula-tion growth, and over 90 percent of them were in the densely populated south-ern half of Ghana.

18. Nigerian immigrants appear to have been the group most affected bythe enforcement of the Compliance Order 2/ and in this respect the Order canbe said to have had maximum effect in terms of reducing population growth.In terms of ernployment too, it should be effective since a large proportionof Nigerian immigrants were involved in trade which is an activity Ghanaiansare relatively well able to take up an,d, equally important, willing to do so,unlike the laboring jobs done by north,ern immigrants.

19. The departure of the Togolese may be more of a loss since theyformed a very high proportion of craftsmen in the rural areas of Ashanti,Central and Eastern Regions. In the cocoa-growing areas also the expulsionmay have adverse economic effects. Although aliens working in cocoa arepermitted to stay, insecurity generated by the Order and the complexity in-volved in getting a residence permit for those not living near Accra orKumasi, appear to have led many aliens to leave. This has caused some con-cern, particularly in Ashanti and the Eastern Region but no clear indicationof the extent of the loss is available. In 1960 18 percent of all cocoafarmers and 40 percent of all laborers on cocoa farms were aliens. Whetherthe proportion has declined since 1960 is not known though there is some pre-sumption that it has. Cocoa laboring is not popular among Ghanaians because

1/ The information in this section is drawn from various studies by N.O.Addo of the Dernographic Unit, University of Legon.

2/ The immigration authorities record 125,000 as having left, and 15,600Togolese. However, proximity and fewer roots in terms of property anddependents wil:L have made it easier for Voltaics - only 300 of whomare recorded as having left - to leave unnoticed than for Nigerians.

of relatively low wages and seasonal payment; however, in Ashanti the labordepartment is actively trying to recruit Northern Ghanaians, who are lessinfluenced by these consideration.

20. Other occupations in which immigrants were prominent in 1960 aremining, tailoring, milling, Daking and brewing, docking, and butcnering andpersonal service and sanitation. As observed above, immigrants had propor-tionately higher rates of employment than Ghanaians and aiso the proportionof them in the working age group was 10 percent higher than that forGhanaians (64 percent compared to 54 percent), and the crude activity ratefor aliens was 49 percent as compared to 39 percent for indigenous Ghanaians.Finally, the proportion ot aliens living in the urban areas was considerablyabove that for Ghanaians, 44 percent. Thus removing aliens from Ghana wouldhave more effect on the size of the total and urban labor forces than remov-ing the same number of Ghanaians. The measure has undoubtedly created asignificant number of openings in the labor torce but how much this has re-sulted in increased employment for Ghanaians is dubious. Northern Ghanaiansmay benefit most since they appear to be less selective in their jobs prefer-ences (and also for example in the case of butchery have more skill thansoutherners) and are also frequently preferred by employers. If this is thecase, however, the net result for southern Ghanaians and the employmentsituation in the southern cities may be near zero, internal immigrants hav-ing been substituted for foreign immigrants.

V. Estimation of the Labor Force

21. The uncertainty surrounding the size of the population makes itimpossible to say with any degree of accuracy what the size of the laborforce is. On the basis of various possible methods of estimation usingthe census population total and the mission's high estimate, some of whichare detailed below in table (2), a labor force ranging from 3.2 to 3.7million can be derived. The estimates based on the crude activity rate 1/existing in 1960 are liable to overstate since the growth of populationwill have increased the proportion under the age of 15, from 45 percent tobetween 46 and 47 percent; this affects the higher population estimates es-pecially. The activity rate for the working age group (15 years plus) maywell have changed too since 1960, though in which direction is not evidentsince the spread of higher and technical education may have been offset byalleged increasing female participation. For these reasons the higher rangeof the estimates is regarded as implausible. The figure of around 3.4 mil-lion, the most frequent result of the calculations, has been adopted asthe most plausible estimate, in the absence of any better information.This is lower than estimates used by the government by about 100,000.

I/ Pntin nf thosep auailable for work to total population.

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Table 2: Estimates of the 1970 Active Population

(a) (b)

1. Population 9.17 million 8.55 millionActive Population 3.67 " 3.42

Assumes activity rate still 40 percent.

2. Population 9.17 million 8.55 millionPopulation 15 plus 4.95 " 4.62Active Population 3.39 " 3.16

Assumes 54 percent population aged 15 plus and activity rate fo:rthe 15 plus population still 68.5 percent.

3. Population 9.17 million 8.55 millionMales 4.63 " 4.31Females 4.54 " 4.23 "

Active Ponulatinn 'A " 3.461 "

Males and Eemales 50.5 percent and 49.5 percent of the populationrespectively (G4-ais); mnle act-ftit rate 49.3 LO reont, feom-al

31.4 percent (1960 census).

4. Population 9.17 million 8.55 millionIndigenous population 7.9 " 7.9Indigenous 15 plus 4.2 " 4.2A!4- 1.3 " 0 .

Active Population 3.4 3.1flO.AfItO -LA..5OLLAWU0 JJJt.aL FW U .~LA J L LU CLI. RA L.& 0 0 FI. hJJ CLL. LU Ljy

Gaisie (op. cit.) and aliens' activity rate as in 1960, 49.8

(a) Mission high esitimate.(b) U. ro-visional censius resu'lt.

VI. Occupational Structure and Skill Levels of the Labor Force

22. There is an urgent need for information on the occupational andeaucat'ona;t structure of the labor force about wnich little is known beyondthe limited occupational breakdown for the recorded wage labor force in theannual Labor Statistics. This is summarized below in tables (3) and (4).It is probabLe that t:hese figures have fairly adequate coverage of personlelwith advanced, formai quaiifications but progressively iess good coveragefor personneL lower down the qualification hierarchy.

23. Information on the educational background of the labor force islimited to the 1960 census data, from which it appears that the levels were,as might be expected., fairly low even excluding agricultural occupations.Even the category of professional, technical and related workers was 45 per-cent filled by persons who had no more than middle school education and the

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position for administrative, executive and managerial workers was similar.There were also a surprising number of illiterate or, more probably, self-taught people in these categories. There were only 4,335 universitygraduates in the labor force of 2.6 million and probably many of them wereexpatriates. Since 1960 the potential supply of Ghanaian graduates has in-creased considerably as can be seen from table (5). The growth of enrollmentin selected courses relevant to economic development is shown in table (6).In addition, a number of Ghanaians have graduated from overseas institutions,including a cumulative total from 1961-68 of about 1,300 in agriculture, en-gineering, architecture, health professions and management and administration,and an additional 1,000 graduates in these fields should be produced by theend of 1972.

24. The preliminary finding of the UNESCO/IBRD education mission isthat the capacity of the two faculties of agriculture would be sufficient tosupply the country's need for high level manpower for some time to come, ex-cluding the severe shortage of veterinarians. Production of medical person-nel is also making good progress. Enrollment at the School of Administrationhas shown little growth; this is offset to some extent by the emergence of anAdministrative Staff College at Greenhill, now called the College of AdvancedManagement. The latter also runs courses in management as does the Manage-ment Development and Productivity Institute (MDPI). 1/ The value of formalcourses in administration and management is controversial and it is difficultto make any judgment here in the absence of follow-up information on theRraduates. A priori it seems likely that short, in-service courses such asthose conducted by the MDPI may be the more economical.

25. In addition to the general shortage, the main problem at the man-agerial level seems to be reluctance to delegate, with the result that mid-dle level personnel are not properly developed. Financial expertise is alsoin short sunnlv. This shortage is aggravated by a scarcity of trained ae-countants. 2/ At the middle level of foremen and shop floor supervisors thereis alsn a need for more personnel; as evidenced by GIHOC's request for tec-h-

nical assistance at this level. For reasons of cost and labor relations, the

l/ Some confusion of roles has arisen between these two institutions.MnDPI is the older of the two but for various reasons the statute layingdown its responsibilities and functions (which it is already fulfilling)has yet to go through Pare1 n4 t- Some of these functions have noallocated to the College of Advanced Management. The anomaly is furthercom,pounded, Lby the1 fac%%t that IMDTI has staff but r.o ------ buildirgs whileI...JLLJIJLLLUU y L3~ 0. L LLIL. IJ.-L ~ 16 W I . U L &W F&UJ W J J. W%A..LU%.L&L%O W1&.L4.L

the reverse is true of the College.

2/ This is likely to persist because of the shortage of accountant firmsin i,nana wnere yuuug sccouLItanILs CULL UU LlthLL clerkship, without wnicn

they are not internationally qualified. Because of the demand for ac-countants overseas, attracting foreign-trained accountants back to Ghanarequires substantial salary premia.

mission considers importation of personnel an unsuitable remedy. A betterone woulu be an improveillent 'n top mIanagement's liaLison andu guidance of r,.id=dle level personnel and short courses for upgrading existing personnel toforemen level, along the lines currently followed by the iPluPI.

26. The short supply of fully qualified engineers, estimated by theManpower Board to provide no more than three engineers per thousand non-agricultural employees, would be less serious if there were an adequatenumber of supporting technicians (which is estimated to be two to five perengineer). Unfortunately, it is this category of personnel which is relative-ly the most scarce, and also the one for which there is least educational andtraining provision (see below). This is also true of medical technicianswith the result that many doctors have to do work which is miore properlythe task of technicians.

27. At the craftsmen, artisan and secretarial level, and below, skilllevels are again low and call for wide efforts to upgrade the quality oflabor. In the private sector a few firms run effective training programsand the TUC runs courses for its members. In 1968/69 there were 15 publictechnical training institutions with a total enrollment of 6,000 students ofwhom nearly 400 are full time students. This compared with 4,000 studen:sin 11 institutions :Ln 1966/67. 1/ There are also 9 public commercial/secon-dary level institutions with an enrollment of 3,000 students. Although :herehas been no systematic study of the careers of graduates of these institu-tions there is strong feeling that the quality of education they have re--ceived is in most cases poor. If this is so remuneration of the graduateswill be below their expectations and the knowledge of this may deter otherpotential situdents from taking the courses. One particular charge levelledat the teaclhing is that it is too theoretical. This may be due in part tolack of equipment and also to the unsu;itability of parts of the practicalsyllabus of the City and Guilds Certificate, which the technical and voca-tional students get training.2/ The UNESCO education mission is thereforerecommending the introduction of a locally-oriented practical examinationas a prerequisite for sitting the City and Guilds Certificate.

28. Government, employers and trades unions are all agreed on the needfor more and better qualified recipienits of technical education, and it Elp-

pears likely that gcod technical qualifications would be rewarded with sig-nificantly higher earnings. At present the ILO and the government are in-volved in a joint project to coordinate, standardize and improve thevocational training (including secretarial) available in Ghana and also inredrafting the Apprentices Act which has up to now been ineffective. TheUNESCO mission will report on the activities under way in this field and isexpected to make some judgment on the appropriate mix of in-school trainingand in-service training, and to recommend a proiect for the training of

1/ Governnment expenditure on technical and vocational training has beenrunning at less than 2 percent of the recurrent education budget and,less than 10 percent of the development education budget.

2/ For example, installation of fire places.

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technicians. It is worth noting here that employers in Ghana appear to befavorably disposed to a system of taxation designed to support government-sponsored training and to permit rebates for those companies providing ap-proved training within their establishments.

VII. Manpower Policy and the Manpower Board

29. Despite the improvements expected as a result of the projectsin technical and vocational training there is still an overall lack ofpolicy on technician and craft training which needs to be filled. Sincea rational policy for this sector depends on the manpower situation ofthe country, which at the moment is unknown except in general terms, thelogical place for such policy-making and coordinating would be theManpower Board. Legislation is presently being prepared to reconstitutethe Board, 1/ originally set up by the National Liberation Council (NLC),and give it a more effective staff, to be devoted exclusively to mattersrelating to manpower and employment.

30. So far the Board's main achievement has been to produce theNational Population Policy paper, a widely acclaimed document which, asdescribed above, has now been translated into the National Family Plan-ning Program. Since then the staff of the Board's secretariat, onlyfour professional officers, has been increasingly preoccupied with thework of the Social sectors division of the Ministry of Planning, underwhich it has been subsumed. The decision to reconstitute the Board andincrease its authority is hopefully a sign that the government nowappreciates the lacuna in manpower policymaking and coordination whichhas up to now existed.

31. Provided that the Board itself is given a sufficient degreeof authority, the most important thing is to ensure that its secretariatis large enough, competent and devoted exclusively to manpower relatedsubhierts. These should not be defined too narrowly although- of course,one of the staff's primary tasks will be to establish procedures forrp0111r infnrmation vatherfnY and analysis of the labor forcep emnlnv-

ment, unemployment and occupations. This will require considerablestrengthening of the L.bhnr qtntiRttis diviusion Of thp Central Bureauof Statistics whose information is at present deficient in coverage andscope. It is *_nderstood that the diviAsion will shortly be receivinrgtechnical assistance in this respect. In addition, sample survey pro-cedu.res- should lbe developed to provide regula r, , u p - t 0to- a tae i4n.r far r t.non skills and occupations of the labor force and on industry's future

.LI mne membersiap uo the reoLstLt.tULeU DUoaLU L s exeLeute LU to include repre-sentatives of the Public Service Commission, National Council for High-er Education, Ministry- of Education, Ministr-y of Labor, Ghana Employers'Association, TUC, the Universities (one member), the Scholarship Secre-tariat.

- 14 -

32. A major function of the Board's staff will be to bring outthe implications of it-s manpower informati4or. for th1e educatior. system...6LL L 1JJA4L UL.L J. _ I. 6 ULjU~.~ LQ4J&J A 1. L ~Lu LLO 0.LiL.

In particular, this will involve evaluating different types of educa-t!on by analyzing the use anlu performance ofL gra6 duates i. thle 1labor

force and the relative costs of different systems. This applies notonly to prodUucts o'L var'Lous technical traiLniLng schleu-Les bIJut a'Lso tograduates from the different levels of conventional schooling. Tocarry uul L[lhi prUce:uure, foullw-up systmU o Usc hoolUU 'eavers ana

graduates of other training programs need to be set up. The ManpowerBoard would serve not only as the analyzing body but as a link betweenemployers and the Ministry of Education, the National Council for HigherEducation and the National Vocational Training Institute, and provide aforum for policymaking with respect tco the education of the labor force.

33. A third area where information, research and policy is muchneeded is employment development. In order to combat growing structuralunemployment every opportunity to find and publicize possibilities forincreased use of labor, both rural and urban, should be taken. If callsfor more labor-intensive techniques are to be translated from platitudesto realizable instructions, there musl be both a conscious commitment tcdo so and a unit which is designed and staffed for the identification ofareas where scope for higher employment exists. A unit including aneconomist and an engineer familiar wit:h different techniques and equip-ment available should be assigned this task and might also function asa monitor of investment plans (especially of the Agricultural DevelopmentBank (ADB)., National Investment Bank (NIB) and Capital Investment Board(CIB) and as a publicist. In addition to monitoring investment, the unitmight concern itself with programs which would increase employment in gen-eral, such as, for example, simple training schemes to provide both ruraland urban workers with a means of emp'Loying themselves productively. Al-though the establishment of such a unlt would obviously not provide animmediate panacea for unemployment, it would provide policy makers withmaterial to counteract the tendency to dismiss all proposals to reducedependence on capital-intensive technology as unfeasible, and, hopefully,with explicit proposals for increasing the economy's capacity to absorblabor.

34. A fourth area in which little is known so far, 1/ is thestructure of wages and salaries in the economy and its appropriatenessto existing labor maarket conditions. An Incomes Commission was set upin 1968 to formulate an incomes policy, advise the GOG on wage ratesand policy concernilng interest, profits, dividends and rents, and exam-ine any questions on wages, salaries, prices, dividends, etc. referredto it by the governmment. So far the Commission has been a paper tigerbut there are now plans to reorganize it perhaps by making it into aBoard with some definite statutory powers. However, it is difficult tosee how a rational policy can be formulated, or rational decisions made.

1/ Outside the public services covered by the Mills-Odoi Report.

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while the present dearth of information on costs, wages, productivity,etc. persists. Considerable research will be renuired and closecollaboration with the Manpower Board to minimize the likelihoodthat recommendations will conflict with the supply and demand situa-tion for different types of personnel. At present it appears thatrationalization of wage differentials is a more pressing problemthan regulating the overall wage level. However, there is a dangerthat as economir activity continues to recover wages mav begin toget more seriously out of line with the opportunity cost, which, in ahigh *nempnlovment Situation; is reaqtivPlv Inw=. Suircepss in restrain-

ing wages and incomes will be constrained in Ghana as elsewhere by thericc-hilitvu nf rpct-r:ininc' the rnct of liulinc, nprticrl,rlv rent and

food prices. The chances and methods of doing this are assessed inChapters 10 nnd 5 of the Main Report=

VIII. The National Service Corp_

35. Toward the end of 1969 the GOG announced the creation ofa National Service Corps (NSC) with the aim of drawing availablehuman resources, both employed and unemployed, into service for deve-lopingf,, the. cOunlftv on a largelyi volun,rtary, bu.t ill1-defi ned basis.

An annual budget of NV 1 million was allocated, little of which hasyet been used. Registration was enthusastIc and reached 300,000(about half classified as unemployed) by the end of March, when regis-tration was susp-nded, while plan- for the operation of the NS C hadhardly begun. They are still not finished but it appears clear that(l) f4r,.ancia cns-trai4nts snd lack of income earning projects *-, hict.,.volunteers would be capable of carrying out makes treating them asemployees impossible; (2)N that emphasis w,ll be on volunteers in theproblematic age group 15-25 where, as argued above, employment pros-pects are bleak-; 3)J they Wi.ll be use' .n various projects probablylargely of a community development nature, in the neighborhood wherethey are located in order to minimize transport anid subsistence costs.As far as possible, some elements of training will be incorporated intothe projects undertaken by the volunteers, in line with the objective ofmaking volunteers more employable or self-employable. Constraints oforganization, supervisory and technical personnei and money suggestthat the NSC will be most viable if it cooperates closely with existingagencies and perhaps draws on personnel from the Army which has its ownbody of craftsmen and technicians plus people who are used to supervis-ing.

36. Ghana has experience of the pitfalls associated with volun-tary service schemes and it is to be hoped that the NSC will avoid them.If realistic and constructive plans materialize, then a contribution tothe problem of middle school leavers will be made; even so the numbersaffected are likely to be small and widespread benefits will occur onlyif the volunteers can employ experience gained in the NSC to employ them-selves and others usefully after their involvement in the NSC finishes.

IX. EDUCATION

(a) Structure

37. Chana's education systemi is based on the British pattern withthe interpolation of a period of 'middle" school between primary andsecondary schools. Middle school was initiated as a terminal school forprimary school graduates who would not attain secondary school entrance.however, the combin.ed pressure of pupils, parents and teachers has keptit within t:he upward educational stream and middle Forms 2 and 3 are nowthe commonest stage for sitting the Common Entrance Examination whichrules entry into the secondary schools.

38. One result of this has been the generally excessive length oftime taken for an average pupil to pass from Primary Form 1 to 'A' levelat the end of secondary school. Starting at six years old, the averagepupil. spends six years in primary school, two or three in middle schooland five years in secondary to reach 'IO' level, plus two more to reach'A' level. In some cases he or she then has to spend one or two yearsat university doing preliminary work to reach the level required to startreading for a degree which itself takes three or four years. Allowing forsome repeating and the possibility of beginning at age seven instead ofsix, it is obvious that education can be a very lengthy process with manystudents passing the age of 20 years before taking 'O' level, or 25 yearsbefore obtaining a first degree.

39. I]f one or two years could be cut out of the progression substan-tial savings would be realizable. Th:Ls means that the GOG would have morescope for expanding the enrollment in schools without incurring an appre-ciable rise in recuirrent costs. In terms of minimizing the additionalcapital cosits of such an expansion, in the form of new schools or additionsto schools, it woul.d be logistically easier to expand enrollment at thelevel. of education where the shortening is achieved. From this point of'view, if secondary education is the priority for expansion, then it wouldbe desirable to shorten that period of schooling. But regardless of whichlevel is chosen for shortening the atl:empt will fail unless the quality ofeducation at the primary and middle levels is substantially improved.

(b) Primary Schools

40. The growth of enrollment in public primary schools 1/ is shownbelow in table 9. As can be seen, the increase was very rapid, enrollmentrose from 441 thousand in 1960/61 to over one million in 1965/66 sincewhen it has; declined slightly, following the introduction of a moderatefee (for textbooks) and the reduction in the number of over-age entrants.into the system. I'he rapid increase was the result of the decision taken

1/ In l9fi8/69 there were 7,193 publ:Lc nrimarv srhnn1c and 146 nrivnitp

- 17 -

in 1961 to make elementary education compulsory and free of charge. Interms of enrollment the exercise was quite successful, raising the pronor-tion of primary school age children in school to about 75 percent (thoughthe proportion is probably lower now) compared to about 40 percent in 1960.In terms of quality, however, the expansion caused a deterioration becausethe sunplv of aiunlified teachers and teaching materialq could not matchthe growthl of enrollment. The ratio of pupils to qualified teachers innrimarv anti midldle srnhoonl rose from 58 to 1 in 1960!/h tn 88 to 1 in1964/65. The overall pupil-teacher ratio was maintained fairly stable byinrrPeaing use of uini 1 tparhprs anrl othpr uinqiul i fi erl staffff RBy 1968/69

the drop in primary school enrollment had lowered the overall pupil-teacherration ton 2 for rhona as a Tw^h1oe The puil-to-qual4F4ed-teacer rato4- 4-1968/69 was 85 to 1, approximately two-thirds of the 36,318 primary schoolteachers being unqualified.

41. The Ministry of Education is at present making considerable prog-ress towards restoring the 1960/61 trained teacher-pupil ratio and equal-

_zn _41 betwee re'Ln amns w_c coser" "sate exisL ;AA_AJ_Ate12_ -=_i.L.ig L L ucLWct:[ Lt:,ULI dJ1uiI?,:L W LLl LuLI ueL U.L. U.I. Li : ZAL% U.

The effect of this is to neutralize the variations in enrollment and sizeof' class Uetween regions and tile vari ations 1iLn thi'e proportion of] traiLneuteachers. For example, in the Northern and Upper Regions about 70 percentof] thLe tLeachlLers are uLntraiLne[U but the totalU pupil-teacher ratiLo 'Ls orUL.lyabout 18 to 1 whereas in Accra the ratios are 40 percent or less and 41 to1 respectively. The average size of class, pupil-teacher ratio and propor-tion of qualified teachers are shoxwn below in table 7. It is noticeablethat enrLollIrent in INorthLerni anu Upper Ghana is relatively low ana Lnatdrop-out rates, especially between Forms 1 and 2 of primary school, arehigher in the North*. Part of the probienm may be transportation -- a fre-quent problem in low population density areas such as Northern Ghana -- butthe attitudes of Northern parents are a]so responsible. Pernaps because ofthe greater economic value of child labor in the poorer, less fertile Northand because of the relatively greater scarcity of "jobs for the educated'in the area, parents there seem less convinced of the value of educationthan Southern parents. Traditional M4osiem attitudes probably also play apart in limiting education, especially of girls.

42. Replacing untrained with trained teachers will result in anincrease in recurrent costs due to thie higher salaries which trained teachersearn. The UNESCO mission will report on the extent to which this increasewill be offset by concomitant economies in primary teacher-training whichcan now be reduced in scale 1/ and consolidated into more economic units.To the extent that the quality of primary education is improved by theincrease in trained teachers the greater the probability the length ofeducation can eventually be reduced and thus further offsetting savings

1/ In 1968/69 there were 18.6 thousand students enrolled in initial teach-er training courses, i e ., s xly the s. ulILUer as the- 1LU1ILUr

of untrained teachers presently employed. Once these are replaced thed er,and 'or primary schLool teaclers will 'all conslderably.

- 18 -

realized. Such an improvement will require in addition the introductionof better teaching methods including visual aids (which can be made locallyfrom local material as demonstrated by the Visual Aids Unit of the Ministryof Education) and perhaps tape recorders for better English teaching (thoughthis will mean a rises in costs). Some changes in curriculum may also bedesirable, particularly in the direction of making more reference to theGhanaian rural environment.

(c) Middle Schools

43. On the whole, the growth of middle school enrollment has exceededprimnrny s chootl (s-ee Qtb 9. nvrollm,nf- in mi4AAdl schoo Adoc n^ot appear

to have been affected significantly by the introduction of textbook fees,although the rates are higher than in primary schools, N¢3 per - -Ato N¢1.5. Presumably this reflects parental attitudes in favor of contin-uin gtA a al1-41 ,t _oAe he

tp r vo a0 ce r a . * uJ -. x - 1 4,1-A- ___ X wv&'-- '- Y I-'J, - oo C ,WJz C7is _ C- -

The quality of teaching as reflected by the two pupil teacher ratios hasbLeen aintalined signif.cantly higher .. i the C-4 l. schools (e tzble 8)

but in middle schools, as in primary, the overall quality of teaching evenbly trained teachers nee's Imlprovem'ent./.y LL. as *LT__ .1 .. _. L. _ _ _

9.9. -.LUt1LL ::ILILU1 U L Vl LU00Ub Ull) 6UlId± dllU 1111.1 LtU tUULdL±UlA

and as they increase in numbers experience growing difficulties in findingempUployment. tItLaiting periods are no-w tL-IuA- Lo be a; least Lthre years.In finding something productive for this group to do the government facesone of its hlUard'est tasks, esp ecially as; lIL.._LJ± fI - personnel-- - -I- - L LSn

and the low rate of economic growth limit the extent to which trainingfacilities for m'iUdle school leavers c.an be provided. The introduction cfthe National Service Corps (NSC) (discussed above), may prove a partialsolution for a limited numiiber of the group but the basic problem willreTnain. This seems to be an endemic problem in most developing countriesfor wdhich no satisfactory solution nas yet been devised. Modifying thecurriculum in the direction of the acquisition of more practical skillstends to cornflict with conventional academic goals at thIs level of educa-tion, and jettisoning academic goals meets with strong resistance fromparents, pupils and teachers, as has been seen already in Ghana. Nonethe-less, efforts to devise some compromise curriculum with more practicalemphasis should not be spared. In the long run slower population growthand faster amd more balanced economic growth will reduce the problem, but: inthe medium term the prospects are not cheerful.

(d) Secondary Schools

45. The number of secondary schools in the public system grew from59 in 1960/61 to 112 in 1969/70 1/ and total enrollment from 16.6 thousandto 48.6 thousand. Although the rate of growth was equal to the rate of

J- J. ualag ext:Lit by taking over or extend'ng government aid and ap--proval to existing unaided secondary schools. The latter group consistof (1) private schools not run uy chlarities; (2) cormmunity sehools;

(3) mission schools.

- 19 -

growth of middle school enrollment the very low base from whiclh secondaryenrollment started has meant that the proportion of middle school leaversachieving secondary school places has declined taking the period as a whole.The proportions are shown below in table (9). The Ministry of Educationconsiders the expansion of the secondary school system the priority (toge-ther with the consolidation of primary teacher training) and aims to re-establish the pre-1966 proportion of middle school leavers entering secon-dary school (15.8 percent) by 1975.

46. The iustifications for this are part]y socio-political and partlyeconomic. The latter set rely primarily on the need for more middle levelmanagerial. administrative and technical Dersonnel in the labor force.This justification has some validity although there are other possiblesourresq of recruitment for middle level nersnnnel and other wayv of nroduicr-

ing them. However, the existing system of secondary education is likelyto provide only nersonnel who would sti]l need ron5iderah1e training in

elementary theoretical background as well as practical skills. Employersare *ndprst-andahlv rpluctannt- to nrovide suirh romnrphens-ive trairinig and

the difficulties in finding employment for secondary school leavers arethereby made wore. Wit-h a view to reducing the amount o-ef futrth-r tra4nincg

required by job-seeking school leavers, the mission concurs with the UNESCOmiRgionn' rerommendation that all new serondnrv Aehools he of the seconnar/

technical, secondary/commercial, secondary/agricultural type described inChnnter 3 of t-he Tmain rpnort. Tn additionj of rioirse the work of the

curriculum development unit to improve secondary school curricula throughoutthe 7af-ornm alhrnilA heb enargeticrally niprcisd. At- the same time itt should eApossible to raise the student teachier ratio; at present at well below 20:1it10 i7s v,o.?

A47. T.ue growth of: enrollment in various cour-ses atL the three univer-t I * Lt J LL&Ci.'JL.&L L .IL V~ L..JUL I.JA.-LLL L [Lt~C UJJ C1

sities has been outlined above in paragraph 24 and is summarized in tablesS and u . 'LLLLere 'Ls some scope or iLncreasiLng enro'llriient further withint tnile

esixting facilities which should be taken advantage of, l/ but additionalexpansion is not considered justified in view of the heavy burden on thebudget already imposed by the universities and in the light of an incipientsurplus of graduates, especially those outside the hard-core professional

1/ This provides an additional justification for enlarging secondary schoolenrollment but one whicn is weakened by the observation that a part ofthe underutilization could be removed at existing levels of secondaryschool enrollment if the quality of education there were higher, andmore sixth formers could qualify for university entrance. Part of theexcess capacity, however, is due to duplication of a number of facul-ties at the universities which are not fully enrolled and rationaliza-tion may be the best remedy.

- 20 -

and semi-professional fields. Although the existence of graduate unemploy-ment has- probably been exaggerated so far, tho intrndluctinn of examiinationfor selection of entrants to the professional and administrative grades ofth,. c4vil service andA r nteroachings4elfsu c ffi fiencyffi r.4 b, 4. Chanaian sP--n

dary school teachers in arts subjects and biology are indications of acom.ing probler,,.

40*LJ j40MI_ ~p . U LL~£ 1. a ~L UEI~11 JV~A an U-48. life 1G0 h'as expressed conside rable concern over this0 and plan tset up an office to deal specifically with graduate employmllent, and to makea study of what graduates do on leaving university. In Ghana, as elsewhere,it seems likely that the spread of university education will. lead (and isalready leading) to a gradual revision up,wards of educational requiLrer,entsfor different occupational levels (which is not inherently undesirable asit leads to an overall higher level oL education Ln the labor force). Tosoften the blow of this upward revision for the initial generations ofgrauuates soflme system OL vocational1d guiidance in the form of the proposeuemployment office will be helpful. 1/ On the other side, employers outsidethe public sector need to be alerted to Lte potential Of graduates, and,if this is genuinely low, university courses may be modified to meet employ-ers' criticisms to some extent. An additional device found useful in over-coming employers' prejudices against graduiates in other countries is thegraduate trainee scheme in which the graduate spends one or two years onprobation at a lower rate of pay then an approved employee of an equivalentrank.

49. The universities are linked to the government not hnrougn tneMinistry of Education but through the Nat:ional Council for Figher Educat-ion(NCHE). The degree of coordination between the tWo is low and needs to beimproved. In June 1L970, a standing committee has been set up to reviewregularly matters oF common concern to the two parts of the education sys-tem; this committee, which has met three times to date, shouild lead to someimprovement in communications. The NCIIE would also benefit from a syste-matic planning machinery such as there now is in the Ministry for the restof the education system; this would obviate the current tendency of thethree universities to plan their activities in isolation from each otherwith resultant over:laps and failures to take advantage of opportunities toeconomize. In general requests for budgetary funds by the universitiesneed stricter scrutiny than they have so far been subject to.

(f) Educational Finance

50. The UNESCO Mission is expected to report in detail on educationalfinance and the prospects both for improving the balance of educational

l/ Throughout the educational hierarchy there is an almost total absenceof useful vocational guidance, which, to be effective, should beginwhen students are still at an early age. Ghana is by no means uniquein this failing but a concentrated effort to provide children with arealistic and comprehensive view of job alternatives would be sociallyand economically rewarding.

- Z1 -

expenditure and for financing any expansion of priority areas such as secon-dary schools, technica1leducation, the inspectorate and curriculum develop-ment. What follows is therefore restricted to major features of educationalfinance and the problems facing the Miristry of Education. As can be seenfrom tables 10 and 11 below considerable imbalances exist in the pattern ofexpenditure, wiUthW secondary and technical education rete0v a nticeabsmall share of the total. Higher education, basically universities (includ-

4~~~l _ on t-h otA 1-land\ 1 A Ab+sors an unnu1sut1_ OAlly-in schollarsipS) v L-I tIltA a ' a: vt. LI.4.pSl : 1C21Xy .AaA O4L 3. C Lc1

relation to its share of enrollments in educational institutions.

(g) The Development Budget

51. The low share of primary and middle schools is explained partlyUy thi Le reductJion in en[pl[asis on prim,Lary schhoolingih s in Lten yeaLL rL bUL

mainly by the fact that primary and middle schools outside Northern andUpper Gha.a are constructed aind finlanced at the loca,lO auth orUiL ty anId commun-

ity level. Approximately NV2.36 million was spent by local authorities forthis purpose in 96o/i6o9. ilTe dc]ince -in Lue amounts budg,eted for secondaryschools was reversed in 1969/70 and a further increase is scheduled for1970/71, in line with the government's priorities in the education sector.The total budget for pre-university general education, including teachertraining, in 1970/71, is N¢a.25 miullion, 1n percent higher than 1969/70.In recent years actual expenditure has consistently fallen short of esti-mated expenditure. In future improvement in spending performance is expec-ted from the increasing experience of the Ministry's planning unit andbecause of an increase in the efficiency of contracting and tendering pro-cedures due to regionalization.

52. Actual exnenditure for technical and vocational education hasbeen very small compared to budgeted expenditures up until 1969/70, againdue largely to institutional constraints in the construction industry. In1970/71, N¢1.7 million is being budgeted and is expected actually to bespent. The outlays are mainly for buildings; outlays on new equipment (inmany cases badly needed) are being postponed. Although existing equipmentis deficient in quality and quantity, 1/ this delay is perhaps desirableuntil government policy on technical education, coupled with improvedliaison with industry, provides a better basis for choosing the mostappropriate enuipTnent. The major constraints in expanding technicaleducation are not so much finance, since foreign aid is relatively easyto secure for such education, but lack of planning, the unavailability ofqualified teachers and genuine uncertainties as to the most appropriatetype of institutions to set up. However, plans are under considerationto set up a technical training centre in Kumasi similar to the Accra centre,again with Canadian aid, and a smaller industrial and clerical trainingschool in Takoradi, wzith UNDP/ILO assistance.

1/ With a few exceptions, such as the Accra Technical Training Centre.

- 22 -

53. The develonment bud2et for 1970/71 does now show any droD butrather a slight increase in the allocation for the universities, from N¢4.4million to NU'4.5 million. In view of the considerations expressed above onthe disproportionate slhare of the universities in the budget, their excessrnarsitv and the lark of nlanning of the4ir artivities; this increase is tobe regretted and should not be repeated next year. A good illustration ofthe need to *oordinate the three universiti.es plans is a prriert sbihmittedby Legon to expand the chemistry department's facilities: although theTUniversitv of Sri-enre and TechnoloQy (IMST)_ Kumasi has a large scienre

facuilty and so has Cape Coast (being pri marily designed to produce sciencereahrsr.Q) -1n ronn1idernt-ion wsq cgiven to0 thp ilmtifirctinn nf rnntiniiincthis triplication of facilities and the project was criticized only oncronindc of exveccivey1v hich design st-anrdards

5;14. Thie desire,1 ex-ansion nrog'ram for the seconndarv schools to re-

store the pre-1966 proportion of middle school leavers entering secondaryschnnl invAliroc nnenina scnmp 30 neTw ctreanms nper vcyar from lQ96 to 1974i.e., 1.80 streams altogether. About 60 of the total 180 streams could bestarted. in existing csihools tli-roiih tri.ple streaming; the rest will beequivalent to 40 three-streams schools some of which could probably behoused in converted t.eacher trainIng co]leges in p,articular those which

have to have boarding accommodations. The cost of the program is tenta-t1ively esti.,.cted b-y #-he Minsr at -bu N¢20, milin if all -h expan= f 4- - 11

sion took place through new building. The cost would be less if trainingco'l'leges coul,.U bUe converted or 'Li the length of1 thIle secondary cycLe couLUdbe shortened 1/ and existing facilities used more intensively. To offsetagai.nsIt ths LLIJ. pcssLIe gain sorUi-e addit tionalIIL. ,ULIty is required to rehouse26 secondary schools now in rented and sub-standard property. If thegoveCLIHIent can redUuce outl.ays at the uni-versity level and secuire oreignaid the necessary funds could probably be raised. But the major unansweredquestion remains as tL. -wheeLneL Lte gover-nuieii coudu Dear Liie additional

recurrent costs the expansion would entail. If the 23,700 additional placesare created mad the recurrent cost per pupil to the Government remains atits present level estimated at NV255, 2/ the annual recurrent budget wouldincrease by about Nti6 million. It is extremely doubtful whether the GOGcould or should spend. this amount unless it can effect commensurate reduc-tions particularly at. other levels. ProDably a combination of reducedrecurrent costs at the university level,, higher private contributions atthe secondary level atnd nigher pupil teacher ratios will have to beintroduced.

1/ Since the secondiary cycle is only seven years (excluding repeating) - asin developed countries - shortening it would be dependent on utilizingsome of the middle school period for present secondary school syllabu.s.

2/ UNESCO estimate based on all secondary school pupils including boarders.The increase could be limited to N04 million if all the new places werefor day pupils, whose per pupil cost is estimated at NVi75 per annum.

- 23 -

(h)N nh_e "ecurrent Budetvki1J Lik L XLU CiL_JU 5

c. As can be seen from, tabW Le 11. recurrenit costs LhLave bUeen rLiingrapidly in the last few years. In 1967/68 and 1968/69, this was largelydue to revi6sed sa'lary sca'les fLor teach'ers bUut th'e rate of' increase 'lsstill rising, as can be seen from the 1970/71 budget estimates. TheseshL1ow totaLL recurrent expenditure on ediucatioLn1-1 L-1c 0 riii. Atliofl, giviny,a growth rate of 9.6 percent for 1969/70 to 1970/71 compared to 8.6 percentin the previous year. Recurrent costs on [ligher education have been rlsingparticularly fast (and will rise by a third in 1970/71) and absorbing anincreasing proportion o0 LnFe budget. t * IS notLceable Ltat secondary

education, technical and vocational education and curriculum research, thethree priority areas, altogether absorb only about 15 percent of the total.

56. hne UNESCO mission is examining the composition of recurrentcosts at each level; in anticipation of their work it can be expectedthat (a) at the secondary level boarding expenses absorb about 12 percentof government expenditure per secondary pupil; the GOG intends to limitseverely the growth of new boarding places and to attempt where possibleto reduce boarding places in schools in urban areas, (b) at the universitylevel it is clear that a large proportion of expenditure goes on non-teach-ing staff whose numbers could well be reduced without undue hardship forthe students, though the hardship to the staff declared redundant would bemore serious in view of the employment situation.

57. The introduction of student loans in place of grants for univer-sity student was announced in the 1970/71 budget statement, to take effectfrom the academic year 1971/72. This scheme should eventually result inconsiderable savings both directly, and also indirectly becaust studentswould then have an interest in minimizing costs which they could help toachieve - providing they have sufficient say in university affairs. Ifstudents do have to borrow for their education, however, the governmentwill have a heavier obligation, and need, to ensure that graduates are bothemployable and employed, if they are to repay the loans. At pre-universitylevels the possibility of raising fees needs equally serious consideration.In the first place the possibilities of limiting scholarships for secondaryschool boarding needs study; such a step would be useful in reducing thedemand for boarding. In the second place it should be possible to raise thelevel of school fees, presently NVl.5, N03 and N¢6 for primary, middle andsecondary (day pupils) per year respectively, to some extent without provok-ing too serious political consequences. Levying slightly higher fees forschooling is also one of the most promising ways for governments of devel-oping countries to tax the majority of its citizens. For technical andcommercial education some system of taxing or securing voluntary contribu-tions from private companies (with appropriate rebates for those conductingapproved schemes themselves) would be one method of financing part of thecosts of this type of education. In general, it is very clear, as will be

- 24 -

shown in doetall in the. fol lowing uNESCO report- t-ht- no a.venue for rPdiicinapublic recurrent expenditure can he left unexplored if a financial crisisin education is to be avoided. The pre.:ent growth of exnenditure plus theaddition which would come from expanding: secondary education is way out ofline with the growth of government resources and the rest of the econofmt.y.

- 25 -

Table 3: ANALYSIS OF RECORDED EMPLOYEES BY OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS,DECEMBER 1968

All occupations 391,261Professional, technical and related workers 53 329

Architects, town planners 1,803Chemists, physicists, geologists and other 216Veterinarians, biologists, agronomists and

related 1/ 731Phrslcianst - suregons, dentists 183Nurses, midwives 3, 946Ot.her nrofessi ODn1 mediiG1nnldnr medi nl te_hir -n 1;88Teachers 33,229Draftsmen, science and engineering technicianrs

n.e.s. 8,635Other2 9 Q9R

Administrative, executive and managerial workers 11,885AAm4 nlstra.,+4ive,r0, eeuive a,rd elcte o.~a fflc nA.,

(government) 6,173Directors, -- -- -,z.gr ar. -1-4in pr4prie2or2 571'2JJAiL 01U V,U1 C), IILd241L6C;,J. C) CLI.L% VWUJ± fl.±41ti, P9.L Jf.L Lo ALl. 0- ".', I .L.4

Clerical workers 54,799DB1o e 1ee, 4 R 70

L}VVL-LCJG~ ,f i) - -VU LIsUC11 VO , V>o 1 0 CL 'W n I V.

Other 46,729Ses workers (in.cLuLdi1ng WUo-iLnLg pk) UI} Lu± L4,857

Farmers, fishermen, hunters, loggers and relatedworkers 26 924

Miners, quarrymen and related workers 8'workers in transport and communications _

Craftsmen, production process workers andlaborers n.e.s. i66,i0J-Furnacemen, ro.llers, drawers, moulders and

relatedMetal making and treating workers 928Toolmakers: machinists, plumbers, selders, platers

and related 17,327Electricians and related electrical and electronics 7,272Carpenter, joiners, cabinet makers, coopers and

related 11,786Bricklayers, plasterers, painters, decorators and

construction n.e.s. 7,287Other 121,540

Service Sport and Recreation Workers 39,509

1/ There are in fact about 600 doctors in Ghana of whom 300 are on thestaff of the Ministry of Health and about one-third are expatriate.

2/ Exc.luding working proprietors in retail and wholesale trade.

Snurce: nentral Bureazi of Statistics

_ 2 6 -

Table 4: RECORDED NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES, 31ST DECEMBER AU" SECTORS

r 'L964 T 1965 r 196C 967 -

Both Sectors (2)All Indusrtrie s 356,215 376,086 386,860 395,811 361,502 361,351 391,261Agriculture, Forestry and Fishinlg 38,rn j 46,330 5o,698 56,077 J 49,213 43,659 j47,536Mining and Quarrying 28,728 29,861 2 7 ,258 26,738 '25,548 26,299 26,236Manufacturing 30,358 32,364 34,767 32,820 35,820 41,155 44,849Construct,ion 61,200 58,551 64,532 72,932 46,475 47,790 54,783Electricity, Wiater & Sewerage Services 15,912 14,969 11l,412 14,033 I15,030 14,381 16,023Comnmerce 39,244 37,293 46,200 33,957 35,482 35,628 36,913Transport, Storage and Communications 32.,605 32,733 2'7,245 30,436 31,537 29,962 36,374Services 109,377 1.21,935 121,748 129,153 122,367 122,477 128,547Private EInterprise.All InduStries 131,206 128, 37 136,234 118,061 97,979 lO3,433 107, 244Agriculture, Forestry and Fishinag 6,035 6,112 6,502 6,491 4,8c98 4,528 7,188Mining and Quarrying 13)776 15.o56 14.969 14,187 13,643 13,357 13,351Manufacturing 25 ,262 26,677 27,509 24,332 23,844 25',703 30,256Construction 22,634 19,180 20j131 20s276 15,408 14,442 16,515Electricity, Water & Sewerage Services 309 ('1) 3 3 -- -- -_

Commerce 33,955 31,614 39,155 26,404 13,9',6 14,533 15,840Transport, StoragEl & Communications 5,089 5,413 5,960 6,018 5,813 5,316 2,977Services 24,146 24,318 22,005 20,350 20,417 21,554 21,117Public AuthoritiesAll Industries 225,009 245,716 250,626 277,750 263,523 257,918 284,017Agriculture, Forestry and Fiishi;ng 32,756 40,218 44,196 49,586 44,345 39,131 40,348Mining and Quarrying 14 ,952 14,805 12,289 12,551 11,905 12,942 12,385Manufacturing 5,096 5,657 7,258 8 ,153 11,976 11,452 14,593Construction 38,566 39,371 44,401. 52,656 31,06i7 33,348 38,268Electricity, Water & Sanitary Services 15,603 14,969 114,409 14,030 15,030 14,381 16,023Commnerce 5,289 5,679 7,o45 7,553 21,526 21,095 21,073Transport, Storage and Communications 27,516 27,320 21,285 24,418 25,724 24,646 33,397Services 85,231 97,667 99,74 3 108,803 101,9570 10(,923 107,430

(1) Sift of Employees from Private to Public Sector

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics

Table- if. VT'DTTMPUmT1PT r'UANTA IC! JTTjT1MDMqTqV TAMjTrM7]PTrvjq 19o61 /621 Q9/7

'61/62 162/63 '63/64 '64/65 '65/66 166/67 '67/68 '68/69 169/70

University of Ghana incl.Mlhanm Medic'l Rchnol 682 117L 1397 1973 2001 2188 2252 24)5 2 50l

University of Science andTechnology, Kumasi 696 701 789 1091 1406 1298 1394 15.9 1)h58University College ofCape Coast - 155 256 522 86 1020 1232 1041 800

'I^PAT 1I 7R :)(Q( '.)O 11.nhA ).47 icnA J1R7R Crn hi ).7U

Table 6: ENROLLNT IN SELECTED COURSES AT HAN1,A'S UNIV=.SITYINSTITUTIONS 1961-70

61/62 62/63 63 /6 6 /1 66 6 66 6 6 6t 6 /on 60/69 69/7

Administration - 221 165 253 290 290 271 264 244Economics 70 4i 75 98 129 127 77 63 62Agricul 1re 108 82 64 69 94 190 296 365 416

Science- 265 391 427 765 1159 1146 1305 1174 866Medicine - 51 71 82 102 163 206 266 294Architecture, Town

Planning, Building 83 80 122 180 260 288 217 240 245Engineering (degree

and diploma) 273 265 271 319 340 302 342 429 460

Pharmacy 7 43 59 86 89 71 84 90 91

Total 806 1071 1089 1599 2173 2287 2527 2627 2434Total Other 572 959 I9 h 1507 2094 2219 2351 27IT1 2325

1/ Includes preliminary science courses at UST, Kumasi and Preliminary science leadingto BSc. Educ. and BSc Education course at Cape Coast.

Source: Ministry of Education.

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Table 7 : PUBLIC PRIMARY EDUCATION 13Y REGION 1968/69

Average Number of Teachers Ratio of pupilsRelri eo-n Fn -ri ITnpnm t s of' Ouali- Unquali- to teachers

(thousands) class fied fied Qualified Total- - T~~~~~thouisands)

Greater Accra 93.5 35.3 1.3 1.0 71.9 41.4

Volta 124.4 21.2 1.8 2.8 66.6 26.6

Eastern 196.6 25.1 2.6 4.6 76.5 27.5

Central 115.7 27.0 1.3 2.5 88.3 30.5

Western 103.8 22.5 1.0 2.8 1o4.8 27.6

Ashanti 216.8 27.9 2.3 4.9 94.6 30.3

Brong-Ahlafo 88.1 22.8 0.8 2.5 117.9 31.7

Northern 34.1 13.4 0.4 1.5 90.0 17.8

Upper 41.4 15.2 0.6 1.8 74.3 18.1

TOTAL 1,014.4 24.o 12.0 24.3 84.4 28.0

Source: Ministry of Education

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Table 8: PUBLIC MIDDLE SCHOOL EDUCATION BY REGION 1968/69

Region Enrolment Average Sizes Numbers of Teachers Ratio of Pupils(Dlousands) Of-L; Culass .Zuallified Un-7ua'l:lfl''e d 'to- Teach'ers

(thousands) Qualified Total

Greater Accra 35.3 38.5 0.8 0.3 44.1 33.4

Volta 50.7 31.0 1.1 0.6 46.1 30.2

Eastern 72.3 32.9 1.5 0.9 48.2 30.8

Central 43.0 34.2 0.8 0.6 53.b 32.2

Western 36.6 34.7 o.6 0.6 61.0 32.3

Ashanti 85.9 37.5 1.2 1.0 71.6 38.2

Brong Ahafo 33.0 34.6 o.5 0.4 66.0 34.7

Northern 9.7 33.9 0.2 0.1 48.5 30.6

Upper 15.1 32.3 0.2 0.2 75.5 31.0

Total 381.5 34.5 6.8 4.7 56.1 33.0

Source: Ministry of Education

- 30 -Table 9; ENROLiMET IiN PUBI.lC SCHOOLS 196U,/61- 69/7 i

(thousands )

1lce60/61 196:L/62 1'362/63 196 3/64 1964/65 1965/66 1966/67 1967/68 1960/69 1969/7C

Primary 1 106.? 231,,8 264.6 253.7 274.5 272.1 221.6 214.1 200.3 205.32 80." 106.6 196.5 1944.6 2-L9.2 224.7 202.1 176.8 167.5 163.03 72.9 89.14 1(5.8 168.2 19'7.0 203.9 1195e 1825 162,5 85rLt 65.9 79 5 89.5 100.0 1'78.0 182.6 183.5 178.4 167.8 153.05 59.14 70.5 78.7 82,.1 109.6 156.9 166.0 1614.5 162.2 154.76 55.]L 64,,o '71.3 72.8 86.9 97.9 148.2 156.2 156.1 151.7

Total Primary 1441.L1 641.8 806.2 871,.4 1,065.3 1.137.5 1.1'16.8 1.072. 1 -6n Q Iq

Middle 1 43-() 58,.1 61.7 64,.3 '78.8 81.7 8,4.9 120.3 130.0 133.32 38.9 147 .8 56.4 56.L 67. 5 72.0 76.6 80.9 133.6 121.53 35.S6 42.7 146.3 50.7 61.4 62.7 66.9 71.9 76.5' 1014.54 27 .9 35.6 140.6 37.4 149.9 51.1 52.14 56.6 60.5 65'.2

Total Mbi.ddle! 145. 3 184.,3 2(14.9 208.6 2.57.6 267.4 280.9 329.7 381.6 142b. 4

Percent of MiddleSchool l,eaversGaining SecondaryFormi 1 place' 1/ 14.1 13,4 13.9 14.9 1L5.8 13.4 '12.4 12.14 11.0 93

Secondary1 4. 8 5.2 6.1 7.2 8.0 10.2 9.0 8.9 9.5 10.52 3.9 4.2 5.8 6.3 7.6 10.1 9.7 9.2 9.3 9.63 3.0 3.6 4.7 5.5 6.6 7.8 8.7 9.14 9.3 9.24 2.5 2.8 3.5 4.2 5.3 7.2 6.8 7.8 8.7 8.65 2.1 2.2 2.8 3,.2 4.0 5.0 5.9 6.2 7.1 7.76 L,ower &

lJpDer O.l4 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.6 2'.9Total SecondLary 16.6 19.1 2-3.9 27.7 33.1 42.1 142.3 143.9 46.5 148.-5

Student/TeacherRatio 23.6:1 17.5:1 15.9::L 19.L:1 18.8:1 19.7 17.7 17.3 17.2 n.a.

1/ Base!d on average enrolment in mniddle forms 2 and 3

Source: Ministry of Education

- 31 --

Table 10: CENTFLAL GOVERIENT DEVELOPMENIT EXP EN)ITURE BYTYPE OF EDUCATION 1966/67-69/70 (NO '000)

1966/67 1967 /68 1968/6! j 1969/70Act.ual Est-. % / Actual Es-t. __/_ Actual Est. ___ A.ctual Est. __/

Primary & Middle 307 3418 2.8 268 3'3 3.9 163 290 2. 5 210 1.6Secondary 893 24!28 19.6 2170 2360 23.9 1445 1935' 16.13 2599 20.2Teacher Training 301 986 8,0 362 795 8.1 406 999 8.6 1.186 9.2Technical & Vocation,a1/ 555 1767 4L, 3 6:32 961 9,.7 451 1204L 10.5 1206 / 9.4Higher Education. & Research 5242 6h60 52.2 3680 5093 51,6 236o 6321 55.0 fj7573: 52.4L

of which:a) Legon (1017) ( 9:36) ( 541) )b) UST ( 952) ( 55L4) ( 228) )(h388)c) Cape Coast (l309) (1579) (1lOL) )

Art and Culture 9 148 1.2 67 189 1.9 1l1 627 5. 5 597 4.6Other 307 2,27 1.8 67 80 1.0 L47 122 1.1 331 2.6

TOTAL 76iTh 12364 72146 9859 50' 4 11488 12886

l/ Ref'ers to estimated expenditure

2/ Expenditure for technical educationi is financed at present by the Canadian Government. Ot'her itemsin this table do not inclucle foreign a-.''.

3/ Beginning 1969/70 Governmernt budget no longer lists the Ghana Academy of Sciences and the Councilfor Scientific and Industrial Research under education. These items are included here but eXcludedfrom Table 2 of' Annex Vol. IV.

Source: Ministry of' Education

-- 32 .-

TabLe 11: CEhTRAI. GOVERNMENT RECURRENT EXPENDITURE BYTYPE OI EDUCATION 19166/6 7-1968/69 (W 000) ACTUA],S

19662/67 ffi 12<L~3%967/6 % 168/69 % 1969,170 % 1970/71 %

General AdministreLtion 1,442 2.2 1,385 2.0 1,575 2.1 1,4o6 1.7 1,361 1.6Pri Tiar;y 17,607 27.0 18,568 27.1 19,861 26.5 21,013 26.1 21,104 24.0Middle 6, 328 9.7 6,695 9.8 7,165 9.6 9,817 12.2 10 737 12.2Secondary 4,136 6.3 4,699 6.9 6,782 7.7 6,122 7.6 7.290 8.3Teacher Training 7.687 11.8 8o801 12.9 8,640 11.5 9, 138 11.3 8:,920 10.1Teclnical and. Vocational 1,110 1.7 1,131 1.7 1,455 1.9 1,6(72 2.1 2.,000 2.-Higher Education 10,525 16.2 L1,924 17.5 13,5516 18.2 13,1380 16.6 17,165 19,5Scholarships 7,760 11.9 7,709 11.3 8,389 11.2 9O051 11.2 9,100 1004

of which:a) higher education 4,505 (6.9) 4,073 (6.0) 4,439 (509) 4,148 (5.1) 3.900 (9.L)b) secondary educat:ion 3,155 (4.8) 3,473 (5.1) 3,845 (5.1) 4,721 (5.9) 5,061 (5.-8)

Ghana Academy of 'Services :2,897 4.4 3,208 4.7 3,605 4.8 3.463 4.- 4,004 4.6Textbooks 2,902 4.4 1,691 2.5 1,675 2.2 1,745 2.2 1,973 2.2CurriculRum Sesearch -- 46 40 40 41Other 2/ s2,861 4.4 2,517 3.7 3,235 4.3 3,314 4.7 4,228 4.8

TOTAL 65,256 loc.o 68,375 100.0 74,979 100.0 80,661 100.0 87,903 100.0

Includes some minor capital expenditures

Includes culture, archives, bureau of Ghana languages and other education expenses n.e.s.

SOURCE: Ministry of Education