Ancient World Wonders

The creation of the first lists of Wonders of the world is attributed to Herodotus (famous Greek

historian, 484 BC – 425 BC) and Calimachus of Cyrene (chief of the Library of Alexandria 305 – 240 BC). However, it is also beleived that the traditional list was also made by Philo of Byzantium and written on his work "On the Seven Wonders" in 225 BC. Finally, around 140 BC, Antipater of Sidon compiled a later version of the list describing the structures in a poem. The monuments mentioned in these lists were inspired by the mythology, religion and art of the ancient great civilizations of the world.

The Ancient Seven Wonders of the World reflected the ability of the men to change the nature in order to build wonderful and beautiful structures which amaze and inspire the people. It believes that these constructions of classical antiquity were constructed since 2700 B.C. but, unfortunately, only one of the wonders mentioned by Herodotus has survived until today: The Pyramids of Giza. However, the Ancient Seven Wonders list included:

1.GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA, EGYPT

It is also known as the Great Pyramid of Khufu or the Great Pyramid of the pharaoh Cheops as was called by Greeks; who listed this pyramid as the first wonder of the world. It is the only one of the seven ancient wonders still remaining to our days and one of the most famous tourist attractions in the modern world. The Pyramid is located in the Giza Necropolis very near Cairo, the capital of Egypt. The total mass of the great pyramid is estimated around 5.9 million tons and its volume is approximately 2.6 million cubic meters. The great pyramid was surfaced by white casing stones and blocks of highly polished white limestone; therefore the original monument shine brightly with the sun as a jewel. It is a great testimony of perfection in design and construction that reached ancient Egyptian. Many people consider still Giza as a spiritual and energetic place; therefore several privates groups visit Giza all the time attracted by the mystical aspect of the Great Pyramid…

History

Historians believe that the great pyramid was constructed in the fourth Egyptian dynasty by order of Pharaoh Cheops (2560 BC approximately) and its construction lasted around 20 years. It was the tallest monument of the world during 3800 years with 146 meters height. The great pyramid was constructed using an impressive number of workers. Herodotus, the Greek historian who made the first list of wonders, estimated that around 100 00 workers were used to built this colossal monument. Nevertheless, modern calculations estimate that at least 300 000 men would have been required for this monumental work. Previously, it was believed that workers were slaves, but now there are modern theories that say they were skilled workers who camped near Giza for a salary; proof of this fact are workers' cemeteries found by archeologists in the vicinity of Giza . It is believed also that around 2 millions blocks (each block weights between 2 and 15 tons) of limestone, basalt and granite were used in the pyramid

The Great Pyramid of Giza

It is the only Egyptian pyramid that has both descending and ascending passages. The most popular theory about the goal of the pyramids says, they were used as tombs for pharaohs. But, we know that airshafts were built into the King's and Queen's chambers; nevertheless we don’t know the purpose of airshafts; since pharaoh’s mummies don’t need air. Besides, no mummy or remains of any kind have been found inside the great pyramid. These are some of the reasons why many Egyptologists and other academicians believe that pyramids were also ceremonial and

religious centers, but the construction, date and possible symbolism of these amazing monuments are not still completely understood. There are several theories about the construction of the pyramids. The most accepted of them say that the pyramid was built moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.

Another important detail about the pyramids is their orientation, they are oriented 4’ west of north; some experts believe that this peculiar orientation is due to the position of the stars b-Ursae Minoris and z-Ursae Majoris about 3,000 years ago, thanks to this feature; some scientists date the start of the pyramid’s construction around 2467 BC.

There are three main chambers inside the pyramid, which are arranged centrally, through the vertical axis of the pyramid; being the largest the lowest chamber also known as “unfinished chamber”, which was cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was constructed. The middle chamber is known as the “Queen’s Chamber” and it is the smallest of the three with around 25 square meters of area and 4.5 meters in height. A peculiar detail about this chamber is that was explored using a robot created by the German engineer “Rudolf Gantenbrink”. The Egyptologist “Mark Lehner” believes that this chamber was designed as a

“serdab” a structure used in other pyramids in Egypt.

The third chamber is the main, the King’s Chamber. It is located at end of the lengthy series of entrance ways into the pyramid structure. Its original measurements were 10x20x11.2 cubits (5.25x10.5x6 meters). These dimensions are consistent with the geometric methods that used the ancient Egyptians to determine the Golden Ratio phi. Inside the great pyramid, there had a great number of sarcophagus and a large gallery, which is 49x3x11 meters. This chamber contains also 2 “air shafts”, which ascend out of the pyramid, directly to the “Thuban” star and the “Alnitak” star in the “Orion” constellation. It

believes that, these airshafts were used with ceremonial purposes; since they allowed to the pharaoh’s spirit to reach the stars.

The King’s sarcophagus is located in the King’s chamber and it was hollowed out of a single piece of red Aswan granite. A peculiar detail about this sarcophagus is that it is too short to accommodate a medium height person without the bending of the knees, but this burial technique was not used in the ancient Egypt. Therefore, several scientists believe that the sarcophagus was not designed to host a human body.

2.HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON, IRAQ

These famous gardens were one of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World which was described by the Greek historian Herodotus. The oldest descriptions about the gardens were written by Greek sources like Strabo or Philo of Byzantium. These historians described the gardens as one of the most impressive sites of the World.

Some stories tell that the hanging gardens towered above hundreds of feet into the air but archaeological investigations indicate a more modest height, but still impressive to the time. The hanging Gardens did not really “hang “in the exact sense of being suspended from cables or ropes. The origin of the name is an inexact translation of the Greek word “kremastos” which mean “hanging”, but it means also “overhanging” such as a terrace or balcony.

The Greek Historian Strabo (first century BC) described the gardens with these words: “Babylon,

too, lies in a plain; and the circuit of its wall is three hundred and eighty-five stadia (an ancient unit of distance). The thickness of its wall is thirty-two feet; the height thereof between the towers is fifty cubits (an ancient unit of measure); that of the towers is sixty cubits; and the passage on top of the wall is such that four-horse chariots can easily pass one another; and it is on this account that this and the hanging garden are called one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The garden is quadrangular in shape, and each side is four plethra (an ancient unit of measure) in length. It consists of arched vaults, which are situated, one after another, on checkered, cube-like foundations. The checkered foundations, which are hollowed out, are covered so deep with earth that they admit of the largest of trees, having been constructed of baked brick and asphalt — the foundations themselves and the vaults and the arches. The ascent to the uppermost terrace-roofs is made by a stairway; and alongside these stairs there were screws, through which the water was continually conducted up into the garden from the Euphrates by those appointed for this purpose. For the river, a stadium in width, flows through the middle of the city; and the garden is on the bank of the river”.

Another Greek historian named Diodorus Siculus tells that the gardens were around 400 feet wide by 400 feet long and almost 80 feet high. Garden´s height is very controversial, since Herodotus said it was 320 feet high, but this point seems too exaggerated

Other source described the hanging gardens as follows: "The Hanging Garden has plants cultivated above ground level, and the roots of the trees are embedded in an upper terrace rather than in the earth. The whole mass is supported on stone columns... Streams of water emerging from elevated sources flow down sloping channels... These waters irrigate the whole garden saturating the roots of plants and keeping the whole area moist. Hence the grass is permanently green and

the leaves of trees grow firmly attached to supple branches... This is a work of art of royal luxury and its most striking feature is that the labor of cultivation is suspended above the heads of the spectators".

History

According to Greek historians, the hanging gardens were built by order of the king Nebuchadnezzar II around 600 BC. The legend says that Nebuchadnezzar constructed the gardens to please his wife Amytis the daughter of the king of the Medes. Amytis was married with Nebuchadnezzar to create an alliance between nations.

The homeland of Amytis was green, rugged and mountainous; therefore when the new queen arrived to Babylon, she was depressed because this city is over a flat sun-baked terrain. The intention of Nebuchadnezzar was to recreate the homeland of his wife building an artificial mountain with rooftops gardens.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Nevertheless, many modern historians doubt about the existence of these gardens. One of the reasons to doubt is that there are not Sumerians tablets of the Nebuchadnezzar’s time which reference to the famous gardens. Altough there are several descriptions of the palace and the city in the government of this king. This fact is very bizarre, since if Greeks wrote so much about this wonder; it would be logical that hanging gardens’ creators write much more about them. Besides, there are not vestiges of the gardens in the archaeological excavations realized in the location where scientists believe, ancient Babylon was.

According to modern historians a possible explanation would be that the soldiers of Alexander

the Great were very impressed when they saw the fertile and amazing land of Babylon; therefore when soldiers returned to Greece; they recounted stories about incredible gardens with palms and trees and higher ziggurats; which inspired the imagination of the Greek poets, who created the legend of one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world.

Besides, archaeological excavations in Iraq have found vestiges of a building with vaults, but this location is quite far from the supposed location, where Greek historians placed the gardens on the banks of the Euphrates River.

Another theory proposes that the hanging gardens would be constructed by Sennacherib who was king of Assyria from 705 to 681 BC and they would be located in Nineveh on the bank of the Tigris River. Recent excavations which have found vestiges of ancient gardens placed near the entrance to a palace support this idea. According to this theory because of the centuries, the real location of the gardens would have been confused.

3.STATUE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA, GREECE

It is one of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World that was listed by Herodotus in his famous list. The statue was 12 meters (39 feet) tall. Herodotus said that statue occupied a whole room at western of the temple o Zeus in Olympia (about 150 Km west of Athens), the city where Greeks celebrated the original Olympics games. The statue was made by the Greek sculptor Phidias (who made also the statue of Athena in the Parthenon) in honor to the king of the Greek gods and it was the most famous master piece of art of all Greece.

The statue was an ideal representation of the best classical style. It was made of ivory with gold plating. There are not copies of the statue; therefore we don’t know its exactly shape. But, the traveler Pausanias made around II century AD a detailed description of the statue and the throne

on it rested. Besides, there are many Roman coins and engraved gems that represents to the Zeus at Olympia.

According to the description of Pausanías, the statue was wreathed with shoots of olive and it rested on a wonderful throne of cedar wood, which was ornamented with ebony, gold, precious stones and ivory. In his right hand a figure of Victory made from ivory and gold. In his left hand, his scepter adorned with precious metals and an eagle perched on the scepter. The sandals and the robe of Zeus were made of gold.

History

The temple that hosted the statue was constructed from 466 to 456 BC approximately and was designed by the Greek architect Libon who was native from Elis a town near Olympia. This temple was built with a classic Doric style very similar to the Parthenon in Athens.

Obviously the main piece in the temple was the statue, which was constructed around 432 by Phidias. Greeks thought, the statue was the incarnate god. This statue was very impressive and it was the most important chryselephantine sculpture (a cult statue of high status in the ancient Greece).The legend says that Phidias was asked about what inspired him: If he went to Olympus to see Zeus or if Zeus was under from the

Olympus to pose for Phidias. Phidias answered then that he was inspired by one of the verses of the Iliad of Homer: “He spoke, the son of Kronos, and nodded his head with the dark brows, and the immortality anointed hair of the great god swept from his divine head, and all Olympus was shaken”.

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia

Because of the climate in Olympia, which was so damp, the statue required care so that the humidity would not crack the ivory. Therefore

Phidias had the responsibility of the maintenance of the statue which was treated with oil constantly.

In the first century Caligula ordered to transport the statue to Rome, but this attempt failed because the scaffolding constructed to do this work collapsed.

The statue of Zeus presided the Olympics games until 393 AD, when the Roman emperor Theodosisus I decided to abolish the games and close the temple, because Rome became Christian and both temple and games were considered pagan manifestations.

The reasons and circumstances of the destruction of the statue are not clear. A tradition compiled by the Byzantine historian Georgios Kedrenos says that the statue was carried to Constantinople and was destroyed in the great fire in 475. Another version says that it was burned with the temple in 425 AD.

Recently between 1954 and 1958, archeologists have found in excavations in Olympia several tools and terracotta mold with the inscription “I belong to Phidias” very near location where Pausanius said the Phidias’ workshop was. These objects have allowed to scientists to confirm the date of statue’s creation.

Now, there are several statues that maintain the spirit of the Zeus at Olympia, one of the most famous of them is the statue in honor to Abraham Lincoln in the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. In this statue Lincoln is depicted seated on a huge throne as well as Zeus in the legendary statue of Olympia

The statue of the Zeus at Olympia and its history has been from 2500 years ago, a great source of inspiration for artists of all times and it is still now one of the most famous works of art of the history.

4.THE COLOSSUS OF RHODES, GREECE

This wonder of the ancient World was located in the Greek Island of Rhodes. It was a giant statue of

bronze,  constructed in the III century BC as the representation of the god Helios.

According to the legend, the Island of Rhodes was famous for its technology advances , mainly war machines. One of the examples of this technology was the Colossus of Rhodes. Is believed that this statue was approximately as large as the Statue of Liberty in New York, whose creator the French sculptor Auguste Bartholdi was inspired by the ancient wonder of the world.

The statue would have been located at the entrance of the harbor of the island of Rhodes. The statue’s base was made of white marble; the pedestal was 50 feet height (approximately 15 meters). The feet of the statue were carved in stone and later they were covered with bronze plates riveted. The bronze skin parts were made by workers using casts, later individual plates of bronze were joined together by through holes made during the molding to form a series of rings. The structure was gradually erected and the bronze form was fortified with an iron and stone framework. The higher parts were constructed using an earth ramp which was built around the statue; this ramp was removed when the colossus was finished. Nevertheless, another theory proposes that the upper parts were built using towers and scaffolding. Is said that The Colossus of

Rhode was 110 feet (33 m) height when was completed.

There is a misconception about the appearance of the Colossus. It has been believed that the statue stood in front of the Mandraki harbor straddling its entrance. But, considering the colossus’s height and the wide of the harbor mouth, this image is almost impossible; this posture was a figment of medieval imaginations based on texts, like “over land and sea”. The Colossus would probably have been in an upright position with its legs together.

History

After Alexander’s death, his generals fought for the control of the empire. Rhodes became allied of Ptolemy who had taken control of Egypt. Thanks to this alliance Ptolemy controlled much of the trade in the eastern Mediterranean. But Antigonus (one of the generals of Alexander) was upset by this fact; therefore in 305 BC Antigonus and Demetrius (another Alexander’s general) invaded Rhodes with 40 000 men and besieged the city using giant catapults and Helipolis (an enormous wheeled fortified tower, which was 50 feet square at its base and around 100 feet tall and was armed with catapults and sling throwers). Nevertheless, defenders of Rhodes resisted the attacks only with 7000 men, until 304 BC when a force of ships sent by Ptolemy arrived and defeated Demetrius’s army saving Rhodes. The Rhodians were so grateful; therefore they decided to build a giant statue of the sun god Helios (Apolo) to celebrate the victory.

The Colossus of Rhodes

The statue was designed and constructed by the Rhodian sculptor Chares of Lindos, who has been involved with large scale statues before. The construction of the statue lasted 12 years around 282 BC. It was said that 13.6 tons of bronze and 8.2 tons of iron were used in the construction; therefore it was a shortage of bronze in the ancient world during colossus’s construction. Nevertheless the statue stood in Rhodes only by 56 years, since an earthquake in 226 BC destroyed the colossus which was snapped at the knees and fell over onto land. According to the legend Ptolemy III offered to rebuild the statue but a Rhodian oracle was afraid that it upset Helios, therefore the statue was never reconstructed.

Remains of the colossus were on its site around 800 years and they impressed to the travelers that saw them. In 654 AD, Arab forces invaded Rhodes and they sold the remains of the statue to a salesman from Edessa, who transported the bronze scrap to his home using 900 camels.

In 1989 media reports suggested that some big stones on the seabed of the Rhodes’s coast could have been remains of the famous statue, but some time later this theory was absolutely discarded.

5.THE LIGHTHOUSE OF ALEXANDRIA, EGYPT

This wonder of the ancient World was located in the island of Pharos just off the coast of the city of Alexandria in Egypt. The great Lighthouse served to guide the sailors that traveled to the city founded by Alexander the Great.

The Lighthouse of Alexandria worked by 15 centuries and it was the last of the six lost wonders of the ancient world that disappeared. It was one of the greatest architectural feats of the antiquity.

Besides, the Lighthouse was the only wonder that was constructed with practical purposes; since it helped seafaring ships to find the harbor safely. The lighthouse served also as a military lookout for approaching enemy ships and a tourist balcony, because it had two observation platforms.

The Lighthouse had two beacons near its summit. At night a great bonfire generated the light and during the day a great mirror made with a concave disc of polished metal, reflected and directing the sun rays. The colossal building was constructed with large blocks of light colored stone and it was composed by 3 basic structural elements: a rectangular base, an octagonal midsection and a cylindrical upper section where the beacons were. Access to the entrance was up a long vaulted ramp, from which a spiral staircase led up to many chambers which were used probably by beasts of burden to carry fuel for the fire of the beacons.

According to ancient stories the lighthouse could be seen from up 35 miles (56 Km) away and according other legends, the light of the beacons could burn enemy ships, but this legend is very difficult to believe.

It believes that the Lighthouse was between 330 and 600 feet (100 – 180 m) height and it was the highest building of the world except the Great Pyramid of Giza. Some texts mentioned a statue which was placed at top of the lighthouse and a poet named Poseidipos of Pella who lived in Alexandria in the III century BC, wrote talking about a statue depicted Zeus the Savior which was accompanied by Poseidon the Lord of the Sea

History

The construction of the Lighthouse probably started in the III century BC by order of the governor Ptolemy I Soter who was one of the generals of Alexander the Great and the first ruler of Greek origin. The construction of the impressive building was finished by the son of the Hellenic general Ptolemy Philadelphos around 285 BC.

Replica of the Lighthouse of Alexandria

The designer and constructor of the Lighthouse was the architect Sostratus who was forbidden by Ptolemy to put his name on his work as it was traditional. Nevertheless, the architect wrote an inscription on the base’s walls:”Sostratos of Dexiphanes the Cnidian to Saviour Gods for the seafarers”. The inscription was hidden under plaster layer, covered by another inscription in honor to Ptolemy; but after some centuries the plaster off and the name of the architect was revealed.

During its three first centuries the Lighthouse was used mainly with practical purposes. By the first century AD in the Roman time the Lighthouse served mainly as a landmark or day beacon.

In 796 the Lighthouse would have lost its upper storey and 100 years later the sultan Toulun (868-884) built a domed mosque on the summit. By 950 several cracks began to appear in the walls of the tower.

The Lighthouse dominated the Harbor during many centuries, in 1183 the Muslim traveler Ibn Jubayr visited Alexandria and described the Lighthouse thus: “Description of it falls short, the eyes fail to comprehend it, and words are inadequate, so vast is the spectacle”.

Unfortunately two earthquakes in 1303 and 1323 damaged seriously the tower; according to the Arab traveler Ibn Battuta, in this time, it could not enter into the ruins of the Lighthouse. In 1480 the remains of the Lighthouse finally disappeared, since the Sultan of Egypt Qaitbay, used several stones of the Pharos to build a fort, therefore several stone blocks of the Lighthouse can be seen in the walls of the Fort Qaitbey, these stone blocks are clearly visible because of their big size compare to the other blocks of the walls.

Recently in 1994 a scuba-diving expedition leaded by the archeologist Jean Yves Empereur found many blocks belonged to a great building submerged in the seafloor of the harbor of Alexandria. Probably these blocks were part of the legendary Lighthouse. Nevertheless, many

academicians think that these blocks belonged to other buildings because the original blocks of the Lighthouse would have been recycled to build other constructions as usually Egyptians did.

6.THE MOUSOLEUM OF MAUSSOLLOS, TURKEY

The famous tomb of the king Maussollos of Halicarnassus known as the Mausoleum of Maussollo , which served as tomb for the satrap (a local governor) of the Persian empire and his wife (who was also his sister) was considered by the ancient Greeks one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

The tomb was a rectangular building of around 120 feet (40 m) for 100 feet (30 m). The tomb was erected on a hill overlooking the city. The building was in an enclosed patio in whose center was a stone platform on which the Mausoleum sat. There, had a beautiful staircase flanked by stone lions which led to the top of the platform. Many statues of gods and goddess ornamented the outer walls. Each corner of the tomb was guarded by statues of warriors mounted on horseback.

At the center of the platform was the tomb itself, which was made of marble. The Mausoleum was around 140 feet height. The tomb was covered by sculptures in reliefs that showed scenes of the Greek history and mythology, such as the battle of the Centaurs with the Lapiths or scenes of battles of the mythical Amazons.

Thirty-six slim columns (9 for side) adorned the four sides of the tomb, between each 2 columns, there had a statue; behind columns was a solid block which supported the weight of the great roof. The roof was the shape of a staggered pyramid. Perched at top of the tomb four horses pulling a chariot in which images of Mausolus and his queen rode.

History

The famous tomb of the governor of Halicarnassus was finished around 350 BC. Mausollos of Caria was the governor of the region of Caria from 377 to 353 BC and he moved the capital of the kingdom of Caria to Halicarnassus. Really, the construction of the tomb of the ancient king was not idea of him. The great project was created and ordered by the wife and sister of Mausollos, Artemisia.

The construction of the tomb began when Mausollos was still alive. Artemisia sent messengers to Greece to find the most talented artists of the time amongst them Scopas (who had

supervised the reconstruction of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus), Bryaxis, Timotheus and Leochardes. Each one was responsible for one side of the tomb.

Reconstruction of the Mausoleum in theBritish Museum

After Mausollos’s death, Rhodes an island which was conquered by Mausollos rebelled against Haicarnassus. But Artemisia defeated to the Rhodians. The queen lived some years more after death of his husband. But when she died his body was buried together Mausollos in the tomb that she

ordered to build, despite the splendid tomb was not yet finished. According to the Greek historian Pliny, after Artemisia’s death, the craftsmen decided to stay and conclude the tomb because they considered that it was at once a memorial of his own fame and of the sculptor's art.

The mausoleum was untouched by many years. It survived the invasion of Alexander the Great in 334 BC and pirate’s attacks in 62 BC. For 16 centuries the tomb remained in good condition. But an earthquake damaged the roof and several columns. At the beginning of the XV century during crusades the Knights of St. John from Malta invaded the region and they used the stones of the Mausoleum to build the great castle of Bodrum where many of the statues that ornamented the tomb were carried. In 1522 almost all blocks of the ancient wonder had been disassembled and used to construct other buildings. Today some sections of polished marble from the Mausoleum can still be seen in the Bodrum castle.

In the XIX century many statues were carried from the castle to the British Museum. In 1852 Charles Thomas Newton a British archeologist searched the location of the mausoleum. He found a staircase and three corners of the foundation as well as sections of the reliefs and the roof. Finally he found the statues of Mausolus and Artemisia. Today most works of art found in these excavations can be

seen in the Mausoleum Room in the British Museum.

Some modern buildings were inspired by the Mausoleum like the Grant´s Tomb in New York, Los Angeles City Hall, the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, the House of the Temple in Washington DC, the Indiana War Memorial or the St. George’s Church Bloombury in London.

7.THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS, TURKEY

This wonder of the ancient world is also known as the Temple of Diana. The temple was located in Ephesus an ancient Greek city around 50 Km from the actual city of Izmir in the territory that today occupies Turkey.

The temple was dedicated to Artemis the Greek goddess, the virginal huntress and twin of Apollo, who occupied the place of Titan Selene as Goddess of the Moon.

This deity was passionately venerated as an archaic pre-Hellenic icon. The original statue that represented to Artemis was carved in wood. The statue had many breasts which denoted her fertility, rather than the virginity that Hellenic Artemis assumed.

The Greek Artemis was a little different from the Artemis that was adored in Ephesus. The Ephesus’s goddess was a deity of the fertility; whereas the Greek Artemis was traditionally the goddess of the hunt. Therefore, it believes that the cult to the Artemis of Ephesus began several centuries before the Hellenic period. Probably the worship to Artemis derived from the ancient worship that Ephesians gave to Cybele.

The temple was built, destroyed and reconstructed many times since Bronze Age. But the temple that was listed as one of the Seven Wonders of the

World was a project of 120 years which was started by Croesus of Lydia.

Antipater of Sidon described the temple using the following words: “I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the colossus of the Sun, and the huge labor of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, Lo, apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught (anything) so grand”.

Pliny was who described the temple with more detail. According to his description the temple was 377 feet (115 m) long and 180 feet (55m) wide, with an area three times as large the Parthenon in Athens. It was made mainly of marble and was enclosed in colonnades of 127 Ionics columns, each column was 60 feet (18 m) height. The temple was always surrounded by priests and priestesses, musicians, dancers and acrobats.

History

The sacred shrine of Artemis was very old and it was an important religious centre many centuries before the temple that was considered one of the wonders was built. There are ancient Greek stories which attributed the origin of the worship to

Artemis in Ephesus to the legendary Amazons. Archeological excavations realized before World War I discovered three successive temples overlying one another on the site.

However, the construction of temple which was listed as one of the wonders was started around 550 BC, by the Cretan architect Chersiphron and his son by order of the King of Lydia Croesus. A new statue of the goddess was sculpted by Endoios as well as a naiskos (a small temple with columns or pillars and a triangular structure named pediment above the horizontal structure) to house the goddess.

Remains of the Temple of Artemisin Ephesus

The temple had more than 1000 items of cult like sculptures of famous artists such as Polyclitus, Pheidias, Phradmon and Cresilas. Most sculptures represented Amazons who according the legend founded Ephesus. Today, some fragments of the bas-reliefs that ornamented the amazing columns of the temple are preserved in the British Museum. Because of its location at an important economically zone, the temple was since ancient times a tourist attraction, visited by pilgrims, merchants, kings, who offered to the goddess jewelry and other goods.

According to the story, the temple was destroyed on July 21 356 BC by Herostratus who realized this barbarian act finding fame at any cost. According the legend the same night that the temple was burned, Alexander the Great was born. Plutarch said that Artemis was too preoccupied with Alexander’s delivery to save her temple. Therefore, Alexander offered to rebuild the temple, but Ephesians refused. Nevertheless, after Alexander’s death the temple was restored in 323 BC.

The temple was destroyed again by Goths in 262 but Ephesians rebuild the temple again. According the biblical book Acts of John (II century), the apostle prayed publicly in the Temple of Artemis

exorcizing its demons and “of a sudden the altar of Artemis split in many pieces… and half the temple fell down” instantly many Ephesians became Christians. By IV century, most Ephesians were Christians and in 391 all pagan temples were closed by order of Roman Emperor Theodosius. Finally the temple was destroyed in 401 by a group of people leaded by St. John Chrysostom. Most stones of the temple were used to build other buildings like the famous Hagia Sophia.

The temple’s site was rediscovered in 1869 thanks to an archaeological expedition sponsored by the British Museum. At the beginning of the XX century, some fragments of sculpture from the IV century were found, which have been used to rebuild an image of the temple in the “Ephesus Room” of the British Museum. In the ancient location of the temple now only there is a single column constructed with several fragments found on the site.

These were the ancient wonders of the world. But today they are either distroyed or there are only their remains left because of the earthquakes, and other climatical conditions. Hence a new wonders organization was found.

The New 7 Wonders Foundation is a private organization established in 2001, which is dedicated to investing in good causes related with the monument preservation and reconstruction around the world.

This organization prepared a global contest on Internet whose goal was to find the New Seven Wonders of the World. This election was made through a global vote on its website. Finally, on July 07, 2007 the election’s results were announced and these are the proclaimed New Seven Wonders of the World:

1.MACHU PICHU

Machu Picchu is located on a remote secondary road in nearly impassable terrain high above the Urubamba River, Machu Picchu sits nearly 2438 meters (8000 feet) above sea level, on top of a ridge between two peaks of different size. The name "Machu Picchu" comes simply from its geography. It literally means "old peak", just as "Huaynapicchu" is "young peak". The more accurate translation relates, however, to the concept of size, with Machu Picchu as the "bigger peak" and Huaynapicchu, the "smaller peak".

Machu Picchu, the most famous citadel of the Incas, is accessible by train from Cusco or traveling along the Camino Inca. The city was never discovered by the conquerors Spanish and remained lost for centuries. Machu Picchu is an architectural jewel, which combine perfectly the architectural style with the beautiful natural environment that surrounded it. The Beauty and the Mystery of its walled ruins that once was the palace the thinnest Inca of stone surrounded by the virginal landscapes, the flora and green jungle bathes its abrupt topography.

The citadel is divided into two sectors: the agricultural and the urban, where there are main squares, temples, palaces, storehouses, workshops, stairways, cables and water fountains which run through both sectors, which measure 20 and 10 hectares respectively. Machu Picchu was built according to its natural surroundings, with its constructions following the natural curves and dips and rises in the land.

The sector is surrounded by a series of terraces of different types and sizes which had two main functions: to grow crops and halt the erosion caused by the rains. The most eye catching terraces lie at the entrance to the citadel. They begin at the cluster of rooms located at the entrance and climb up to the top of the mountain

until they stop at a large rectangular room. There are no canals as they were not necessary, as the constant rains and ever-present humidity allowed the plants to grow without irrigation. The only water channel that flows through the urban sector crosses through the central terrace.

The control gate is made up of a three walled room with a view with several windows, which can be found in front of the main gateway. There is a good panorama from here of the agricultural and urban sectors and the surrounding landscape. In the upper part, they also found sculpted stones that belong to the area, which indicated the Incas used the stones to make offerings to their gods. On this same piece of ground lies a granite boulder sculpted with steps. But the most striking feature is that it is pierced with a ring, the purpose of which is unknown.

One can see a long stairway that leads to the front gate. This sector houses the most important constructions of any Inca city, where one can appreciate the talent, effort and quality of the pre Hispanic builders, as the constructions are entirely made of granite, a very hard rock that is different from that used in Cusco. The city is U-shaped and containing the temples, houses and workshops on platform terraces that the american scientist Bingham, called the Military Group.

The Temple of Sun is shaped like a semi-circle and built on solid rock, an existing granite block shaped to blend with the natural curves, with a diameter of 10.50 meters. The Intiwatana is located on a hill made up of several terraces, it is a granite rock sculpted into three steps. In the central part one can see a rectangular prism that is 36cm high and which is pointing from North-West to South-East. Its four corners are directed to the four cardinal points. The Intiwatana had specific functions: it measured time (the solstice and the equinox) by using sunlight and shadow, and also served as an altar. In Quechua, "Inti" means "sun" and "Wata" means "year", thereby giving us the meaning of a solar year observatory.

The sacred rock, located in a four-sided spot flanked by two three-sided rooms, features a monolithic rock sculpture. The pedestal, which is approximately 30cm high, resembles a feline. From another angle, it looks like the profile of a mountain near Machu Picchu. The Temple of Three Windows is located west of the main square, has a large rectangular floor. The enormous polyhedrons have been carved and joined with millimetric precision.

The Main Temple is located north of the Sacred Square, very near the Temple of Three Windows. Doors are a common sight in Machupicchu and especially in this sector. They vary in texture, size

and architectural style that set them apart from each other, although all have the same trapezoid shape. To the South of the complex, between the Temple of the Sun and the Royal Palace, the area houses a series of water fountains, the only sources of the vital element for the residents of Machu Picchu.

There are four main squares at different levels, but share the characteristic of being rectangular in the classic Inca style, interconnected by sunken stairways in the parameters of the terraces. The main square is the largest, which just like the main squares in all Inca cities had religious and social functions.

History

Machu Picchu was done constructed and used by Inka Pachakuteq, that was the greatest statesman of the Tawantinsuyo, Pachakuteq ruled from 1438 for 1471, called the great age of the Inca empire; unfortunately it lasted less than 100 years, because the empire collapsed under the Spanish invasion. Although the citadel is located only about 50 miles from Cusco, Machu Picchu, it was never found and destroyed by the Spanish, as were many other Inca sites.

In the XIX century explorers like Eugenie de Sartiges, George Ephraim Squire, Antonio Raimondi and Castelnau never reached Machu Picchu,

although most of them crossed the Andes to the almost inaccessible ruins of Choquekirau, built high above the Apurimac River. In fact, the outside world simply stumbled upon Machu Picchu, for it had never been lost to those who lived around it.

In December 1908, Bingham attended the First Panamerican Scientific Congress in Santiago, Chile. It was there that he decided to follow the old Spanish trade route from Buenos Aires to Lima, and it was to that end that he traveled to Lima and hence to Cusco. In Cusco Bingham made the acquaintance of one J.J. Nunez, then prefect of the Apurimac region, who invited him on the arduous trip to the ruins of Choquekirau.

Machu Picchu

On his return to the USA, Bingham decided to organize another expedition to Peru. Bingham returned to Cusco from where he journeyed on foot and by mule through the Urubamba Valley, past Ollantaytambo, and on into the Urubamba gorge. On July 23, Bingham and his party camped by the river at a place called Mandor Pampa, where they aroused the curiosity of Melchor Arteaga, a local farmer who leased the land there. Bingham learned from Arteaga that there were extensive ruins on top of the ridge opposite the camp, which Arteaga, in his native Quechua, called Machu Picchu, or "Old Mountain". Bingham offered to pay Arteaga well if he showed the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb for such a wet day, accompanied only by Seargeant Carrasco and Arteaga, Bingham left the camp. From the river they climbed a precipitous slope until they reached the ridge at around midday.

Here Bingham rested at a small hut where they enjoyed the hospitality of a group of peasants. They told him that they had been living there for about four years and explained that they had found an extensive system of terraces on whose fertile soil they had decided to grow their crops. Bingham was then told that the ruins he sought were close by and he was given a guide, the 11-year old Pablito Alvarez, to lead him there.

Almost immediately, he was greeted by the sight of a broad sweep of ancient terraces. They numbered more than a hundred and had recently been cleared of forest and reactivated. Here young Pablito began to reveal to Bingham a series of white granite walls which the historian immediately judged to be the finest examples of masonry that he had ever seen.

According to Bingham, "I had entered the marvellous canyon of the Urubamba below the Inca fortress. Here the river escapes from the cold plateau by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. The road runs through a land of matchless charm. It has the majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling beauty of the Nuuanu Pali near Honolulu, and the enchanting views of the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maui, in my native land…..”

Machu Picchu, the ancient Inca City was named to be part of the new list of the Seven Wonders. The global vote that began in 1999, accumulated near 20 million votes in its initial phase. And the final decision on July 7, 2007 in Lisbon, Portugal to name to Machupicchu one of the New Seven Wonders of the Contemporary World for satisfaction of the Cusqueño town (Cusco's people). Machu Picchu is today the main archeological site of Peru and America, and probably the most beautiful place of the world.

2. CHICHEN ITZA, MEXICO

The famous Mayan pyramids of Chichen Itza (chee-chehn eet-sah) in Maya literally means: "Mouth of the well of the Itza", the name Chichen Itza is a Mayan word: CHI (mouth), CHEN (well) and ITZA (of the Itza tribe), it is located a 75 miles east of Merida, the Capital of the State of Yucatan, Mexico. This archaeological site is rated among the most important of the Maya culture and covers an area of approximately six square miles.

The architectural characteristics of Chichen Itza and that have a direct relationship with the Mayan Toltec style are: "El juego de la Pelota", "El Castillo", "El Grupo de las Mil Columnas", "El tzompantli", El Edificio de las Aguilas", "El templo de los Guerrerros", and "El Mercado". All of these buildings have the same decoration motives found in Tula. The most frequent representations are warriors and Quetzalcoatl.

The main attraction is the central pyramid, a square-based, stepped pyramid that is approximately 75 feet tall, El Castillo de la Serpiente Emplumada, which means "Castle of the Plumed Serpent," and is pictured at the top. The

plumed serpent is a popular deity in various Mesoamerican cultures. "El Castillo" is surely the place where the ceremony of the descent of Kukulkan was held. The pyramid has special astronomical layout so that a game of light and shadow is formed. On March 21st the body of the serpent metaphorically descends from the temple on top of the pyramid and arrives at the heads at the foot of the staircase.

Just beyond El Castillo you will find a large ball court where Mayan men played a game called pok ta pok. Anthropologists believe that the object of the game was to hurl a ball through a ring that was mounted on a wall, seven meters above the ground. The largest Ball Game in Mesoamerica is 168 meters in length and 70 meters in width.

The Temple of Chac Mool, upon whose walls and interior pillars there are richly colored carvings of plumed serpents, warriors, and priests. The upper building only partially reflects its true grandeur. There are three sculpted masks with extremely long noses on the outer walls and at the corners. On the inner walls of the vaults there were murals with scenes of war and daily life. The altar tables and benches may have served as seats and thrones for dignitaries.

In the "Templo de los Guerreros" there is a temple on the top part where the entrance columns are

typically Toltec. Another one of the buildings that have a Toltec seal without is the "Muro de los Craneos". These buildings were destined to be the mausoleums of the tying up the years. Every 52 years the ancient Mayans and other cultures would tie up a sheaf of years to end a cycle. Platform of Venus or of the Dance, Sacred Well or the Well of the Sacrifices, Tzompantli, that displays figures of skulls in relief.

In the Central Group of the Ruins you can find:

The Red House or Chichan Chob, the name of this building, situated upon a high platform, is derived from the fragments of red paint that were found in its interior. The word "Chichan Chob" means "small holes" and probably alludes to its Lime roof comb. The structure is comprised of an antechamber and three rooms and has a sculptured hieroglyphic inscription in the main chamber. The building must have had a religious and public use, since there is a Ball Court joined to its eastern side, with bas-reliefs in the Maya-Toltec style.

The Caracol or Observatory This structure is known as the Observatory due to its shape and some possible astral associations, since astronomical events concerning the planet Venus and the setting of the sun during the three windows in the upper section. The name "Caracol" (conch) comes from the spiral stairs that lead to the upper part of the building.

The Church, This small building with only one chamber owes its name to its proximity to the so called "convent" of the Nunnery and to the exuberant decoration on its upper facade, which rises even higher due to its lofty roof comb. One can observe large areas covered with the original stucco on the Grecian frets of the central panel. "Bignosed" masks constitute the main element of

the facade, with a seated figure, god or ancestor integrated upon the nose of the central mask. There also are figures of the four carriers of the corners of the sky, "bacabes" or "pauahtunes", kneeling in the side panels. It’s appearing that the builder had certain difficulties in placing the three large masks rescued from earlier buildings on the roof comb and opted to suppress detail. Up to now, it is not known what the function of this building was, and in spite of the overloaded decoration of the building, it is one of the best architectural examples of the Puuc style in Chichen Itza.

Temple of the Carved Panels, the name of this building comes from the relieves carved on the north and south walls of the colonnade, depicting scenes of numerous people, plants, and animals, both real and imaginary, which are dominated by two warriors. The building is made up of a temple erected on a slab foundation with a colonnade in front of it. The offerings discovered during exploration of the fire - related rituals.

All areas can be seen comfortably in one day. Also you should enjoy the wonderful Light and Sound Show that is held every evening. At the entrance to Chichen Itza, there is an informative museum, a dining room, clean restrooms, a few gift shops and vendor stands.

History

Chichen Itza was first populated between 500 and 900 AD by Mayans and for some reason abandoned around 900; the city was then resettled 100 years later and subsequently invaded by Toltecs from the North. There are numerous relieves of both Mayan gods including Chac and the Toltec gods including Quetzacoatl. For some reason the city was abandoned around 1300. If the Spanish did not make it a policy to kill all of the Mayan priests and burn books when they arrived in Mexico, we would all have a few more answers.

The ruins are divided into two groups. One group belongs to the classic Maya Period and was built between the 7th and 10th centuries A.D., at which time the city became a prominent ceremonial center. The other group corresponds to the Maya Toltec Period, from the later part of the 10th century to the beginning of the 13th century A.D. This area includes the Sacred Well and most of the outstanding ruins.

Chichen Itza

When Chichen-Itza was first settled it was largely agricultural. Because of the many cenotes in the area, it would have been a good place to settle. During the Central Phase of the Classic Period, referred to as Florescence, (625-800 A.D.) arts and sciences flourished here. It was at this time that Chichen-Itza became a religious center of increasing importance, evidenced by the buildings erected: the Red House, the House of the Deer, the Nunnery and its Annex, the Church, the Akab Dzib, the Temple of the Three Lintels and the House of Phalli.

Toward the end of the Classic Period, from 800 to 925 A.D., the foundations of this magnificent

civilization weakened, and the Maya abandoned their religions centres and the rural land around them. New, smaller centres were built and the great cities like Chichen Itza were visited only to perform religious rites or bury the dead. The Itza people abandoned their city by the end of the 7th century A.D. and lived on the west coast of the peninsula for about 250 years. However, by the 10th century A.D. they returned to Chichen Itza.

Around 1000 A.D. the Itza allied themselves with two powerful tribes, Xio and Cocom, both claiming to be descendants of the Mexicans. This alliance was favourable to the Itza for about two centuries. During this time, the people of Chichen Itza added to the site by constructing magnificent buildings bearing the touch of Toltec art: porches, galleries, colonnades and carvings depicting serpents, birds and Mexican gods.

The Toltec influenced the Itza in more ways than just architecture. They also imposed their religion on the Itza, which meant human sacrifice on a large scale. They expanded their dominions in northern Yucatan with an alliance with Mayapan and Uxmal. As the political base of Chichen Itza expanded, the city added even more spectacular buildings: the Observatory, Kukulkan's Pyramid, the Temple of the Warriors, The Ball Court, and The Group of the Thousand Columns. The Temple of the Warriors has pillars sculptured in bas-relief, which

have retained much of their original colour. Murals once adorned its walls. It is surrounded by numerous ruined buildings known as the Group of a Thousand Columns. In 1194, Mayapan broke the alliance and subdued Chichen and Uxmal. The city was gradually abandoned.

3.CHRIST THE REDEEMER, BRAZIL

The statue of Christ the Redeemer is located at the top of Corcovado Mountain. The entire monument of statue of Christ the Redeemer is 38m high with the statue accounting for 30m and overlooking the city of Rio de Janeiro is one of the tallest statues in the world; the span from finger tip to fingertip is 28m and there is a small chapel housed in the base.

The reason why it was built was to show that Christ loves all. In Portuguese, this iconic monument is known as Cristo Redentor. Christ the Redeemer was designed by a French sculptor by the name of Paul Landowski and a local engineer named Heitor da Silva Costa was chosen to supervise the entire construction. The statue was built not out of steel but from reinforced concrete as that was considered a more suitable material for the cross shaped statue. The external caps of the idol were constructed in soapstone due to the resistance of this material to the extreme time and also due to its malleability.

The statue of Christ the Redeemer can be accessed by the 2.4 meter Corcovado Railway that has the capacity to hold 360 passengers every hour. The trip by rail is approximately 20 minutes and leaves the base each half hour. From the road or the train terminal Christ the Redeemer statue is reached by 222 steps. For those not wishing to make the arduous trek up the mountain, reaching the statue is possible by escalators and elevators.

Christ the Redeemer is one of the tourist attractions that every year attracts to more and more visitors. The best time to visit the Christ the Redeemer statue is late afternoon or evening when you can enjoy the splendour of the setting sun while taking in one of the most important landmarks in the world.

History

The history brings over of the construction of Christ's Redeemer statue begins in the century XVI, when the Portuguese gave the name of “Corcovado Mountain”, to one of its more impressive mountains an allusive name to its form hump.

In 1924, Don Pedro personally drove to the first official expedition to the Corcovado Mountain, this expedition end with the opening of an accessible raise to the above mentioned mountain. Then in 1859 the father Vincentian Pedro Maria Boss came to Rio de Janeiro and was struck by the mysterious beauty of the Corcovado Mountain and suggested the construction of a religious monument in honour of Princess Isabel, who in 1921 gave way for the idea of a great statue of Christ.

Christ the Redeemer

From 1859 to 1921, Don Pedro gave his consent for the building of the Corcovado Railroad line between Cosme Velho and Paineiras. After a hard competition, the project by the engineer Heitor da Silva Costa is chosen and in September, a national fundraising campaign for the works is organized.

Finally, in 1927, the construction of the statue begins after models of diverse sizes had been constructed. All calculations were done by Coast Hisses, helped by Pedro Viana and Heitor Levy,

which during the years of construction, resided in a shed of wood at the foot of the monument.

All the necessary work material and workers who participated in the construction of the Christ statue were transported to Corcovado by the trains from the railroad that links the street Cosme Velha, which today functions as a tourist train to the top. The train was the first in Brazil appointed exclusively to transportation of tourists and also the first train to work by electricity.

The monument was inaugurated on October 12, 1931. The final design of the monument was of the artist Carlos Oswald and the person in charge of realizing the sculptress was the Frenchman Paul Landowskitura. The monument to Christ, the Redeemer on the Corcovado Mountain is one of the biggest déco sculptures in the world. Up to today, several reforms have been completed to assure the quality of the Christo Redeemer. Lighting has been added, and the latest renewal of September 2002 is the addition of a panoramic elevator and motorized staircase to ease the difficulty for elderly persons.

4. THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA, CHINA

The Great Wall of China is a series of stone and earthen fortifications in China, built, rebuilt, and maintained between the 5th century BC and the 16th century to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire during the rule of successive dynasties.

The steps that form the Great Wall of China are very steep and tall in some areas. Tourists often become exhausted climbing the wall and walk no more than a kilometre or two (around a mile). In some areas the blocks were cemented with a mixture of glutinous rice and egg white. In the extreme western desert locations, where good materials are scarce, the wall was constructed from dirt rammed between rough wood tied together with woven mats.

The Wall is included in lists of the "Seven Medieval Wonders of the World" but was of course not one of the classical Seven Wonders of the World recognized by the ancient Greeks.It is the world's

longest human made structure, stretching over approximately 6,400 km from Shanhaiguan in the east to Lop Nur in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia, but stretches to over 6,700 km in total. It is also the largest human made structure ever built in terms of surface area and mass.

Three sections are in Beijing municipality, which was renovated and which is regularly visited by modern tourists. One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes. It runs 11 kilometres long, ranges from 5 to 8 meters in height, and 6 meters across the bottom, narrowing up to 5 meters across the top. Wangjinglou is one of Jinshanling's 67 watchtowers, 980 meters above sea level.

South East of Jinshanling, is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for approximately 2.25 kilometers. It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east. Another notable section lies near the eastern extremity of the wall, where the first pass of the Great Wall was built on the Shanhaiguan, the first mountain the Great Wall climbs. Jia Shan is also here, as is the Jiumenkou, which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge.

History

The construction of the Great Wall China began in the 7th century B.C., under the Dynasty Zhou. This wall was constructed along many hundreds of years. The first version of the wall was constructed to support invaders far from the villages that cultivate the land for the Chinese border. These walls were constructed in weak points in the natural landscape or where the threat was perceived like the major one.

Some of these walls eventually became of greater strategic importance when the localised defences were gradually joined to form the Great Wall of China. At those times that the Chinese territory expanded northward, earlier walls became secondary defences when a more northerly wall was built. The Great Wall of China was built by soldiers, civilians, farmers and prisoners, primarily during three dynasties: the Qin, the Han and the Ming, although the Sui Dynasty and the Ten Kingdoms period also played a part. The building styles of each dynasty added their own flavour and advanced the techniques learned from the previous.

The Great Wall of China

The first dynasty of China was the short lived Qin Dynasty. The first emperor, Qin ShiHuang, was a tyrannical emperor who unified China by force and set about constructing one Great Wall by joining. He even sent scholars to work on the Great Wall, anyone who was deemed unproductive. These workers faced arduous labor, and the constant danger of being attacked by bandits.

Most of early Great Wall was composed of weak stone, but when the natural stone in an area was not sufficient did that the engineers were turning to another method, there had to be used a rectangular frame that was filled with loose soil. This soil was trampled for several hours by a team

of workers until this was solid. This process of landfill and to trample would be repeated again and again until the wall was reaching the wished height.

The second dynasty to add to the Great Wall was the Han Dynasty. The most notable contribution of the Han Dynasty is that they extended the Great Wall westwards through the Gobi Desert. Despite a lack of building materials, ingenious Chinese engineers found a solution. This method involved first laying down a layer of willow reeds, possibly woven. Then a layer of gravel and a little water was applied and trampled solid. After the trampling, a new layer of reeds and gravel was added. This process would be repeated until the desired height was reached. Amazingly, some portions of this Great Wall are still standing, partly due to the dry conditions of the Gobi.

The last dynasty to build a northern wall was the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). This dynasty built the biggest, longest, strongest and most ornate Great Wall ever. These are the walls that we are familiar with today. Their methods of Great Wall building fused all that was learned by the two previous dynasties. First, a center of trampled earth was created. Then, around the firm center was applied a shell of stone and bricks. The bricks that were created by the Ming are so strong that they compare well with the ones we use today. The

strong Ming wall was built across some of the most dangerous terrains in China, including steep mountains, sometimes on 75 degree inclines. It has been said that every foot of the construction of this Great Wall cost one human life.

The Ming Dynasty Great Wall starts on the eastern end at ShanHai Pass, near QinHuangDao, in Hebei Province, next to Bohai Sea. It once spanned 9 provinces and 100 counties, but the final 500 kilometers of the Great Wall to the west have all but turned to rubble. Along the Ming Great Wall of China there are many watchtowers, spaced from less than a kilometer to several kilometers or more apart. These were partly used to transmit military messages. Fire and smoke were the most efficient means for communication; fire was used at night and smoke during the day. Straw and dung was used for this. In 1468, a series of regulations set specific meanings to these signals: a single shot and a single fire or smoke signal implied about 100 enemies, two signals warned of 500, three warned of over a 1000 and so on. In this way, a message could be transmitted over more than 500 km of the Great Wall within a few hours.

5.PETRA, JORDAN

Petra is approximately at 3-5 hours to the south of modern Amman, approximately 2 hours to the north of Aqaba, on the edges of the mountain desert of the Wadi Araba. The city is surrounded by the highest hills of rust by colored sandstone that gives a natural protection to the city against the invaders.

Petra has more than 800 individual monuments, including buildings, tombs, baths, funeral corridors, temples, arched income, and adjacent streets, which especially were carved in the kaleidoscopic sandstone by the technical and artistic genius of their inhabitants. Petra's monuments are best seen by the visitors at early hours of the morning and last hour of the evening, when the Sun warms the multicoloured stones.

The site is semi arid, the friable sandstone which allowed the Nabataeans to carve their temples and tombs into the rock crumbling easily to sand. The

colour of the rock ranges from pale yellow or white through rich reds to the darker brown of more resistant rocks. The contorted strata of different-coloured rock form whorls and waves of colour in the rock face, which the Nabataeans exploited in their architecture.

Petra was chosen as the capital of the Nabateans because it was located in a valley surrounded by Sandstone Mountains. There are many ways to get into Petra, but none of them are easy, and if the valleys are sealed, it is almost impossible for anyone to enter.

The main entrance to Petra is called the Siq; it has sides as high as 200 m. This gorge and the temple

in the end of it (the Kazneh) were popularized in the movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Of all 800 tombs carved in Petra, the Kazneh is the most famous. His name Kazneh means "treasure" and comes from the Bedouin belief that the Pharaoh who prosecutes the Israelites concealed his exchequer in the urn in the high of the Kazneh. The fronts of tomb were constructed of the top downwards. The channels were carved in the rock.

The Monastery is the largest tomb façade in Petra, measuring 50 m wide and 45 m high. Despite its name, it was built as a tomb monument and may have acquired its name from the crosses inscribed inside. Like the Kazneh, the structure consists of two stories topped by a magnificent urn.

History

Archaeologists believe that Petra has been inhabited from prehistoric times. Just north of the city at Beidha, the remains of a 9000-year-old city have been discovered, putting it in the same league as Jericho as one of the earliest known settlements in the Middle East. The Bible tells of how King David subdued the Edomites, probably around 1000 BCE. According to this story, the Edomites were enslaved, but eventually won their freedom. A series of great battles were then fought between the Judeans and the people of Edom.

Petra

As many as 30,000 people may have lived in Petra during the 1st century A.D. It is a misconception that Petra was a city only for the dead. A large earthquake in 363 A.D. destroyed at least half of the city. Petra never recovered from this destruction.

Petra was seen first when discovered in 1812 after being lost by the 16th century for almost 300 years. The classical name Petra, and the early name Sela both mean the same thing, "Rock"; and surely no city was ever more aptly named. But "Rock" only conveys half the picture of the city; the wild, fantastic shapes of the hills, the great chasms which cleave them, the brilliant colouring all these must be seen to be believed. Petra is unique alike in its antiquities, its natural setting, and its approach.

6. ROMAN COLOSSELUM, ITALY (ROME)

Rome was a center of learning, trade and commerce for ages and has contributed significantly in the development of these areas.

The origination of the word “Coliseum”, probably come from colossal statue of Nero which once stood near the stadium.

The discussion of Rome would be unfinished without the description of so the much talked Roman Colosseum. But non doubt the architecture and the concept is definitely a matter of appreciation and pride.

Originally was the Flavian Amphitheatre, an elliptical amphitheatre located in the heart of the city of Rome. It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic. 

The Colosseum or Coliseum occupies a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian, opened by Emperor Titus in 80 AD with 100 days of games which roughly have taken the lives of some nine thousand animals and remodeled by Domitian who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. Also he added a

gallery to the top Colosseum to increase its seating capacity. 

ROMAN COLOSSELUM

The Coliseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles, with a capacity of 50 000 spectators. It was used for the next 500 years with the last recorded games being held there. As well as the traditional gladiatorial games, many other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. It ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era and it was later re-opened for such varied purposes as housing, workshops; quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry and a Christian shrine. 

Today the Colosseum is in a ruined condition, due to damage caused by an earthquakes and stone-robbers. For a long time it has been seen as an icon symbol of Imperial Rome. It’s one of modern Rome’s most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads torchlight “Way of the Cross” procession to the amphitheatre. The Coliseum is depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin. 

History

The construction began under the rule of Vespasian Emperor around 70-72. The site was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine hills, through which a canalized stream ran. Later the area was densely inhabited by the 2nd century. The Great Fire of Rome in AD 64 devastated it, in addition Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. To supply water to the area, the existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.

The superb Roman Colosseum

Although the Colossus was preserved much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Within the former grounds, gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby the Domus Area. The Coliseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument, in accord to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, “the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general’s share of the booty”. This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt.

The Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire around 217, possibly caused by the lightning which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre’s interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. In 443 a possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523.

During the medieval period, the Coliseum underwent several radical changes. The arena was converted into a cemetery. Around 1200 the Frangipani family used it as a castle, but the great earthquake of 1349 caused the outer south side to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. 

 In 1749, the Pope Benedict XIV consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there.

Due to the ruined state, the Coliseum cannot use to host large events so much of these larger concerts have been held just outside, using the building as a backdrop. The Colosseum was covered with an enormous awning known as the

velarium. This protected the spectators from the sun. It was attached to large poles on top of the Colosseum and anchored to the ground by large ropes. A team of some 1,000 men was used to install the awning.

7. TAJ MAHAL, INDIA (AGRA)

The Taj Mahal is standing majestically on the right bank of River Yamuna at a point where it takes a sharp turn and flows eastwards; the Taj Mahal is synonymous of love and romance. The Taj Mahal complex is organized in a rectangle, measuring approximately 310 x 550 meters. It comprises a number of buildings and structures, all functioning together as the funerary monument for Mumtaz Mahal.

The entire architectural complex mainly consists of five major constituents the Darwaza (The main gateway), Bageecha (The gardens), Masjid (The mosque), Naqqar Khana (The rest house), Rauza (The main mausoleum).

The Taj Ganj area leads to the southern gate into the forecourt of the Taj Mahal complex, although the eastern and western gates of the Jilaukhana are more frequently used by tourists. The latter two gates are identical, with central pointed-arch Pishtaqs flanked by octagonal pilasters crowned with Guldastas (ornamental flower pinnacles).

The southern gate is similar to the east and west ones in its verticality. Due to the natural gradient of the site, which slopes toward the riverbank, this gate lies 2.4 m above the ground elevation of the Jilaukhana itself. Two bazaar streets begin at the east and west gates and lead to the Jilaukhana. The bazaars consist of individual rooms (Hujra) along an arcaded Verandah of multi-cusped arches that are supported on slender columns. The Jilaukhana consists of a large courtyard with 128 hujra rooms opening directly onto the courtyard.

To the northeast of the Jilaukhana are the khawasspuras, two residential enclosures. The north side of the Khawasspuras abuts the southern galleries that flank the great gate to the east and the west. The outer southern corners of the enclosures in the khawasspuras have rooms giving access to latrines. The two Saheli Burj (inner subsidiary tombs) enclosures to the east and west of the Jilaukhana are the tomb complexes of two other wives of Shah Jahan. The saheli burj enclosures have gardens arranged in the Chahar

Bagh style, with a pool of water in the center surrounded by paved walkways.

The tomb buildings are octagonal, single-story structures, built on a plinth. The walls are formed of multi cusped arcades. The building and its plinth are clad in red sandstone; the structure is topped by a bulbous white marble dome. Inside, the south door of both of the Saheli Burj tombs leads to the cenotaph within. The colours of the exterior cladding are reversed in the interior: the walls are clad in white marble, while the Jalis and ceiling are sandstone.

The great gate (darwaza-i rauza) is a large structure with triadic openings the base of the gate measures nearly 38 meters and its peripheral walls, including the cupolas, are 30 meters in height. The central Pishtaq, also including the cupolas, is 33 meters in height and 19 meters wide. The gate is composed of red sandstone with decorative panels and accents in white marble.

The entry Iwan contains Muqarnas in red sandstone, which contrasts with the white plaster paint outlining each segment. Topping the central Pishtaq is a series of eleven arches in red sandstone, capped by a chajja. This arrangement of architectural elements into rows is found on both the north and south side of the gate, in keeping with the design of the Taj Mahal complex and its

internal hierarchies. The corners of the gateway are accentuated by engaged towers, also of red sandstone, that project outward slightly; these towers are decorated with frames of white marble.

The pointed arch on the south elevation of the darwaza-i rauza partially frames the visitors' first glimpse of the main structure, the mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal. Flanking the darwaza-i rauza on the north, two double arcaded galleries of multifoliate arches known as the southern galleries, one to the east and one to the west, overlook the large garden that precedes the main mausoleum. The columns of the outer and inner arcades differ only in the decoration of their bases: the outer ones have floral decoration alluding to the garden. The platform of the galleries extends into the garden, and its decorative tile paving pattern faces the garden. The galleries terminate on the east and west ends in rooms which are entered from within the gallery.

A shallow water canal (nahr) runs along the centre of the primary walkways; a line of equidistant water fountains runs down the center of the nahr. Geometric patterns in red sandstone depicting regular and elongated stars decorate the edges of the central pathways running on each side of the nahr. At the intersection of the primary walkways is a raised platform with a square water tank (Hauz) at its center. Five fountains are located within the

tank, one at each of its four corners and one in its center. The east-west walkways terminate in two-story pavilions (Naubat Khanas) that merge into the outer garden walls. Aqueducts supplied water to the garden from the Yamuna River just north of the mausoleum. The central fountains operated with an underground system of copper vessels connected by copper pipes. At present the garden contains relatively few trees, consisting mainly of fairly maintained grass lawns.

The two Naubat Khanas (drum houses) are constructed on raised platforms and have two floors. On each level, the naubat khanas have a triple archway in the center of the east and west elevations, respectively. On the ground level, the arches are closed with a Jali screen; on the upper level, they remain open. The floor slab of the upper story projects beyond the wall above and below to form a balcony as long as the building; carved red sandstone handrails run along its length, and carved sandstone brackets help support it from below. The Tahkhana, a gallery of rooms arranged in a row and connected by a narrow corridor, is reached by two staircases that descend from openings in the surface of the plinth to the east and west of the mausoleum.

The secondary, square marble plinth, 93 meters long, is centred on the sandstone terrace. The mausoleum proper and the four minarets flanking

it are placed on this marble plinth. The base of the plinth is decorated with delicate carvings of vegetal motifs, which also appear on the white marble cladding of the mausoleum.

In the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal complex, the central chamber is double-height and octagonal in plan. At its center rest the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan. The chamber is capped by a shallow dome and decorated with niches on each two-story wall. These niches on the cardinal axes have Jali screens, fitted on the external faces of the walls, which allow light into the room. The niches on the diagonal axes hold rectangular doors. The niches are separated into lower and upper stories by an inscription band that runs around the interior. On the upper level, these frames are replaced by Muqarnas that begin to transform the octagonal plan into a circular ring for the dome. The shallow dome, which is the lower portion of the double dome used for construction, thus appears as decorated with an extended pattern of the Muqarnas that support its base.

The floor of the tomb chamber is tiled with octagonal marble stars in alternating cruciform modules, each outlined with inlaid black stone. Each side of this marble octagonal screen is divided into three panels; only one opens to access the cenotaph. The cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal is a rectangular block placed on a platform decorated

with Quranic verses on the upper block and naturalistic motifs on the lower base.

On the roof of the mausoleum is a high drum, topped with a bulbous dome measuring 25.6 meters high by 17.6 meters wide. Four diagonally placed chhatris flank the drum. The terrace provides a view of the garden below; it is accessed by staircases from the ground floor that lie on either side of the entrance to the mausoleum. The four elevations reflect the symmetry of the mausoleum's plan. The two frames flanking the central Pishtaq contain blind arched niches on the upper and lower levels. Each corner of the building presents a chamfered elevation (to the northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest).

The frame of the mausoleum's central Pishtaqs, as with other similar forms within the complex, is decorated with an inlaid Thuluth inscription of a Quranic verse. At the Pishtaq's highest point is a linear pattern of floral motifs running between two extended engaged columns capped with guldastas. As compared to the larger central Pishtaqs, these two sub-pishtaqs are less elaborately treated, with pilasters on the outer elevations decorated with an inlaid herringbone pattern in black and dark yellow. These pilasters are flanked by square panels, framed with horizontal and vertical chevrons, at their base.

The mosque and Mihmankhana are located to the west and east of the mausoleum building. Symmetrical and identical in design, it is conjectured from records that the mosque was built first, followed by the Mihmankhana. The mosque has a Mihrab in its Qibla wall, highlighted by a marble frame with an inscription of the Sun Sura. The floor of the mosque also differs from that of the Mihmankhana; it is patterned in Muslim prayer mats. The ceilings are finished in the Sgraffito technique, consisting of a coat of red plaster laid over a white one. Floral designs are later carved through the red layer, to appear in white.

The southwest tower contains a Stepwell (baoli) whereas that to the south of the Mihmankhana holds chambers leading to latrines. The southwest tower with the baoli also has a well shaft running down the centre of the structure and extending through its five floors: three above, two below. The two tower pavilions north of the mosque and Mihmankhana contain chambers leading to latrines on the lower levels, and stairs leading toward the riverbed. The four riverfront towers are each octagonal in plan. Each tower has a central room with an ambulatory path circling around the exterior. The exterior walls have multi-cusped blind arches; each terrace has an Oriel window (Jharoka) with views of the river. The towers are clad in red sandstone and have floral motifs carved in relief with marble inlays on panels.

History

Taj Mahal was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1628-1658), grandson of Akbar the great, in the memory of his queen Arjumand Bano Begum, entitled Mumtaz Mahal a Muslim Persian princess. The queen’s real name was Arjumand Banu. In the tradition of the Mughals, important ladies of the royal family were given another name at their marriage or at some other significant event in their lives, and that new name was commonly used by the public.

She died while accompanying her husband in Burhanpur in a campaign to crush a rebellion after giving birth to their 14th child. When Mumtaz Mahal was still alive, she extracted four promises from the emperor: first, that he build the Taj; second, that he should marry again; third, that he be kind to their children; and fourth, that he visit the tomb on her death anniversary. But this has not been proven to be true, till date.

According to legend, after his wife’s death, Shah Jahan reportedly locked himself in his rooms and refused food for eight days, when the emperor emerged from his seclusion, his black beard visible in many Mughal miniature paintings had turned completely white. For the monument to his wife, Shah Jahan chose a site occupied by sprawling gardens on a bend in the left bank of the Yamuna River. Six months later, her body was transferred to Agra to be finally enshrined in the crypt of the main tomb of the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal is the mausoleum of both Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan.

The Taj Mahal

The construction of Taj Mahal started in the year 1631 and it took approximately 22 years to build it. It made use of the services of 22,000 labourers and 1,000 elephants for the transportation of the construction materials. The materials used in the Taj Mahal complex are bricks, sandstone and white marble. Brick sizes varied between 18-19 x 11-12.5 x 2.3 cm, a standard size since Akbar's rule. These bricks were baked in kilns on the outskirts of Agra. The sandstone used in the complex has a colour varying from soft red to red with a yellow tint. White marble came from the quarries of Makrana in Rajasthan, approx. 400 kms southeast of Agra. The marble used in the complex was a white one with black and grey streaks.

The greatest technical problem in the construction of the Taj Mahal was its heavy superstructures near the riverfront. This was accomplished using wells cased in wood and filled with rubble and iron, spaced at 3.75 meters on center. Precious and semi-precious stones are used in the decoration of the mausoleum than elsewhere in the complex. These stones include lapis lazuli, sapphire, cornelian, jasper, chrysolite and heliotrope. A strict discipline in colours and decoration is visible in the detailed ornamentation of the Taj Mahal. Floral relief carvings are found on the marble and sandstone walls; these carvings are stylistically related to the pietra dura work, yet are worked according to the material of the building they adorn.

The Taj Mahal architecture is a kind of fusion of Persian, Central Asian and Islamic architecture. Specific design credit is uncertain, and is given by different sources to Istad Usa, Ustad Ahmad Lahori, Isa Muhammad Effendi or Geronimo Veroneo. But construction documents show that its master architect was Istad Usa, the renowned Islamic architect of his time. The documents contain names of those employed and the inventory of construction materials and their origin. And how the entire complex is designed in such a way that the apparent organic unity of the whole does not obscure the individuality of any part, nor does it detract from the prominence of the Taj Mahal

proper. It was completed in 1648 at a cost of 32 Million Rupees (more than 750 000 dollars).