Luther’s “helpmeet” and Knox’s “monstrous regiment”: women and the Reformation

Portrait of Anne Boleyn, by unknown artist, c. 1535, Hever Castle, Kent.

• The major reform movements• Martin Luther, 1483-1546• John Calvin, 1509-1564 • Henry VIII, r. 1509-1547

• Catherine of Aragon, 1485-1536• Anne Boleyn, 1507-1536

Reformation-era EuropeMap from Lynn Hunt, The Making of the West, Volume 1, 4th edition.

Luther’s “helpmeet” and Knox’s “monstrous regiment”: women and the Reformation

Engraving of Martin Luther, by Baldung Grien, 1521.

• Luther’s reform movement• The justification of faith• “Every man his own priest”• Literacy important to salvation• Celibacy destructive to the soul

• Sexuality within marriage healthy• Katherine von Bora, 1499-1550• Marriage necessary, but not

necessarily happy• Not a sacrament, but divorce still

discouraged • Eve and Mary• Teaching and preaching

Luther’s “helpmeet” and Knox’s “monstrous regiment”: women and the Reformation

Henry VIII in the Whitehall Mural, by Remigius van Leemput, 17th century, Royal Collection, Hampton Court Palace.

• Calvin’s Geneva• Adultery a capital crime• Strict control of morality

• Henry VIII• Abolished monasticism but didn’t

allow clerical marriage (or divorce!)

• John Knox, c. 1510-1572• Presbyterianism• The First Blast of the Trumpet

Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women, 1558

Luther’s “helpmeet” and Knox’s “monstrous regiment”: women and the Reformation

Etching of Margaret Fell (standing on left), by Robert Spence, late 17th century

•Minor reform movements• Anabaptists, 1520s-1530s

• Equality of direct spiritual inspiration

• “Third baptism”• The Society of Friends/Quakers,

1650s• Margaret Fell, 1614-1702• Women’s Speaking Justified,

Proved and Allowed of by the Scriptures, All Such as Speak by the Spirit and Power of the Lord Jesus

• Puritans, 1560s• Anne Hutchinson, 1591-1643

Luther’s “helpmeet” and Knox’s “monstrous regiment”: women and the Reformation

Portrait of St. Teresa of Avila, by Peter Paul Rubens, 1615, Kunsthistoriches Museum, Vienna.

• Women and the Catholic Reformation• The Council of Trent, 1545-1563• St. Teresa of Avila, 1515-1582

• Barefoot Carmelites• St. Angela Merici, 1474-1540

• Order of the Ursulines• Mary Ward, 1585-1645

• Institute of the Blessed Virgin • St. Louise de Marillac, 1591-

1660• Sisters of Charity

Luther’s “helpmeet” and Knox’s “monstrous regiment”: women and the Reformation

Elizabeth at prayer, from Christian Prayers and Meditations in English, French, Italian, Spanish, Greeke and Latine, 1560, Lambeth Palace Library.

• Women and politics during the Reformation• John Knox’s “monstrous regiment”• Mary Queen of Scots, r. 1542-1567

• Mother of James VI of Scotland by Henry, Lord Darnley

• Executed by Elizabeth I in 1588• Mary I of England, r. 1553-1558

• Daughter of Catherine of Aragon• Married to Philip II of Spain

• Elizabeth I, r. 1558-1603• Daughter of Anne Boleyn

Luther’s “helpmeet” and Knox’s “monstrous regiment”: women and the Reformation

Still from The Wizard of Oz, 1939, MGM.

• Witch beliefs among the peasantry• Striga (pl. strigae)• Wisewoman/man• Cunningwoman/man• French devin• Old English wicca (m) and

wicce (f)• Maleficia

Luther’s “helpmeet” and Knox’s “monstrous regiment”: women and the Reformation

Depiction of Waldensians, in Martin le France, “Le Champion des Dames,” c. 1440, Bibliotheque Nationale Grenoble.

• Witch beliefs within the learned classes• Repression of sexuality =

demonization of sexuality• Fears of heretics bringing

subversion of order• Waldensians and Cathars as

cannibalistic Devil worshippers who fly to night-time sabbaths

15th-16th century images of witches, from Brian Levack, The Witch Hunt in Early-Modern

Europe.

17th century images of witches, from Brian Levack, The Witch Hunt in Early-Modern

Europe.

Luther’s “helpmeet” and Knox’s “monstrous regiment”: women and the ReformationImages from Brian Levack, The Witch Hunt in Early-Modern Europe.

• The witch trials of Reformation Europe• Heinrich Kramer, James

Sprenger, and the Malleus Maleficarum, 1486• “Refusal-guilt syndrome”

• Statistics from Brian Levack, The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe