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Women and Healthy Sustainable Societies

Gender Dimensions of International, Regional, and National Conservation Policies affecting Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda

Prepared for Conservation International

By the Global Gender Program, Elliott School of International Affairs

George Washington University

Authors: Pierre Pratley and Ariana Leon Rabindranath

Final version– August 21st, 2013

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Contents

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... 3

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 5

International context ................................................................................................................... 7

Regional policies integrating gender and conservation..............................................................11

National policies: Kenya ............................................................................................................15

National policies: Tanzania .......................................................................................................20

National polices: Uganda ..........................................................................................................27

Conclusion and Recommendations ...........................................................................................33

References ...............................................................................................................................34

List of major policy-level players ...............................................................................................34

Other Sources of Information on Conservation & Gender in East Africa ....................................39

Policy documents referenced in this report ................................................................................39

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Executive Summary This report is the result of a policy analysis, commissioned by Conservation International and conducted by the Global Gender Program at George Washington University, of the gender dimensions of conservation policies at the international, regional and national level for three East African countries.

The authors used Conservation International‟s four dimensions of interest, freshwater conservation, food security (including fisheries and coastal management), climate change adaptation and improved livelihoods to scope the policy landscape for intersections of gender and conservation.

Gender and conservation matter: conservation efforts that are gender equitable and enjoy full gender representation are more successful than those that are not. In addition, an international evidence base is emerging that demonstrates gender-mixed policy boards and organizations are more resilient and can challenge internal policies in a more constructive way.

The main international findings include the widespread adoption of the Rio conference‟s Agenda 21 at all levels, and as a result the emergence of a platform for integration of gender and conservation that is carried down to the regional and national levels. Apart from Agenda 21, there are no binding international policy instruments or agreements in any of Conservation International‟s interest areas and it is recommended that Conservation International act upon this by drafting policy briefs in relevant areas, specifically in the area of community-based climate change adaptation.

At the regional level, two major organizations were identified: the East Africa Community and the South African Development Community. Policy documents were retrieved for water, food security, climate change as well as agriculture and rural development. At this level, the adoption of Agenda 21 and its tenets was clearly present in the documents. Main recommendations include potential engagement of Conservation International in the region as a knowledge broker on community-based integrated conservation efforts.

At the national level, Kenya was marked by its recent adoption of a new constitution and recently revised or drafted policy documents on water (including a provision on representation by women in all water institution bodies), food security and climate change, all of which included language on gender and conservation.

Tanzania‟s water policy and water sector development strategy feature extensive coverage of the intersection between gender and conservation, but did not feature explicit gender quota for water institution boards. The older food and nutrition policy is lacking in consideration for gender and conservation, while the 2012 climate change action plan featured gender as a cross-cutting issue, as did Tanzania‟s rural development policy and national strategy for growth and reduction of poverty.

Lastly, Uganda has a strong policy basis for gender and conservation, with an updated gender policy, gender sensitive fisheries policy (but lack of mention of gender in the more dated water policy). There is a minor mention of gender its food policy, yet the National Adaptation Plan of Action extensively covers gender.

The main recommendations from this analysis are:

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- Leverage policy commitments regarding gender mainstreaming

Gender mainstreaming is a political reality. From the international level downwards, the discussed policy instruments contain clear language on the importance of gender mainstreaming. This should be leveraged by CI and combined with mainstreaming of the sustainable development agenda and related environmental concerns.

- Engage and organize community-based organizations

Many policies articulate the necessity of enlisting community-based organizations to fulfill conservation and equity policy objectives at the local level. CI should conduct a scoping exercise to determine which CBOs represent the marginalized, and then leverage policy to engage these groups in conservation and resource management.

- Draft policy brief on community-based adaptation strategies

As there are no international policies on community-based adaptation and given CI‟s extensive experience in this arena, it is recommended that CI engage its community-based adaptation and policy divisions to collaborate on drafting a policy brief outlining international policy recommendations as well as regional and national advice and highlight best practices in this domain.

- Engage in and contribute to new policy formulation

CI should consider the absence of national policies in a number of areas, notably climate change adaptation and improved livelihoods as an opportunity. As countries are drafting their policies, CI should engage in the process, by either providing capacity or funding. Examples are Kenya‟s Water Policy in which German development agency GIZ was a stakeholder, or Tanzania‟s National Climate Change Strategy, which was supported by the Danish Government.

- Advocate for and engage in policy revision

Given the attention gender and environmental issues are given in international, regional and national policy instruments, CI could leverage its newly acquired knowledge of the policy landscape to strategically engage in policy advice and redrafting. Many national policies are outdated and could benefit from the integration of cross-cutting issues into national sectorial policies.

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Introduction

This report is part of a larger effort within Conservation International (CI) to increase the participation and leadership of women in promoting improved biodiversity conservation and development approaches in Latin America as well as East Africa.

As CI is a relatively recent actor in the conservation community in East Africa, the organization is currently engaged in a scoping exercise in order to determine the extent of existing women‟s initiatives in the East Africa region. The specific aim is to chart and understand what gaps and opportunities may exist in the area of integrating gender equity and environmental conservation. Based on the information gathered, CI plans to conduct a stakeholder dialogue in East Africa to bring together gender advocates, NGO representatives, and other relevant institutional representatives to explore these issues, agree on a common set of initiatives or policy platforms to engage with, and to develop a plan of action for future collaboration.

Objective

The Global Gender Program at George Washington University has been enlisted to conduct a scoping exercise regarding policies that detail the intersection of gender and environmental conservation with regards to East Africa. Specifically, the scoping exercise is framed within CI‟s four dimensions of interest, freshwater conservation, food security (including fisheries and coastal management), climate change adaptation and improved livelihoods.

The authors analyzed relevant international, regional and national policies. Specific countries of interest are Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda as CI has a particular strategic interest in these countries. The findings are presented as follows: first, international policies on the inclusion of gender relevant to freshwater conservation, food security, climate change adaptation will be discussed; second, regional policies in the same area of focus; and third, national constitutions as well as specific policies in CI‟s domains of interest. The report will conclude with an overall conclusion of main findings.

Search methodology and inclusion criteria

In order to warrant its rigor through sound methodology, this report follows predefined search criteria that have been agreed upon by the authors and CI. At all levels, searches were conducted for all policy documents related to the intersection between gender and conservation pertaining to CI‟s four key areas of interest. As this is a cutting edge topic, there are no international, regional or even national agencies or documents that specifically address the topic. As a result, a hybrid exclusion approach was used.

At the international level, searches for policy documents were retrieved pertaining to CI‟s four dimensions of interest: freshwater conservation, food security, climate change adaptation, and improved livelihoods. Policy documents for the international search were defined using the UN‟s definition of key terms used in the UN Treaty Collection. Following the UN‟s terminology on policy documents and processes, we identify three main categories of policy documents: Agreements; Treaties or Conventions; and Declarations. Agreements constitute the majority of international instruments, and are not subject to ratification. Treaties or Conventions, which are virtually synonymous terms, are legally binding international instruments. Lastly, Declarations legally binding and comprise those international instruments that are not necessarily binding but

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used to declare certain aspirations of countries. Policies listed in the report are ranked starting with legally binding to voluntary, i.e. starting with Treaties and Conventions and ending with Declarations and Agreements, and only included if there is language on the integration of gender and conservation. However, as many documents missed this level of integration, key policy documents were also included that formed the basis for either international action on gender or environment. An example is the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), a key convention on environmental conservation with far reaching consequences for sovereign countries. The document itself does not speak about the intersection between conservation and gender, but is a seminal document for later international declarations such as the Beijing declaration that discusses the intersection between gender and conservation at great length. In order to present CI with a comprehensive overview of the international policy landscape around gender and conservation, UNFCCC was included in the results of this report.

At the regional level, searches were first done for regional organizations such as the South African Development Committee (SADC) and the East African Community (EAC). For each of these organizations, specific queries for policies concerning each of the four dimensions of interest were conducted. In order to capture all policy documents that deal with the “improved livelihoods” dimension, additional searches were done for any regional agricultural development, sustainable development and economic development policy documentation. The obtained policy documents were then analyzed for any terms describing the intersection between gender and conservation issues using keywords “gender”, “women”, “conservation” and “environment”. Any document that fit the above criteria was included for discussion in this report.

At the national level, all three dimensions were used as keywords to capture any national policies for Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. As with the regional level, in addition to including “sustainable livelihoods” as a search term, policy documents pertaining to agricultural development, sustainable development and economic development were also searched. Similarly, for the freshwater dimension, fisheries and coastal areas were also included in the search criteria. National policies, constitutions, draft policies, national charters and in a few cases, national action plans were included for content search. In order to capture language on the intersection between gender and conservation, the content search focused around the same keywords as used at other levels: “gender”, “women”, “conservation” and “environment”. Only inclusion of any of the first two, and any of the latter two terms warranted inclusion of the policy for discussion in the report unless otherwise stated.

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FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

IFPRI - International Food Policy Research Institute

UNDP – United Nations Development Program

UNEP – United Nations Environmental Program

UNDESA – United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs

UN Water

UN Women– United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women

Figure 1: Key UN institutions that are involved in working on or supporting implementation of policy at the

intersection of gender and conservation issues.

International context

Key international institutions

This report commences its policy analysis by scoping for international environmental and conservation policies that incorporate both sustainable development components as well as principles on gender equality. As the international policy landscape is convoluted, with many UN agencies taking the collaborative lead on policy initiatives, conventions held and programs developed, a list of relevant international policymaking institutions is displayed in Figure 1.

Key international policies

In order to discuss sector specific policies in the international sphere, the overarching frameworks, declarations and conventions need to be discussed. Below is a short overview of international conventions, treaties and declarations that pertain to gender and conservation specifically, and development and human rights generally. These policy instruments can be seen as an international “constitution” of sorts, a policy canvas that sets the tone, but on which more detailed policy efforts can be painted.

UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1948)

This universal declaration safeguards all humans in the world from discrimination, violence and exclusion.

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CEDAW (1979)

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) is the international bill of rights for women. All countries under study in the national policy analysis portion of this report have ratified the convention.

UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (1992)

Also known as the Rio Conference or the Earth Summit, the conference resulted in both the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, a code of rights to sustainable development, and Agenda 21, a voluntary action plan for sustainable development. Even though Agenda 21 is not a binding policy document, it will feature throughout this report since its voluntary nature and the ability for other multilateral organizations or individual governments to execute the agenda at the global, national or local level have made it into a gold standard for setting policy around the integration of gender issues in environmental conservation.

CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (1992)

The Convention on Biological Diversity is a legally binding international treaty that was developed to foster national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. Its goals are the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of the world‟s biological resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.

BEIJING DECLARATION AND PLATFORM FOR ACTION (1995)

Adopted in 1995, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action reflects a new international commitment to the goals of equality, development and peace for all women.

MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGS) (2000)

One cannot discuss livelihoods, development and gender issues without briefly mentioning the pertinent MDGs involved. For this report, MDG 3, achieving gender equality as well as MDG 7, ensuring environmental sustainability, are of importance. Although they do not address the intersection of gender and conservation in themselves, together they represent these two key issues that most countries in the world have ratified, including the countries under study in the national policies section.

JOHANNESBURG DECLARATION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (2002)

The Johannesburg declaration is a follow-up declaration to the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro that led to the formulation of Agenda 21. It focuses on “the worldwide conditions that pose severe threats to the sustainable development of our people.”

International policies: freshwater conservation

As there is no official international policy on water, the analysis shall take into account the interagency policy brief “Gender, Water and Sanitation”. The policy brief states that the importance of gender equity in management of water and sanitation has been recognized at the global level. Agenda 21 specifically mentions the involvement of women in water management in paragraph 18.70f.

The policy brief makes the valuable point that in terms of framing the issue of gender and water management and conservation, a study by the International Water and Sanitation Centre has

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shown “…projects designed and run with the full participation of women are more sustainable and effective than those that do not” (Gender, Water and Sanitation: A Policy Brief, 2005, p. 2).

The brief also provides a number of recommendations for national, regional and local governments as well as communities, civil society and donors and international organizations to ensure that the gender perspective is successfully incorporated into the global water and sanitation agenda (Gender, Water and Sanitation: A Policy Brief, 2005, p. 11).

International policies: food security

There are no binding or voluntary international policies known to the authors regarding food security. However, the East Africa Community has a Food Security Action Plan, and the Rio declaration states among its objectives the importance to “Undertake activities aimed at the promotion of food security and, where appropriate, food self-sufficiency within the context of sustainable agriculture.” (United Nations Conference on Environment & Development Rio de Janerio, Brazil, 3 to 14 June 1992, Agenda 21, p. 16)

The UN has also published an updated comprehensive framework for action, but it does not have any binding policy implications (UN updated comprehensive framework for action 2010).

The authors also found a draft report entitled Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security released by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, FAO, 2012).

International policies: climate resilience

UN FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change sets the objective to “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992). However, the treaty has not articulated any binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and it contains no enforcement mechanisms, it is not legally binding. It contains no language on gender or the intersection between gender and environmental conservation, although there has been a lot of progress on integration of gender as a cross-cutting issue within the last several years.

KYOTO PROTOCOL

The Kyoto Protocol is the first international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries in terms of reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. As with the UNFCCC, no language is included that addresses the intersection between gender and environmental conservation, including in its article 12, the clean development mechanism (CDM). However, the CDM is seen as one of the principal opportunities to leverage the opportunities for women in climate resilience.

Although it is not an international policy instrument, the authors found a policy brief by the International Institute for Environment and Development on the application of Community-Based

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Adaptation (CBA) to climate change (Huq, S. and Reid, H., 2007). Although the literature on community-based adaptation is expansive, no international policy instruments to date exist regarding CBA practices. Given CI‟s experience in this area, this might be an opportunity to engage in drafting a policy brief on the issue.

International policies: improved livelihoods

As with the other levels of governance (Regional, National) discussed in this policy analysis, there are no formal policies on improved livelihoods at the international level. However, some policy instruments, especially on sustainable development are related to CI‟s objective of improving livelihoods of the marginalized and poor.

JOHANNESBURG DECLARATION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (2002)

Building on the Earth Summit in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, the Johannesburg Declaration, officially titled “Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development,” advances the agenda of global sustainable development. The declaration is based on the Earth Summit and its Agenda 21 and the Millennium Development Goals. In terms of the intersection between gender and conservation, the declaration states that its implementation should benefit all, especially women, the youth, children and vulnerable groups (Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002, p. 2).

It continues to “promote women‟s equal access to and full participation in, on the basis of equality with men, decision-making at all levels, mainstreaming gender perspectives in all policies and strategies, eliminating all forms of violence and discrimination against women and improving the status, health and economic welfare of women and girls through full and equal access to economic opportunity, land, credit, education and health-care services” (Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002, p. 3).

A chapter on protecting and managing the natural resource base of economic and social development sets the tone for gender inclusion in development and conservation, including a call to action to “…mobilize international and domestic financial resources at all levels, transfer technology, promote best practice and support capacity-building for water and sanitation infrastructure and services development, ensuring that such infrastructure and services meet the needs of the poor and are gender-sensitive” (Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002, p. 14).

Conclusion: international policies integrating gender and conservation

Despite the complexity of international governance and its often apparent conflict with national sovereignty when considering enforceability, this section on the integration of gender and environmental conservation as cross cutting issues in international policymaking has demonstrated that an international agenda exists to implement these issues. Principles of human rights, gender equity and the importance of sustainable development and sustainable livelihoods have “trickled down” into concrete international conventions, treaties and declarations.

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Interestingly, one of the most useful and oft-cited policy instruments at the regional and national levels is Agenda 21, a voluntary and non-binding set of guidelines that, as we shall see, seem to have found traction at the regional and national levels.

However, international policy instruments are only the preamble to sound regional and national policymaking and the fact that not only gender and environmental conservation are represented in internationally ratified documents, but also their importance as cross-cutting issues for development in other sectors is encouraging.

For CI, the key international conventions and declaration provide the initial leverage to engage in gender and conservation issues in the East Africa region. Combined with the analysis in the rest of this report, a strong case can be made for integration of the voices of the marginalized in the international as well as the regional and national environmental policy agenda.

Regional policies integrating gender and conservation

Key regional institutions

For this report, the authors have identified key regional institutions that provide regional policy instruments regarding conservation and considered those instruments relevant to the report‟s inclusion criteria for policy review. A brief description of these regional institutions follows.

THE SOUTH AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC)

The South African Development Community is an inter-governmental organization of Southern African states that is headquartered in Gaborone, Botswana.

Even if only one of the nations under study in this report, Tanzania, is a member State of SADC, the organization has sufficient political clout in the region to merit inclusion in this report‟s analysis of regional policies. The other member states of SADC are Angola, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa and the Seychelles.

THE EAST AFRICA COMMUNITY (EAC)

All countries under national policy analysis for this report are also members of the East Africa Community. The EAC is an inter-governmental organization comprising the five countries in the African Great Lakes region: Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. The EAC implemented a common market for goods, labor and capital within the region in 2010. Its eventual goals include a common currency, tourist visa, and an East African Federation of States.

OTHER REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Other intergovernmental organizations of which at least one of the nations under study is a member are the African Union, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), and the Community of

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Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD). However, these organizations are mostly focused on African economic development and African diplomacy and currently do not have any policies formulated that address the intersection between gender and conservation.

Regional policies: freshwater conservation

THE SADC REGIONAL WATER POLICY (2005)

As water is of great importance to the region, but coordination of policies across border was virtually non-existent, SADC member states have addressed water conservation and management issues in their Regional Water Policy. The policy contains a paragraph expressing that gender mainstreaming in water resources management should be addressed at all levels (SADC regional water policy, 2005, pp. viii, xvi). In addition, the policy underlines the importance of stakeholder participation and capacity building in gender mainstreaming efforts (SADC regional water policy, 2005, p. ix).

It also contains official policies that state “Women are recognized as playing a central role in the provision, management and safeguarding of water and shall be fully involved in the development and implementation of policies, processes and activities at all levels.” Additionally, a second policy on gender, water conservation and management stipulates that “All SADC water institutions shall implement the principles, goals and objectives of gender mainstreaming in their administration and implementation” (SADC regional water policy, 2005, p. 51).

The focus areas for gender mainstreaming the water sector are:

1) Gender policy and institutional frameworks 2) Women‟s human and legal rights, including the elimination of violence against women 3) Access to, and control of resources; and 4) Access to key political and decision making positions (adapted from the SADC regional

water policy, 2005, p. 52).

The authors also found a paper that spoke to regional participation of women in the fisheries sector in Lake Victoria (Medard et al., 2001). The paper might be helpful for CI staff to get an impression of on-the ground status of women in fisheries along Lake Victoria.

Regional policies: food security

EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (EAC) FOOD SECURITY ACTION PLAN (2010)

The East African Community Food Security Action Plan is the main regional policy regarding food security. The overall objective of the plan is regional cooperation in agriculture and rural development and the achievement of food security. In addition, EAC member states aim to attain food security through increased agricultural production, processing, storage and marketing. Similarly to the SADC regional water policy, the EAC Food Security Action Plan identifies gender as a cross cutting issue that has to be built into all food security strategies (East African Community Food Security Action Plan, 2010, p. 19).

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For the specific policy goal of increasing agricultural productivity and making the EAC region a net exporter of food, the community recognizes that “Gender imbalances exist with regards to access and control of productive resources”, and that “Local communities including CBOs [community-based organizations] and women‟s organizations, ministries responsible for gender issues and the private sector and civil society” are key actors in bringing about change in adaptation of and training in new agricultural technologies, including the promotion of soil conservation measures (East African Community Food Security Action Plan, 2010, p. 25).

Regarding agricultural production, the policy also proposes the streamlining of gender issues, enhancement of development and sharing of knowledge and technologies through regional coordinated research and appropriate extension packages including production according to agro-ecological conditions considering gender issues (East African Community Food Security Action Plan, 2010, p. 25). This could be of considerable importance to CI engaging in the region as the language in the policy stresses the intersection of gender and conservation in agricultural production in a sustainable (agro-ecological) manner. Moreover, the language in this policy implies that the community and its member governments and concerned ministries are willing to engage in this space, but do not have the appropriate research data and capacity to identify actors or interventions. CI could play a pivotal role in brokering the linkages between proven, grassroots community efforts that integrate gender and conservation, and national or even regional institutions.

SADC REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL POLICY (2012)

The SADC Regional Agricultural Policy extensively covers gender as a cross-cutting issue. Gender mainstreaming is mentioned as a main goal of mainstreaming in agricultural policy and practices (SADC Regional Agricultural Policy, pp. 7, 31). In addition, gender is also taken into account in reducing vulnerability of women and other vulnerable groups in society (SADC Regional Agricultural Policy, p. 75).

The significance of gender equity in agriculture is also discussed, with the policy asserting that “gender inequality remains a major challenge in general and, in particular, for the agriculture and food security policy” (SADC Regional Agricultural Policy, p. 7).

Regional policies: climate change adaptation

EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (EAC) CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY (2011)

The East African Community Climate Change Policy is the EAC‟s regional policy instrument for climate change adaptation. Using the rationale that adverse impacts of climate change are a threat to the livelihoods of people in almost all sectors of the economy in the EAC region, the policy advocates for a concerted effort on behalf of the partner states and other stakeholders in the preparation and implementation of collective measures to address climate change in the region while assuring sustainable social and economic development.

It also recognizes the marginalized and disempowered and asserts that “Given the differentiated impacts of climate change on women, men and youth, and the roles of women specifically in addressing climate change, gender considerations have been given adequate attention in an effort to integrate gender in the Policy.” (EAC Climate Change Policy, 2011, p. ii). Gender is also included as a specific objective as the policy seeks to “Support the integration of climate change information and knowledge into regional development planning, and decision making, disaster

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risk management and gender development” (EAC Climate Change Policy, 2011, p. 7) although it is not clear what exactly is meant by the term “gender development”.

Although SADC does not have an official policy instrument for climate change yet, the authors have found a paper that assesses the policy option for SADC member states with regards to climate change (Lesolle, D., 2012).

Regional policies: improved livelihoods

Neither SADC nor EAC have regional policies that deal with sustainable or improved livelihoods. The policy instruments previously discussed that are related to the issues are the East African Community Food Security Action Plan, the SADC Regional Agricultural Policy. Other related policies are Agriculture and Rural Development Strategy for the East African Community. As previously described, all these documents mention gender as a cross-cutting and cross-sectorial issue that needs to be taken into account when implementing policy. They also mention communities, and community based organizations as an important ally and stakeholder in their institutional framework, this paving the way for CI to bring CBO‟s that represent marginalized populations, both from a gender and ethnic perspective to the table.

Conclusion: regional policies integrating gender and conservation

Both SADC and EAC policy instruments show a strong integration of gender as a cross-cutting issue into conservation-related policies. Although the instruments do not cover all sectors as extensively as national policies discussed in the next section (for example, neither EAC nor SADC have a fisheries or environmental conservation policy) the policies available to date prioritize the integration of gender with conservation.

The opportunities for CI in the region abound, as is especially apparent in the East African Community Food Security Action Plan, that calls for action on agricultural production as it should be integrated with gender issues and take place “according to agro-ecological conditions considering gender concerns” (East African Community Food Security Action Plan, 2010, p. 25).

As mentioned in the regional food security section, it is recommended CI contact national responsible ministries of agriculture and gender as well as their regional bodies in the EAC. This would help CI in exploring possibilities around acting as a broker of knowledge in the region. Specifically CI should consider focusing on creating a regional platform aimed at bringing successful practices in the integration of gender and marginalized populations with conservation efforts and the establishment of sustainable livelihoods.

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National policies: Kenya

POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHIC SNAPSHOT OF KENYA

The Republic of Kenya is a presidential representative democratic republic led by President Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta, the fourth President of Kenya. After having served as Minister of Local Government from 2001-2002 he was leader of the Official Opposition from 2002-2007 after which he became Deputy Prime Minister from 2008-2013. He was sworn into office on the 9th of April 2013 after widely contested elections. In terms of the political hierarchy, it is important to realize that the President of Kenya is both head of State, head of Government and head of the multi-party system. The executive branch of government, headed by the President has the executive power. The President also chairs the cabinet which is composed of people chosen from outside parliament. Legislative power is vested exclusively in Parliament. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.

A new constitution was promulgated in 2010, following a referendum in which an alleged 67% of Kenyan voters voted in favor of the document. Under this new constitution, gender discrimination is criminalized and representation in elective bodies has to meet a gender quota, namely that no more than two-thirds of members shall be from either gender in its make up (Kenyan constitution 2010, Chapter 7, Article 81(b)). In addition, environmental rights of Kenyan nationals are recognized under Chapter 5(Part 2).

Kenya is rapidly growing, presenting a serious burden on its resources, population and environment with the most recent 2011 population count at 41.61 million (up from 32 million in 2001). It consists of 47 counties, with a coastal region (formerly the coastal province) in the southwest comprising the port city of Mombasa. Its poorest regions are in the west and the northeast.

AGENDA 21 AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES

The Kenyan Government has ratified and developed guidelines to integrate environmental concerns into agriculture development projects in relation to management of rangelands, forests, water quality, wildlife and conservation of genetic resources. During the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, Kenya endorsed and adopted Agenda 21, which provided the world‟s leaders with practical solutions to global problems regarding the environment and development. Kenya has ratified most international agreements, treaties, conventions, and protocols resulting from the first Rio conference. These are considered to be in harmony with the country's plans for sustainable development and will be discussed further below. As a result of the Rio commitments, Kenya joined the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

Kenya‟s commitment to gender and the intersection of gender and conservation remains strong, as Kenya‟s Rio+20 report entitled Vision 2030 is buttressed by three pillars, among which is the social pillar. The Vision 2030 report specifically mentions gender as a point of attention alongside the environment, education, health and other areas.

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Kenya’s national policies: gender equality

In Kenya‟s Vision 2030 report, the government states that “The National Policy on Gender and Development adopted in 2000 provides a basis for the Government to underscore its commitment to advancing the status of women. The Government of Kenya is determined to address any existing imbalances through policy formulation and implementation taking into account different needs and skills of men and women. The policy was developed after the Government‟s recognition that development policies do not affect Kenyans uniformly. Differences invariably arise on the basis of age, cultural practices and beliefs among others.” In addition, the report mentions that, “The Government has demonstrated its commitment to achieving gender mainstreaming goals by anchoring gender equality in the Constitution. To achieve gender mainstreaming goals across the sectors, the government has established a gender focal point system which means that every sub-sector has a gender focal point and that gender indicators are integrated in the performance contracts. Most sectors have developed gender mainstreaming policies and strategies in order to make gender an integral part of sector development, programming and institutional approach. In addition to the Gender and Development Policy 2000, sub-sectors have incorporated gender within their sector policies and regulatory frameworks.”

Kenya’s national policies: freshwater conservation

NATIONAL WATER POLICY (2012)

Kenya‟s 2012 National Water Policy has been developed by the Ministry for Water and Irrigation in concordance with the 2010 constitution of Kenya (which guarantees every Kenyan citizen the “right to water”) and Vision 2030, Kenya‟s Rio+20 sustainable development report. It builds on the 1999 National Water Policy and the Kenyan Water Act (2002). Stakeholders in development of the policy are listed as “GIZ (German Development Agency), water sector stakeholders and the government of Kenya as represented by Water Sector Institutions (WSIs), district water officers, civil society, the private sector, and many individual Kenyans.”

Following the 2010 constitution and the Beijing declaration, the National Water Policy included “Gender provisions in the management of Water Sector Institutions and safeguarding of water” (Kenya National Water Policy, 2012, p. 4). On page 24 of the policy, further emphasis is given to the role of gender in this environmental issue: “The water sector through its policies and strategies has recognized that women, children and persons with disability are among the poorest in society and are the most affected where water supply and sanitation services are inadequate, often with life threatening consequences. In the past four years the pro-poor approach gradually improved the situation for women and children. Equally important, the dialogue platforms established in the water sector aimed at mainstreaming gender and youth. Water Association Groups (WAGs) and Water Resource User Association “WRUAs” empower women to participate in decision-making. WAGs and WRUAs must have among their members 30% women and water kiosks should be at least operated to 50% by women” (Kenya National Water Policy, 2012, p. 24). Kenya‟s National Water Policy explicitly states the following policy objective: “To move towards gender equality in WSIs, integrate the concerns of the youth and offer a significant contribution in HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment” (Kenya National Water Policy, 2012, p. 25).

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Kenya is endowed with numerous freshwater and coastal resources. Besides the coastal region referenced in the country overview, a number of other areas should also be of interest to CI in considering partnerships in the region. Of particular note are the Tana River delta in the south east and Lake Victoria along the Western border of Kenya. The Tana River is the longest in Kenya. It is over 625 miles long and has a catchment area of 60,000 square miles (up to 100,000 square miles according to other estimates). The Tana River starts on Mount Kenya and enters the ocean in northeastern Kenya near Kipini. Pressure on the environment, resulting ethnic tensions and its effects on marginalization of women and indigenous communities are apparent in a number of areas in Kenya. Of particular interest to CI and in direct relation to freshwater management is, for example, the Tana River Delta. In recent years, a number of organizations have rallied around conservation efforts aimed at preserving this district, led by faith-based organization A Rocha Kenya http://www.tanariverdelta.org/tana/partners.html. A policy document on A Rocha‟s Tana River Delta website references the intersections of gender and conservation and the importance of including marginalized groups in economic development and conservation initiatives around the region. Another document that is outside the scope of this report but might be of interest to CI is a UNDP paper on Community Based Approach to the Management of Nyando Wetland, Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya.

Kenya’s national policies: food security

NATIONAL FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY POLICY (2011)

Kenya‟s Food and Nutrition Security Policy starts with an executive summary reviewing the nation‟s major problems regarding food security: “Currently over 10 million people in Kenya suffer from chronic food insecurity and poor nutrition, and between two and four million people require emergency food assistance at any given time. Nearly 30% of Kenya‟s children are classified as undernourished, and micronutrient deficiencies are widespread.” It continues to assert that the government is “…strongly committed to reducing hunger and malnutrition. This includes efforts to build self-reliance to reduce chronic food insecurity, as well as measures to assist those in need when emergencies occur.” The policy then opens the door for development efforts and partners to help engage in reducing the government‟s efforts in achieving food security: “Linking relief with longer-term development efforts helps mitigate the potential impact of future emergencies.” The new Food and Nutrition Security Policy (FNSP) provides an overarching framework covering the multiple dimensions of food security and nutrition improvement. It has been purposefully developed to add value and create synergy to existing sectorial and other initiatives of government and partners. It recognizes the need for multi-public and private sector involvement … This policy is framed in the context of basic human rights, child rights and women‟s rights, including the universal „Right to Food‟ (emphasis added) (Kenya National Food and Nutrition Security Policy 2011, p. vii).

The policy reviews the contribution of eradication of hunger and malnutrition to achieving the MDGs and concludes for MDG 3 (promoting gender equality) that “Gender inequality perpetuates the cycle in which mothers, as undernourished children, give birth to low birth-weight children.” For MDG 7 (ensuring environmental sustainability), the policy notes “hunger leads to unsustainable use of natural resources as people look for means to survive” (Kenya National Food and Nutrition Security Policy 2011, p. 8).

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Regarding the distribution of labor and access to resources, the policy notes that “rural women provide 75% of labor in smallholdings and directly manage 40% of smallholder farms. However, access to, and control of, productive resources such as land and capital is mainly in the hands of men.” The policy also asserts that although off-farm employment comprises as much as 60% of rural households‟ incomes, “…participation of women and other vulnerable groups in off-farm activities is limited by access and control of resources (Kenya National Food and Nutrition Security Policy 2011, p. 17).

According to this policy, to address these and other problems regarding food security and production, the policy states that in order to enhance productive on-farm employment, the government will:

- Support measures that improve security and access to land and water resources by all Kenyans especially by taking all necessary measures to enable women, the older persons, pastoralists and child-headed households, to have access to land use and water, and the benefits that accrue;

- Review minimum wages regularly to take account of food security and nutrition needs, inflation rates and labor productivity;

- Support cooperatives, out-grower schemes and fair-trade initiatives to increase the share of small producers in the production and export of high value crops and livestock;

- Promote collective action to increase bargaining power of farmers; and - Promote production of high value crops and value-addition to increase earnings.

In addition, in order to enhance productive off-farm employment, the government will:

- Simplify business registration, licensing and regulations and provide legal and institutional support to small businesses throughout the country;

- Support small rural business by developing value chains and agro-processing zones by increasing access to technology;

- Support micro-finance initiatives (credit, savings and insurance schemes); and - Support investment in the road and energy sectors to lower production and marketing

costs (Kenya National Food and Nutrition Security Policy 2011, p 17-18).

Another objective that the policy emphasizes is improving maternal and newborn nutrition, which, among other measures, the government plans to address through ensuring “…pregnant and lactating women and their families have access to and are knowledgeable about their need for an adequate and nutritious diet,” and through promoting “…early initiation and exclusive breastfeeding” (Kenya National Food and Nutrition Security policy 2011, p. 26-27).

Lastly, in the context of emergency response, the policy details plans by the government to conduct “transfer-based entitlement schemes … based on household composition, these schemes are designed for smooth consumption to better meet dietary requirements through transfer-based entitlements which can include direct food handouts, food-for-work, cash-for-work and supplementary feeding programs. The high administrative and logistical costs associated with traditional programs have led to the development of more cost-effective tools which often target specific groups: the older persons, children, the malnourished, poor pregnant women, single parents, the disabled and the HIV/AIDS infected” (Kenya National Food and Nutrition Security Policy 2011, p. 43).

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Regarding other national efforts to address food security, a UN document on the status of implementation of Agenda 21 indicates, “mainstreaming of gender issues in agriculture … has already been done by creating a Gender Mobilization Support Unit at the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development headquarters” http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/kenya/natur.htm.

Kenya‟s Vision 2030 report mentions that “…development of appropriate complementary products in the tourism sector will increase the attractiveness of the destination and increase tourist spending in the local economy. The distribution of employment, including gender distribution, and access for local entrepreneurs from the formal and informal sectors to the tourism market are essential to poverty elimination.” This echoes the national nutrition policy‟s focus on off-farm equity in employment opportunities.

Finally, the Food and Nutrition Security Policy mentions it fully conforms with the Fourth Schedule, Part 2, paragraph 10 provision of the National Constitution, which says, “the county governments have a mandate relating to implementation of specific national government policies on natural soil, water conservation and forestry.” This is an important constitutional provision as it asserts the government‟s mandate over national resources, but also implies its responsibility to deal with these sources responsibly and in the best interest of the Kenyan people.

Kenya’s national policies: climate change adaptation

Although Kenya does not have a dedicated climate change policy yet, the Kenyan government released a National Climate Change Action Plan on 27th of March 2013, showing its political dedication and attention to this matter. Among lead government institutions involved in climate change, the Plan lists the Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources (MEMR), the Ministry of Planning and National Development, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of State for Development of Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands (MSDNKOAL), Ministry of Water and Irrigation, the National Economic and Social Council, the Climate Change Unit at the Office of the Prime Minister (OPM), the National Environment Council (NEC), the National Council for Science & Technology (NCST), the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA), the Climate Change Units / Desk Offices present in most institutions in the Government of Kenya and the County Governments.

Women and children are repeatedly mentioned as a “vulnerable group” that can be disproportionately affected by climate change (Kenya National Climate Change Action Plan 2013, pp. 27, 38).

Under disaster preparedness, it mentions that alongside other disaster preparedness systems, an “…effective social safety net programme…” should be carried out by “…empowered youth and women (Kenya National Climate Change Action Plan 2013, p. 39). However, no further specification is given as to the exact form or implementation of such a safety net.

Perhaps the most interesting portion of the action plan that has potential for CI‟s activities in East Africa is the set of recommended enabling actions on knowledge management and capacity development. To this end, the establishment “…of a national framework for capacity development, and a climate change information and knowledge management network to collect, generate and analyze climate change knowledge products” are recommended. Moreover, the action plan states the importance to “…disseminate climate change knowledge products to potential beneficiaries, especially women and other vulnerable groups, through improved public

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awareness and communication, develop collaborative partnerships to engage government and civil society” and “integrate climate change in the education system and in all other professional practices” (Kenya National Climate Change Action Plan 2013, p. 41).

Lastly, among its key findings, the action plan proposes a National Performance & Benefit Measurement Framework to evaluate Kenya‟s efforts in promoting climate change adaptation through a Monitoring, Reporting and Verification+ (covering adaptation, mitigation and synergies between them) system (Kenya National Climate Change Action Plan 2013, pgs. 130-133). Indicators for this system should include data disaggregated by gender to render visible any differences between adaptive capacities of women versus men (Kenya National Climate Change Action Plan 2013, pp. 135-136).

Kenya’s national policies: improved livelihoods

The closest policy instrument Kenya has regarding improved livelihoods is its Vision 2030 report referenced previously, which expands Kenya‟s aspirations towards Agenda 21. Vision 2013 has three pillars, among which is the social pillar that includes both women and other marginalized groups as well as the environment and its conservation as points of attention. Part of this are the flagship programs by the Ministry of Gender, Children & Social Development. They are “gender mainstreaming, to ensure inclusion of gender related issues in all government policies, plans and programs” so that “…the needs and interests of each gender (i.e. women and men, girls and boys) are addressed.” Use of gender disaggregated data so the data “…accurately portrays the gender balance in all sections of the country will be availed to form basis for developing gender-sensitive policies, plans and programs.” To institutionalize the Women Enterprise Fund, “…the Fund will continue to provide Kenyan women with access to alternative financial services and to increase earned incomes (Sustainable Development in Kenya: Stocktaking in the run up to Rio+20, 2012, p. 60; Kenya Vision 2030, 2007, p. 16).

Conclusion: Kenya’s national policies integrating of gender and conservation

In conclusion, Kenya‟s national policies provide ample opportunity for Conservation International to engage a diverse group of State and non-State actors to facilitate the integration and implementation of the gender and conservation agenda. Kenya‟s new 2010 constitution‟s strong emphasis on equality and human rights provides the necessary political leeway and represents a strong political will to raise marginalized populations out of poverty. Both the National Water Policy, with its provision on representation by women in all water institution bodies as well as Kenya‟s Food and Nutrition Security Policy‟s emphasis on cooperation between sectors provide a space for innovative conservation initiatives that give voice to the marginalized and employ novel holistic components that are integrated into the broader conservation and development agenda.

National policies: Tanzania

POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHIC SNAPSHOT OF TANZANIA

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The United Republic of Tanzania is a unitary presidential constitutional democratic republic, in which the President of Tanzania, Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete is both head of state and head of government and of the multi-party democratic system. Kikwete was elected into office in 2005 and is a member of the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) party, which has dominated the political landscape since 1961 when multi-party politics were discontinued under the founding President Julius Nyerere. The multi-party system was reinstated in 1992. Executive power is exercised by the government whereas legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.

Politically, Tanzania has remained remarkably stable since independence with a slow but steady progress towards political pluralism: the number of political parties participating in the political space has grown from 11 to 19. Even if only six of these parties have been able to achieve representation in parliament, they reflect national democratic debate and play a considerable role in advancing key issues such as accountability and transparency.

Constitutional reforms are under way and planned to be finalized by 2015 ahead of the general elections in October of that year. The constitutional review process currently forms a major part of public debate along with topics such as corruption and poor service delivery. Until then, the current Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania adopted in 1977 remains in place.

Despite pervasive poverty and mortality from preventable causes, Tanzania‟s population is rapidly growing. Its population has risen at an average rate of 2.5% per year and is up from 35 million in 2001 to almost 47 million by the last population calculations in 2011. Tanzania's geography is among the most unique and varied in the world. It contains Africa's highest point Mount Kilimanjaro as well as lakes, mountains and many natural parks. Globally, the United Republic of Tanzania is categorized as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots. About 25% of the land area of Tanzania is occupied by crucial ecosystem including national parks, game and forest reserves as well as key wetlands that are designated as Wetlands of International Importance (i.e. Ramsar) sites.

AGENDA 21 AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES

Tanzania has signed the majority of international conventions regarding the environment and continues to implement policies in concordance with these international policy instruments. At the Rio summit in 1992, Tanzania signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). It also was part of the Heads of State that endorsed the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) and the Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21 (National Report for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio+20, p. 21). In its Rio+20 report, the government of Tanzania emphasizes that given the country‟s biodiversity, it is imperative that the “implementation of all sector policies is cognizant of the Convention on Biological Diversity.” Besides the Rio+20 report, other national policy documents of interest regarding the environment and conservation are the Tanzania Development Vision 2025, the Zanzibar Development Vision 2020, the National Environmental Policy of 1997 and the National Environmental Policy for Zanzibar, 1992. In addition, environmental concerns have been mainstreamed into various sectorial policies regarding agriculture and livestock, land, human settlement, forest, mining, energy, trade, health and education.

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Tanzania’s national policies: gender equality

The authors of this report were unable to obtain Tanzania‟s much referenced “Women and Gender Development Policy” which, according to official documentation was released in 2000. Therefore, policy analysis was done using the “National Strategy for Gender Development” published in 2008, which is readily available on the Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children‟s website. The National Strategy is a comprehensive document that discusses steps towards gender mainstreaming, the importance of women‟s rights and the pathways through which marginalization can occur. Moreover, it contains specific language on women and environmental protection and conservation, voiced as an area of particular concern to policy makers. The strategy states that “Communities and other stakeholders at all levels [should] be sensitized on the importance of establishing gender balance in environmental management committees, to protect and preserve their surroundings and environment” (Tanzania National Strategy for Gender Development 2008, p. 17). This is followed by policy objective 2.1.14.3: “Increasing environmental protection and conservation measures to ensure human and economic development.” And followed by the strategies 2.1.14.4a “Sensitize communities and other stakeholders on gender balance in environmental management” and 2.1.14.4b “Provide tools and facilities for the protection and conservation of environment.” See figure below for additional information on indicators and actors regarding this policy objective.

Figure 2: Environmental Protection and Conservation Policy Objectives, Strategies, Activities, Indicators and Actors (adapted from Tanzania Gender Development Strategy, 2008, p. 61)

The strategy also features language that addresses access and ownership of resources in the form of objective 2.1.15.3: “Having men and women empowered through allocation of resources equally and equitably” and strategies 2.1.15.4a “Develop sensitization programs to communities and service providers” and 2.1.15.4b: “Have in place appropriate mechanisms for equal provision of loans for women and men.” This is also the case for gender mainstreaming, where the strategy states objective 2.1.16.3.1 as “having established and strengthened mechanisms for gender mainstreaming at all levels” and 2.1.16.3.2 as “mainstreaming gender in all sectorial

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policies, programs and strategies.” Lastly, CI should be interested in policy objective 2.1.19.3 in the strategy, which promotes community participation. In addition, gender concerns have been mainstreamed into Tanzania‟s broader development agenda. In Tanzania‟s Vision 2025, which aims at achieving a high quality livelihood for the Tanzanian people, attain good governance through the rule of law and develop a strong and competitive economy, gender is specifically addressed. As part of the vision, the specific target of attaining a high quality livelihood characterized by sustainable and shared growth (equity), and freedom from abject poverty in a democratic environment were expressed, with gender equality as a specific aim.

Clearly, the 2008 National Strategy for Gender Development and the Vision 2025 demonstrate the exemplary commitments the Government of Tanzania has made in terms of multi-sectorial national policy efforts in promoting gender equality.

Tanzania’s national policies: freshwater conservation

NATIONAL WATER POLICY (2002)

Tanzania‟s National Water Policy (2002) is aimed at “achieving sustainable development and management of the nation‟s water resources for economy-wide benefits and increased availability of water supply and sanitation services.” The government reports in its Rio+20 report that as a result of implementing this policy, there has been an increased water supply and accessibility through use of various sources of water such as rainwater harvesting, protected wells and boreholes.

A National Water Sector Development Strategy (2005) was also developed and is being implemented to support alignment of other water related key sectorial policies of energy, irrigation, industry, mining, and environment. As part of its institutional framework, the policy explicitly mentions “Gender implications shall be examined and taken into account at all stages of management of water resources” (Tanzania National Water Policy, 2002, p. 16). It also states “Sustainable water supply and sanitation services legally owned by communities themselves” (Tanzania National Water Policy, 2002, 32) as a policy goal for community participation and “Active and effective participation of women and men in rural water supply programs” as a policy goal for ensuring gender sensitivity (Tanzania National Water Policy, 2002, p. 35).

The language for the policy goal on gender sensitivity is encouraging: “In the rural areas women bear the burden of searching for water and [are] guardians of the living environment. However, this pivotal role has seldom been reflected in institutional arrangements for the development and management of rural water supply and sanitation services. In order to improve gender participation in rural water supply programs the following will be undertaken (Tanzania National Water Policy, 2002, pp. 35-36):

1) A fair representation of women in village water-user entities will be encouraged. 2) Rural water supply programs shall be based on what both men and women in rural

communities know, want, and are able to manage, maintain and pay for. 3) Raise awareness, train and empower women to actively participate at all levels in water

programs, including decision making, planning, supervision and management.”

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The National Water Sector Development Strategy (2005) provides an update on the status of gender mainstreaming in water management and conservation efforts:

…there have been few attempts to mainstream gender aspects in the Water Sector especially at the decision-making, management and technical levels. However, some efforts to consider gender inclusion through creation of gender awareness, and through increasing fair gender representation in village water committees, have been a significant step forward (Tanzania National Water Strategy 2005, pp. 75-76).

It continues to state the problem around gender and water management and conservation as follows:

“There is inadequate gender disaggregated data and information at all levels in the Water Sector, therefore there is little reliable information on how different gender groups, especially women and children, are affected by the improvement or lack of access to water.

The Public Expenditure Review 2004 has revealed that there is still little consultation of both men and women in selecting and managing rural water supply schemes. Even where women are members of village water committees, culturally they do not feel capable of playing an active participatory role in decision making, planning, supervision and management of rural water schemes. Also, women are under-represented on catchment committees and water user committees, urban water and sewerage boards, and urban district water boards.

In the case of urban and small town water supply and sewerage situations, there has been little consideration given to involving women in the decision making process” (Tanzania National Water Strategy 2005, pp. 75-76).

The Strategy has slightly revised goals and strategies on increasing gender sensitivity:

Goal: Active and effective participation of both women and men in the provision of water supply, sewerage and sanitation services. The strategy for increasing gender sensitivity will be to:

- monitor the relative involvement of men and women in various aspects of the Water Sector;

- promote active participation of women in water affairs;

- involve women and men equally in the provision of water, sewerage and sanitation services: and

- cultivate and promote a culture of gender equality in communities (Tanzania National Water Strategy 2005, p. 76).

An overview of revised goals and indicators is displayed below.

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Figure 3: Overview of key areas, goal, indicator, activities, responsible agency, and timescale on which gender sensitivity should be implemented into water management and conservation activities (adapted from Tanzania National Water Strategy, 2005, pp. A-12)

Tanzania’s national policies: food security

FOOD AND NUTRITION POLICY FOR TANZANIA (1992)

The Food and Nutrition Policy for Tanzania was released in 1992 and led by the Ministry of Health. The policy does not explicitly mention gender, nor the intersection between gender and nutrition, but identifies a list of vulnerable “special groups” that merit specific care. Among these groups are “pregnant and lactating women” (The Food and Nutrition Policy for Tanzania, 1992, 20). The policy identifies heavy workload and underage pregnancy as risk factors and proposes to raise the minimum age for marriage from 15 to 18 years as well as an extension of maternal and child health and family planning services and the adoption of technologies to reduce their heavy workload. Lastly, it recommends that “women should be involved in decision making and in the supervision of resource allocation and utilization at all levels” (The Food and Nutrition Policy for Tanzania, 1992, p. 24).

Tanzania’s national policies: climate change adaptation

Although several actors have called out for one in the past, Tanzania does not have a stand-alone climate change adaptation policy. However, a National Climate Change Strategy was released by the office of the Vice President in 2012. The strategy, realized through funding by the Danish Government, has an extensive section on cross-cutting issues, in which gender is included. The strategy asserts that Tanzania will continue to cooperate and act in line with commitments based on equity within the objectives and principles of the UNFCCC. It states that “The socio-economic development of the country depends on sectorial and cross-sectorial activities. In the national efforts towards climate change adaptation and mitigation issues of cross-cutting nature have to be addressed in all sectors.” Among the initiatives proposed are “…building sufficient capacities of marginalized groups, including women, to address climate change related disaster risks… and documentation and promotion of indigenous knowledge on climate change adaptation in various socio-economic sectors. These initiatives should be complemented by rigorous support to integration of climate change adaptation in all sectors; development and implementation of a national climate change communication strategy. To achieve all the above, the strategy identifies a need to build the capacity of all sectors and relevant institutions to address climate change adaptation” (Tanzania National Climate Change

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Strategy, 2012, p. 68). The figure below displays the strategy‟s approach to gender as a cross-cutting theme in climate change adaptation policy.

Figure 4: Sector, strategic statement, goal, objectives, interventions and key actors regarding gender and vulnerable groups as a cross-cutting theme to national climate change adaptation in Tanzania (adapted from Tanzania's National Strategy on Climate Change, 2012, p. 73-74)

In addition, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has been working with the government of Tanzania on a national action plan for climate change.

Tanzania’s national policies: improved livelihoods

As is the case with Kenya and Uganda, Tanzania does not have a dedicated policy instrument or strategy for improved livelihoods. Tanzania‟s 2001 Rural Development Strategy as well as its 2010 National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty II, however, do indicate that some policy provisions have been formulated nationally to foster the promotion of improved, sustainable livelihoods at the national level within the context of gender equity and conservation. The Rural development strategy‟s first and foremost objective is to “…bring about a sustainable development in the rural areas.” Whereas the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty II covers intersections between gender and education, water resource management, land rights.

Intersections with sustainability, livelihoods and gender are present too, as the Rural Development Strategy‟s second specific objective is to “rationalize farmers' and pastoralists' support services” through, among other actions, focusing “research on the development of affordable and gender appropriate agriculture technology that is suitable to given agricultural zones” (Tanzania Rural Development Strategy 2001, 36). The development strategy also identifies a strategic objective to “…increase women‟s access to vocational education and training activities” (Tanzania Rural Development Strategy 2001, p. 42).

An interesting opportunity for decentralization and community based resource management is present on the next page of the strategy, as it discusses problems and constraints that are hampering sustainable natural resource utilization. The strategy specifically mentions “lack of empowerment of communities in natural resources management” and “…state centralization of resource tenure and mismanagement of those empowered to do so” (Tanzania Rural Development Strategy 2001, p. 42), which should give CI some mandate to potentially bring together actors and push for improvement and innovation in this area.

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Conclusion: Tanzania’s national policies integrating gender and conservation

Tanzania‟s national policies and implementation strategies show a dynamic policy making landscape that has been committed to both conservation and gender. Moreover, the fact that many policies have been adopted for a longer time (compared to more recent policy efforts in Kenya) and in the case of water policy, even have a follow-up national implementation strategy that evaluates the policy‟s success to date and adjusts implementation accordingly, demonstrate the political will on behalf of national policy makers to address these issues. The absence of official climate change and improved or sustainable livelihoods policies presents an opportunity for CI to engage with national and non-state actors, do a needs assessment and organize a conference or platform where the voices of marginalized women and indigenous groups can be represented and integrated in the policy process. On the programmatic side, the current policies regarding gender and conservation leave room for community based groups to organize themselves and take responsibility in sustainably managing Tanzania‟s myriad natural resources. Here could be another role for CI in terms of empowering and organizing local organizations to interface with local and national government, the latter which has shown through its policies at least a political responsibility to which the government can be held when it comes to integrating gender concerns with conservation of natural resources.

National polices: Uganda

POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHIC SNAPSHOT OF UGANDA

The Republic of Uganda is a presidential democracy in which the President of Uganda is both head of state and head of government. The government has executive power whereas legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. A constitutional referendum in 2005 cancelled a 19-year ban on multi-party balloting, although the system remains tightly controlled by the President.

Uganda has been led by President Yoweri Museveni since he seized control in 1986. The president was elected to a five-year term in 2001 during the first general elections held since 1962. These 2001 elections were also the first elections since Museveni came into power.

Uganda has a dedicated Ministry of Gender, Labour & Social Development as well as a Ministry of Water and Environment. The country has enjoyed relative political stability for the past 20 years.

The most recent Constitution of the Republic of Uganda was promulgated in 2006 and has among its core objectives the promotion of democratic principles, national unity and stability and the protection and the “promotion of fundamental and other human rights and freedoms”, among which “gender balance and fair representation of marginalized groups” (Constitution of the Republic of Uganda, 2006).

Regarding gender equity in political participation, Article 71 of the constitution states that “members [of the multiparty system] should be regularly elected from citizens of Uganda with due consideration to gender (Constitution of the Republic of Uganda, 2006, p. 18). On the environment, the constitution sets out to “…promote development and awareness for proper management of land, air and water resources for the present and future generations.”

Similarly, Article 245 of the constitution states that parliament by law has to provide measures intended to protect and preserve the environment, manage the environment for sustainable development and promote environmental awareness (Constitution of the Republic of Uganda,

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2006, p. 63). By extension, the constitution stipulates that the function of local government is to assist “…the Government to preserve the environment through protection of forests, wetlands, lake shores, streams and prevention of environmental degradation” (Constitution of the Republic of Uganda, 2006, p. 84).

Uganda is mostly located on a plateau at intermediate altitude bordered by a rim of mountains and is flanked by three lakes of the Great Lakes region. Uganda‟s land is very suitable for agriculture and its altitude makes it less prone to tropical diseases than other African nations.

As the other two countries under study in this report, Uganda has experienced steady population growth despite continued burden of infectious disease and maternal and child mortality. With a population growth rate of around 3.1% over the past decade, and no signs of the fertility rate falling, the national population has risen by over 10 million from 23 million in 2000 to 34.5 million in 2011. Future projections are even bleaker, with some demographic institutes estimating an explosion in population growth that could result in a population as high as 130 million in 2050. Such growth is unsustainable and places a significant burden on Uganda‟s natural resources as well as the stability of the nation.

AGENDA 21 AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY EFFORTS

Besides the mention of environmental conservation in article 245 of the constitution, Uganda has a 1994 national environment policy, also contained within the national environment action plan (NEAP), released in 1995. The plan lays the basis for an institutional and legal framework, development of a new sustainable conservation culture, revision and modernization of sectorial policies, legislation and regulations and the establishment of an effective monitoring and evaluation system to assess the impact of policies and actions on the environment, the population and the economy.

The policy embraces concepts such as sustainability and community involvement, and also mentions the importance of gender integration: “It is essential to analyze and understand the relevancy and implications of gender roles in environmental and natural resource management. The exclusion of women at various levels of decision-making, project design and implementation is probably contributing significantly to the degradation of environmental resources” (Uganda National Environment Policy 1994, p. 29) and the policy seeks to “integrate gender concerns in environmental policy planning, decision-making and implementation at all levels to ensure sustainable social and economic development through collection of gender disaggregated data, inclusion of both men and women in education and analysis of policy programs in terms of gender effects” (Uganda National Environment Policy 1994, p. 29).

The most recent national policy document on environmental policy efforts was released in 2012. The National Report on the Progress on the Implementation of the Rio Commitments on Sustainable Development in Uganda led by the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) underlines Uganda‟s commitment to the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 and its outcomes.

Regarding gender, the Rio+20 report states that since the adoption of 2005‟s Political Parties and Organizations Act, “…gender participation in politics has been enhanced by the representation of women, youth and people with disabilities.” And that “…since 1997, environment and natural resource management was decentralized to local governments as part of a broader process to increase local ownership and improve environmental planning and

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management. This process is known as mainstreaming. There has also been affirmative action on specific gender consideration in the implementation of government policies and programs. Besides, budgeting processes integrate gender, HIV/AIDs and environmental concerns” (National Report on the Progress on the Implementation of the Rio Commitments on Sustainable Development in Uganda, 2012, p. 31).

Other policies that concern the environment in Uganda and are not discussed below include the Uganda Forestry Policy (2001), the Energy Policy (2002), the Renewable Energy Policy (2007), National Land Use Policy (2010), Disaster Preparedness and Management Policy (2011), National Agricultural Research Policy (2005) and the Uganda Wildlife Policy (1999).

Uganda’s national policies: gender equality

Uganda‟s National Gender Policy (2007) is based on international principles of human rights and equality and states that the “…government is committed to increasing knowledge and understanding of human rights among women and men so that they can enjoy their rights.” Under paragraph 5.2, it discusses Gender and Rights, and the intersection with environmental sustainability:

Uganda has experienced rapid economic growth over the past decade. Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth at market prices has averaged 6.5% per annum since 1990/ 1991. The central objective of Uganda's macroeconomic management is inflation control, export and private sector led growth. Strategies to achieve this include, among others, removal of administrative barriers to investment, improvement in transport infrastructure and utility services, modernization of agriculture, improving rural access to finance, enhancing environmental sustainability and improving security in northern Uganda. Women and men play significant though different economic roles (Uganda National Gender Policy, 2007, p. 12).

The principles outlined in Uganda‟s Gender Policy are well aligned with international policy instruments and conventions such as CEDAW and the Beijing declaration. However, social change and policy implementation are lengthy processes, as is witnessed from the government‟s stocktaking of progress towards MDG 3 and gender equity in Uganda in its 2012 Rio+20 report:

Despite several achievements towards promoting women’s participation in sustainable development, gender inequity remains prevalent. In general measures should be taken to strengthen women mobilization and empowerment programmes; improve the quality of Non Formal Adult Literacy Services; expand programmes to eliminate gender based violence; increase access to education opportunities beyond primary level for the girl child; and increasing national funding for women’s programmes. In addition, several interventions towards affirmative action need to be implemented and a number of policies that have remained in draft form for many years, such as the domestic relations bill, which was first drafted in 1965 should be passed. The structural segregation against women into low paying sectors should be reversed. Half of the women (50%) are employed in the three lowest paying sectors, that is, agriculture, household and quarrying, in comparison to 33% of men12. The cultural values that undermine gender equity should be discouraged (National Report on the Progress on the Implementation of the Rio Commitments on Sustainable Development in Uganda, 2012, p. 20).

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Uganda’s national policies: freshwater conservation

Uganda is located at the center of the Great Lakes region, and is surrounded by Lake Edward, Lake Albert, and Lake Victoria. Given its dependence on freshwater for livelihoods, economic development and sustenance, adequate national policies are essential in conserving and sustaining these valuable national resources.

NATIONAL WATER POLICY (1999), NATIONAL POLICY FOR THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WETLAND

RESOURCES (1995)

Uganda has a National Water Policy that was adopted in 1999. It builds on the constitution that states all Ugandans have the right to clean and safe water but does not provide further details on the gender disparity in access to water, or intersection of freshwater conservation with gender, nor provides any policy objectives to address these issues. Similarly, the 1995 National Policy for the Conservation and Management of Wetland Resources contains no mention of gender or the intersection of gender and conservation.

NATIONAL FISHERIES POLICY (2004)

The more recent 2004 National Fisheries Policy does get into these issues. It outlines gender and equity as a guiding principle and priority in the fisheries sector (Uganda National Fisheries Policy, 2004, p.17), a specific policy objective (Uganda National Fisheries Policy, 2004, p. 19) and contains a dedicated section to gender and equity issues in fisheries:

The government will ensure that women, the youth and poor people in particular are beneficiaries of the development of the fisheries sector. The policy recognises that there are other sections of society that are often marginalized in development processes, and that these groups are frequently the most dependent on fisheries resources for their livelihoods. The government will address this through its policy and equity and in employment and business opportunities, and by ensuring equity in the access, tenure, participation and sharing of benefits that accrue in fisheries.

The government shall ensure that reformed institutional structures promote the active participation of women, men and vulnerable groups. In 1993, the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) formulated gender-oriented policies aimed at addressing gender issues in the sector. Part of the objectives of these policies is to integrate gender concerns in fisheries policy planning, decision-making and implementation at all levels to ensure sustainable social and economic development. (Uganda National Fisheries Policy, 2004, p.50)

It also specifically mentions the advancement of “…the involvement of women, youth and less advantaged members of society in fisheries resources management” as a policy objective (Uganda National Fisheries Policy, 2004, p.22) and under its policy strategies in this area, recommends communities or community-based institutions to “…enact by-laws recognizing community based institutions and linkage with local governments for fisheries management, enact by-laws on best local practices and management of local fishing; sanitary (hygienic concerns) in consonance with district ordinances or national laws and strengthen beach management institutions for management of landing beaches and neighborhood fishing” (Uganda National Fisheries Policy, 2004, p. 23). This opens up enough space for CI to engage

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with community based resource management organization on the ground to further the gender and conservation agenda in the fisheries sector of Uganda.

Uganda’s national policies: food security

NATIONAL FOOD AND NUTRITION POLICY (2003), NATIONAL FOOD AND NUTRITION STRATEGY (2005)

Uganda‟s National Food and Nutrition Policy and National Food and Nutrition Strategy are the main policy documents of interest when discussing food and nutrition in Uganda. Besides the fact that both policy and strategy were formulated within the context of the overall national development policy objective to eradicate poverty, they are also in line with the National Gender Policy and Uganda‟s Vision 2025. As such, the policy mentions the importance of promoting gender-sensitive technologies and programs (National Food Policy, 2003, p. 5) and that gender considerations and the needs of all vulnerable groups are integral to all components of the policy (National Food Policy, 2003, p. 5).

The Strategy also asserts that “gender relations play an important role in ensuring food and nutrition security in the household and community. Nutrition oriented activities are inherently gendered. The [Strategy] seeks specific tailoring of food security and nutrition interventions based on a clear understanding of the differing roles that men and women play in assuring the food and nutrition security in their households. Doing so will lead to more effective interventions” (Uganda Food and Nutrition Strategy, p. iv).

Lastly, the strategy points to the community, civil society, CBO‟s and NGO‟s as a crucial level of organization at which food and nutrition problems can be addressed, and rights-based monitoring of the right to adequate food can take place (Uganda Food and Nutrition Strategy, pp. 28, 38, 39).

Uganda’s national policies: climate change adaptation

NATIONAL ADAPTATION PLAN OF ACTION (2007)

Uganda‟s climate change policy is currently under development (National Report on the Progress on the Implementation of the Rio Commitments on Sustainable Development in Uganda, 2012, p. 9) However, the Ministry of Water and Environment released a National Adaptation Plan of Action in 2007, on which this portion of the policy analysis shall be based.

As with the policies previously discussed, the National Adaptation Plan of Action for Climate Change is both based on the constitution and the overarching Poverty Eradication Action Plan for Uganda (2004). Regarding gender equity, the policy states that “Of particular concern were commitments addressing the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, ensuring environmental sustainability and gender equity and combating major diseases” (Climate Change: Uganda National Adaptation Plan of Action, 2007, p. xiii).

The plan rates gender issues as well as taking into consideration disadvantaged groups as a first tier criterion and discusses the need to address these issues at the national level (Climate Change: Uganda National Adaptation Plan of Action, 2007, p. 19). It also sees the development of guidelines for mainstreaming including gender issues as one of the key activities for

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Uganda‟s Climate Change and Development Planning Project (Climate Change: Uganda National Adaptation Plan of Action, 2007, p. 65).

In terms of engagement of the community, the plan discusses a Community Tree Growing project aimed at reducing deforestation as a result of population pressure and resulting poverty. The proposed project includes community-based nurseries and multiplication centers run by trained community-based extension workers and trained and equipped community-based technicians in land use management (Climate Change: Uganda National Adaptation Plan of Action, 2007, p. 52).

Uganda’s national policies: improved livelihoods

No formal policy document is in place in Uganda regarding the promotion of improved, sustainable livelihoods. The policy documents that come closest to discussing these issues are Uganda‟s previously discussed National Adaptation Plan of Action on Climate Change. The plan mentions alternative livelihoods as one of the potential coping strategies led by communities (Climate Change: Uganda National Adaptation Plan of Action, 2007, p.xv). For a discussion on the intersection of the plan with gender and conservation, read the previous section on national policies on climate change.

The Plan for Modernization of Agriculture (PMA) is also relevant to national policy regarding improved livelihoods. It is a “holistic, strategic framework for the eradication of poverty through multi-sectoral interventions, enabling the people to improve their livelihoods in a sustainable manner” (Climate Change: Uganda National Adaptation Plan of Action, 2007, p. xiii).

Conclusion: Uganda’s national policies integrating gender and conservation

Uganda‟s national policies on conservation show ample intersection with gender equity issues. Starting at the constitution, this section has discussed the pertinent policies regarding gender and conservation and shown that although the latest report on progress on the Rio declaration and Agenda 21 show gender equity in conservation are still far away, the national government has made significant policy efforts to put mainstream gender and conservation into its relevant sectors. The fact that a national climate change policy is under development might be a good area of focus for CI‟s East Africa efforts, since the disadvantaged and marginalized should be brought to the negotiation table and their voices should be included in the drafting process of such a policy.

Regarding water policy and livelihoods, even if the older water and wetlands policies did not mention gender, the fisheries policy is encouraging in its extensive coverage and concern with gender equity issues as well as community engagement and sustainable development. Especially recommendations to decentralize and empower communities to take responsibility over water sources and fishing activities in conjunction with the strong gender equity notes in the policy provide opportunities for engagement by CI and its potential partners.

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Conclusion and Recommendations

This scoping exercise has demonstrated that significant space exists in the policy landscape with regards to the inclusion of gender in existing international, regional and national level policies pertaining to conservation in East Africa. Not only basic conventions on human and women‟s rights can be invoked -- rather, political will at all levels has been manifested in the integration of gender and conservation in policy. Specifically the (partially) unintended results of Agenda 21 and the realization of East African governments that integration of environmental conservation is essential for a sustainable nation are encouraging.

For CI, four recurring themes emerge from the analysis in this report that merit further exploration. These themes will be briefly discussed and form a recommendation for CI‟s engagement in the region.

Leverage policy commitments regarding gender mainstreaming

Gender mainstreaming is a political reality. From the international level downwards, the discussed policy instruments contain clear language on the importance of gender mainstreaming. This should be leveraged by CI and combined with mainstreaming of the sustainable development agenda and related environmental concerns. Examples of this could be seen in international and regional policy commitments for the inclusion of women in governance and governing structures, and in the inclusion of women in water institutions and community-based resource management in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.

Engage and organize community-based organizations

Many policies articulate the necessity of enlisting community-based organizations to fulfill conservation and equity policy objectives at the local level. CI should conduct a scoping exercise to determine which CBOs represent the marginalized, and then leverage policy to engage these groups in conservation and resource management. In addition, CI could consider taking the role of knowledge broker in the region, organizing and connecting groups of workers to fill the spaces carved out by policy for increased gender equity and efforts in conservation and sustainable livelihoods.

An example of a policy space that is wide open for such interventions is Uganda‟s recommendation to decentralize and empower communities to take responsibility over water sources and fishing activities. Organizing or finding the proper organizations that would fill these roles, and bringing them to the attention of local and national policy-makers would reflect CI‟s sensitivity as well as credibility as a partner for sustainable gender-sensitive conservation planning in the region.

Draft policy brief on community-based adaptation strategies

As there are no international policies on community-based adaptation and given CI‟s extended experience in this arena, it is recommended that CI engage its community-based adaptation and policy divisions to collaborate on drafting a policy brief outlining international policy recommendations as well as regional and national advice and highlight best practices in this domain.

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Engage in and contribute to new policy formulation

CI should consider the absence of national policies in a number of areas, notably climate change adaptation and improved livelihoods as an opportunity. As countries are drafting their policies, CI should engage in the process, by either providing capacity or funding. A good example is Kenya‟s Water Policy in which German development agency GIZ was a stakeholder or Tanzania‟s National Climate Change Strategy, the development of which was funded by the Danish Government. Not surprisingly perhaps, these two policy instruments feature gender and conservation extensively.

Advocate for and engage in policy revision

Given the attention gender and environmental issues are given in international, regional and national policy instruments, CI could leverage its newly acquired knowledge of the policy landscape to strategically engage in policy advice and redrafting. Many national policies are outdated and could benefit from the integration of the aforementioned cross-cutting issues into national sectorial policies. CI could also draw on research conducted such as the IRC study cited in the UN water policy brief on the improved success of gender equal water systems. Empowered with these studies and examples of grassroots organizations that work successfully, CI can contribute to sound, gender equitable and environmentally sustainable policymaking in East Africa.

References

Gender, Water and Sanitation: A Policy Brief, 2005, United Nations, accessed at http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/un_water_policy_brief_2_gender.pdf

Huq, S. and Reid, H., “Community-Based Adaptation, An IIED Briefing”, 2007, accessed through: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/17005IIED.pdf)

Lesolle, D., “SADC Issue Paper on Climate Change: Assessing the Policy Options for SADC Member States”, SADC Research and Policy paper Series, 2012, accesses through: http://www.sadc.int/files/9113/6724/7724/SADC_Policy_Paper_Climate_Change_EN_1.pdf

Medard, M., Sobo, F., Ngatunga, T., Chirwa, S., “Women and Gender Participation in the Fisheries Sector in Lake Victoria”, 2001, worldfishcenter.org, accessed through: http://www.worldfishcenter.org/Pubs/Wif/wifglobal/wifg_africa_victoria.pdf.

List of major policy-level players

International

FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

IFPRI - International Food Policy Research Institute

UN African Ministerial Conference on the Environment

UNDP – United Nations Development Program

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UNEP – United Nations Environmental Program

UNDESA – United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs

UN System High Level Task Force on Global Food Security

UN Water

UN Women– United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women

Regional

East African Community

South African Development Community

National

KENYA - WATER

A Rosha Kenya

Council of Water Sector Ministers

GIZ (German Development Corporation)

International Fund for Agricultural Development

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute

Kenya Ministry of Water and Irrigation

National Environmental Management Authority

New Partnership for Africa‟s Development

World Bank

Water Appeals Board

Water Resources Management

Water Resources Management Authority

Water Resource User Association

Water Services Board

Water Sector Institutions

Water Services Regulatory Board

Water Services Trust Fund

Water Sector Strategic Plan

Water Sector Stakeholders Secretariat

Water Supply and Sanitation

Water Resource User Association

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KENYA - FOOD SECURITY

Agricultural Sector Coordination Unit of the Government of Kenya

Inter-ministerial Coordinating Committee for Food and Nutrition

Kenya Food Security Steering Group

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

National Cereals and Produce Board

New Partnership for Africa‟s Development

National Food Safety Coordination Committee

KENYA - CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate Change Directorate of the Government of Kenya

UK Department for International Development

Directorate of Environment

Intergovernmental Authority on Development

International Institute for Environment & Development

International Institute for Sustainable Development

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

International Union for Conservation of Nature

Kenya Climate Change Working Group

Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources

National Climate Change Council

National Climate Change Secretariat

National Environment Council

New Partnership for Africa‟s Development

KENYA - IMPROVED LIVELIHOODS (NONE)

TANZANIA - WATER

Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (formerly Ministry of Health – MoH)

Ministry of Water and Livestock Development

National Environment Management Council

TANZANIA - FOOD SECURITY

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Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (formerly Ministry of Health – MoH)

Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives

TANZANIA - CLIMATE CHANGE

Africa Development Bank

African Green Fund

Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology

Danida

Division of Environment of the Vice President‟s Office

East African Community

Environmental Working Group

German Technical Cooperation Agency

Institute of Marine Sciences

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

International Union for Conservation of Nature

Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives

Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children

Ministry of Communication, Science and Technology

Ministry of Energy and Minerals

Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation

Ministry of Industry and Trade

Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development

Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements Development

Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism

Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

Ministry of Finance

Ministry of Health and Social Welfare

Ministry of Transport

Ministry of Water

Prime Minister‟s Office

President‟s Office

Vice President‟s Office

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TANZANIA - IMPROVED LIVELIHOODS (NONE)

UGANDA - WATER

Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries

Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development

Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development

Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs

Ministry of Education and Sports

Ministry of Health

Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry

Ministry of Water, Lands, and Environment

Office of the Prime Minister

Uganda Human Rights Commission

UGANDA - FOOD SECURITY

Food and Agriculture Organisation, United Nations

International Food Policy Research Institute

Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries

Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development

Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development

Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs

Ministry of Education and Sports

Ministry of Health

Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry

Ministry of Water, Lands, and Environment

Office of the Prime Minister

Uganda Food and Nutrition Council

Uganda Human Rights Commission

World Food Program

UGANDA - CLIMATE CHANGE

Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change

International Union for Conservation of Nature

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Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources

Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment

Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Industry

National Environment Management Authority

National Forestry Authority

Uganda Wildlife Authority

World Climate Programme

WFP World Food Programme

WHO World Health Organization

WMO World Meteorological Organization

UGANDA - IMPROVED LIVELIHOODS (NONE)

Other Sources of Information on Conservation & Gender in East Africa and Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda

Brian Child, bchild@geog.ufl.edu

Associate professor in the Department of Geography and the Center for African Studies, University of Florida

Has extensive track record in research on community-based conservation in Africa

The Climate and Development Knowledge Network

Supports decision-makers in designing and delivering climate compatible development. We do this by combining research, advisory services and knowledge management in support of locally owned and managed policy processes. We work in partnership with decision-makers in the public, private and non-governmental sectors nationally, regionally and globally. We hold strongly to the ideals of human development and environmental sustainability.

Policy documents referenced in this report

International level

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

CEDAW (1979)

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992)

Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)

Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995)

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Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (2000)

Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development (2002)

United Nations Comprehensive Framework for Action on Food Security

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

Regional level

SADC Regional Water Policy (2005)

East African Community (EAC) Food Security Action Plan (2010)

SADC Regional Agricultural Policy (2012)

East African Community (EAC) Climate Change Policy (2011)

Agriculture and Rural Development Strategy for the East African Community

National Policies

KENYA

Constitution (2010)

National Policy on Gender and Development (2000)

National Water Policy (2012)

National Food and Nutrition Security Policy (2011)

National Climate Change Action Plan

Sustainable Development in Kenya: Stocktaking in the run up to Rio+20 (2012)

Kenya Vision 2030 (2007)

TANZANIA

Constitution + amendments

National Strategy for Gender Development

Tanzania‟s National Water Policy (2002)

National Water Sector Development Strategy (2005)

Food and Nutrition Policy for Tanzania (1992)

National Climate Change Strategy (2012)

Rural Development Strategy (2001)

National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty II (2010)

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UGANDA

Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (2006)

National Gender Policy (2007)

National Environment Policy (1994)

National Environment Action Plan (1995)

National Report on the Progress on the Implementation of the Rio Commitments on Sustainable Development in Uganda (2012)

National Water Policy (1999)

National Policy for the Conservation and Management of Wetland Resources (1995)

National Fisheries Policy (2004)

National Food and Nutrition Policy

National Food and Nutrition Strategy

Climate Change: National Adaptation Plan of Action (2007)

Poverty Eradication Action Plan for Uganda (2004)

Plan for Modernization of Agriculture