Social Problems: Sexism and Gender

Inequality

Gender Inequality as a Social Problem

Sexism: the subordination of one sex, female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex, male

Patriarchy: a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men

Though women comprise 51% of Canadians, they are called a minority group because they don’t have the resources of men. Women

Are victims of sexual assault Earn 71 percent of what men earn

Defining Sex and Gender

Sex: biological differences between males and females.

Gender: the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males based on meanings, beliefs, and practices that a group associates with femininity or masculinity

Intersexed: having unrecognizable genitalia or both male and female genitalia

Transgendered: one’s gender not the same as biological sex

Sexism and Gender Inequality

Sexism refers to the range of attitudes, beliefs, policies, laws and behaviors that discriminate on the basis of gender

Results in a system of gender inequality Power and Male Hegemony Male hegemony refers to the political and

ideological domination of woman in society

Sexism and Gender Inequality

Power and Male Hegemony Males have greater access to:

Cultural prestige Political authority Corporate power Wealth Material comforts

Ideology plays a role in legitimizing male hegemony

Biological and Social Bases for Gender Roles

Gender roles: rights, responsibilities, expectations, and relationships of women and men in a society

At birth, males and females are distinguished by primary sex characteristics

At puberty, hormonal differences produce secondary sex characteristics

Biological and Social Bases for Gender Roles

To what extent are differences culturally determined?

Gender ideology: ideas of masculinity and femininity that are held to be valid in a particular society and time

Gendered division of labour: the process whereby productive tasks are separated on the basis of gender

Gender Inequality and Socialization

Agents of socialization: Parents and family: treatment, clothes,

toys, or chores Peers: pressure for behaviour and

aspirations Religion Media and language Education:

Gender bias: favouritism toward one gender, e.g., aggressive boys and dependent girls get attention

The Family

Traditionally, the role of wife and mother has been a subordinate role in society

Increase in working wives and moms and the juggling of work and family

See Table 5.1 on Unpaid Housework (p.190) On average, women do 4.3 hours daily while

men do 2.8 hours Women also responsible for bulk of senior

care

Language and the Media Language often reinforces traditional sex role

stereotypes : i.e. Policeman vs. police officer, or calling women “girls”

Media portrays men and women in traditional roles Underrepresent women, and Reinforce stereotypical ideas about women and

physical attractiveness Stereotypes are a source of prejudice and

discrimination Feminine mystique Masculine mystique

Stereotypes place limits on us and on our behaviour

Organized Religion

Religion has reinforced secular traditions and gender roles in many cultures, including our own

Religion has been male dominated In the last few decades some religions have

begun to ordain women as ministers Episcopalians Presbyterians Reformed Jews

Sexism in Schools

Today, there is more focus in schools on Female achievement Girl’s sports More involvement in school politics

Gender gap in higher education and in certain disciplines is narrowing but still persists today

However, research show sexism still a significant factor in schools

Sexism in Schools (cont.)

Research results on sexism in schools shows that generally,

Teachers pay less attention to girls than boys Girls lag behind in math and science scores Girls tend not to choose careers in math and

science Textbooks and gender stereotypes still persist Biased tests Minority girls tend to be ignored

School counselors still channeling girls into sex typed occupations

However… “The Gender Gap” (2004) text p. 197 Montreal study on gender differences in

achievement in school Boys falling behind especially in language skills More likely to drop out or not continue Have more behavioural, learning and social

problems in school Study notes that girls see educational

achievement as key to better life, whereas boys rely on traditional masculinity to get ahead

Contemporary Gender Inequality

Gender inequality is maintained by: Individual sexism: anti-female prejudice by

individuals Institutionalized sexism:discrimination

engaged in at the organizational level Also, when inequality, prejudice and

discrimination exist, the imbalance in power leads to sexual harassment

Gender Inequality and Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment: unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, or other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature Occurs at work and school

Sexual harassment is also a growing problem in schools

The results of a recent U.S. survey found that 83 percent of girls and 79 percent of boys have been harassed

Both boys and girls are limited by sexual harassment and stereotypical notions

Gender Inequality and Work

Gendered division of paid work: women have high labour force participation, but are concentrated in different occupations. Pink-collar ghetto: jobs held by women that

are low-paying and semi-skilled. Contingent work: part-time work, temporary

work, and subcontracted work that offers advantages to employers, but detrimental to workers.

Years of work experience – women are more likely to have interruption in their work histories

Hiring and promotion practices For minority women, there is even a larger wage gap

Gender Inequality and Work

Wage gap: disparity between women’s and men’s earnings Pay equity: equal pay for work of equal or

comparable (worth of the job) worth Sexual harassment: unwelcome

sexual attention at work

2004 Census

Approximately 58% of women worked full time vs. 68% of men in Canada

83% of 2 parent families have 2 income earners

Women made up 46.8% of workforce 72.5% of women with children under 16 in the

home work

2004 Census

Average income women $36,500 men $51,700

In 2004 women made 70.5 cent for every $1 men earned

3.4% of “clout” positions (CEO’s, presidents, etc.) of Fortune 500 companies held by women

At age 40, 90% of working men vs. 35% of working women had at least one child

Women still concentrated in teaching, nursing, service and clerical jobs (67% of employed women)

Gender Inequality and Work

“Glass Ceiling” and “Glass Escalator”: Glass Ceiling: invisible barrier

constructed by male management to prevent women from reaching top positions. Women do advance in the service sector

Glass Escalator: upward movement of men in women’s occupations disproportionate to their numbers

Gender Inequality and Unpaid Work

Double shift: women are wage earners and also do most of unpaid household work, now recorded in the census 90% of Canadians do unpaid work, but the

majority, especially child care, is done by women

Gender Inequality and Unpaid Work

However, roles in homemaking have been changing

Women still continue to bear the primary responsibility for homemaking

Husbands and fathers with working wives that support non-traditional roles are taking on a larger share of homemaking responsibilities

Perspectives: Symbolic Interactionist Focus on socialization and labelling Also note existence of double standard Language is extremely important in

defining social realities Linguistic sexism: communication that ignores,

devalues, or makes sex objects of women. Genderlects: men’s and women’s styles and

contents of language differ. Non-verbal communication: men control more

space, than women, including sexual harassment

Perspectives: FunctionalistEarly thinking (Parsons, Kingsley-Davis): Men are more suited to instrumental

(i.e., goal-oriented) tasks Women perform expressive tasks This was functional for societyMore recently: Differences in human capital of men and

women (capital diminishes with time off for child-bearing and childcare)

Perspectives

ConflictSocial life is a continuous struggle in

which the powerful seek to control economic and social resources

Gender inequality results from capitalism and private ownership of the means of production A result of structural and historical relations Beneficial to capitalists to have unpaid

female workforce

Perspectives: Feminist Socialist: men gain control over property

and women Radical: men’s oppression of women is

deliberately supported by media and religion

Liberal: inequality is rooted in gender-role socialization

Black, Indigenous, and other women of colour face inequalities compounded by racialization, class, and gender

Can Gender Inequality be Reduced?

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: Redefine social realities with languageFunctionalist Perspective: Redefine gender roles Educate women about how their decisions

affect human capital Enforce existing anti-discrimination

legislation and use the Canadian Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms

Can Gender Inequality be Reduced?

Conflict Perspective: Marxist: abolish capitalism

Feminist: Socialist Feminists: abolish capitalism and

create a new economy Liberal Feminists: change gender socialization Radical Feminists: abolish patriarchy Black and other feminists: treat all women

more equitably