Wolfgang WildgenWolfgang WildgenSelf-organization of Self-organization of

Meaning and DiscourseMeaning and Discourse

Late Spring SchoolLate Spring School

Cognitive SemioticsCognitive Semiotics

Sofia, NBU 28th of MaySofia, NBU 28th of May

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IntroductionIntroduction Language, the exchange of meaningful messages, the Language, the exchange of meaningful messages, the

systematic reference to a world beyond ourselves, the systematic reference to a world beyond ourselves, the reflection on our use of language is a dramatic step beyond reflection on our use of language is a dramatic step beyond the behavior and the psychic states of other creatures and the behavior and the psychic states of other creatures and beyond the material world. It was therefore a major challenge beyond the material world. It was therefore a major challenge for evolutionary thinking first during the controversies of the for evolutionary thinking first during the controversies of the 18th century (Condillac, Rousseau, Diderot, Herder), later for 18th century (Condillac, Rousseau, Diderot, Herder), later for Darwin and his followers. The central problem concerns the Darwin and his followers. The central problem concerns the apparent perfection of human language and the difficulty to apparent perfection of human language and the difficulty to explain preparatory stages and their adaptive value.explain preparatory stages and their adaptive value.

I will start with a parallel problem due to perfection and the I will start with a parallel problem due to perfection and the lack of transition which concerns a much earlier step in lack of transition which concerns a much earlier step in evolution: the evolution of the eye during the so-called evolution: the evolution of the eye during the so-called Cambrian revolution some 500 my ago (cf. Park, 2005). Cambrian revolution some 500 my ago (cf. Park, 2005).

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Charles Darwin in the Charles Darwin in the Origin of SpeciesOrigin of Species (1859) treated (1859) treated the eye under the heading ORGANS OF EXTREME the eye under the heading ORGANS OF EXTREME PERFECTION AND COMPLICATION. He admits that PERFECTION AND COMPLICATION. He admits that the idea that it has been created by natural selection is the idea that it has been created by natural selection is “absurd to the highest degree”.“absurd to the highest degree”.

The Cambrian revolution affected only six out of 38 The Cambrian revolution affected only six out of 38 phyla, but 95% of multicellular animals existing today phyla, but 95% of multicellular animals existing today have eyes. Therefore, it is probably the most decisive have eyes. Therefore, it is probably the most decisive evolutionary step in the last billion years. Vision, i.e., the evolutionary step in the last billion years. Vision, i.e., the faculty to form images of selected aspects of the faculty to form images of selected aspects of the environment, triggered on arms-race which shaped environment, triggered on arms-race which shaped bodies, behaviors, enhanced the control and perception bodies, behaviors, enhanced the control and perception of motion (a visually guided attack or escape) and of motion (a visually guided attack or escape) and created the world of colors we experience. In a sense, it created the world of colors we experience. In a sense, it created a world of meanings centered in the brains of created a world of meanings centered in the brains of animals (a kind of virtual reality) animals (a kind of virtual reality)

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Figure 1: The rough evolution of receptors for different sense organs in geological time (graphics from Parker, 2005)

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I will argue in the next section that the origin of language I will argue in the next section that the origin of language (roughly 2 my BP) produced a comparable catastrophic (roughly 2 my BP) produced a comparable catastrophic jump which could become the basis of evolutionary jump which could become the basis of evolutionary processes (losses and gains) in the future (the next processes (losses and gains) in the future (the next millions of years).millions of years).

In the case of vision two subfields are coordinated and cannot In the case of vision two subfields are coordinated and cannot be reduced to one another:be reduced to one another:

1.1. The physics of light/refraction/absorption, etc.The physics of light/refraction/absorption, etc.2.2. The psychophysics of perception and the neurodynamics The psychophysics of perception and the neurodynamics

of image formation, storage and imagination.of image formation, storage and imagination.I will argue that with the emergence of language a third, non I will argue that with the emergence of language a third, non

reducible domain is added, cultural significance and reducible domain is added, cultural significance and meaning. Therefore, any theory of language has to meaning. Therefore, any theory of language has to consider at least three levels and the context of their consider at least three levels and the context of their emergence.emergence.

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1.1. The physics of light: emergence shortly after the Big The physics of light: emergence shortly after the Big Bang with the appearance of stars (other physical fields Bang with the appearance of stars (other physical fields relevant for perception follow later, thus sound fields for relevant for perception follow later, thus sound fields for hearing or chemical fields for smell and taste).hearing or chemical fields for smell and taste).Cf. Guth’s “inflationary universe”. The inflationary stage is followed Cf. Guth’s “inflationary universe”. The inflationary stage is followed by a dark age and later the creation of stars which emit light.by a dark age and later the creation of stars which emit light.

2.2. The (neuro)psychology of image-formation: emergence The (neuro)psychology of image-formation: emergence in the Cambrian revolution; 500 my BP (later auditory in the Cambrian revolution; 500 my BP (later auditory gestalts rival with visual ones for dominance)gestalts rival with visual ones for dominance)

3.3. The cultural significance of sign-behavior and meaningful The cultural significance of sign-behavior and meaningful social communication: emergence 2 my BP (probably social communication: emergence 2 my BP (probably both in the auditory and the visual mode; the auditory both in the auditory and the visual mode; the auditory becomes dominant in humans).becomes dominant in humans).

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The emergence of symbolic meaningThe emergence of symbolic meaning The emergence of signaling systems can be explained via The emergence of signaling systems can be explained via

game theory (cf. Skyrms, 1996), i.e. signaling systems are game theory (cf. Skyrms, 1996), i.e. signaling systems are evolutionary stable against non-signaling systems and if one evolutionary stable against non-signaling systems and if one signaling systems (including specific conventions for the signaling systems (including specific conventions for the correlation of signifier and signified) dominates slightly (which is correlation of signifier and signified) dominates slightly (which is normally the case if noise is present) it will suppress an normally the case if noise is present) it will suppress an alternative one.alternative one.

Now, if signaling is associated with costs (negative payoffs) as Now, if signaling is associated with costs (negative payoffs) as in alarm calls of velvet monkeys, free riders who understand in alarm calls of velvet monkeys, free riders who understand the signal but don’t send them, win and may suppress those the signal but don’t send them, win and may suppress those who give alarm calls. It is, however , sufficient to introduce a who give alarm calls. It is, however , sufficient to introduce a small amount of correlation (e.g. by kinship) to eliminate free small amount of correlation (e.g. by kinship) to eliminate free riders. One may say that altruistic behavior in signaling riders. One may say that altruistic behavior in signaling emerges. emerges.

The existence of a signaling system can become a method for The existence of a signaling system can become a method for social correlation and thus enforce the stability of a specific social correlation and thus enforce the stability of a specific system against other ones existing in non-correlated system against other ones existing in non-correlated populations).populations).

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Sign-functions and their evolutionary Sign-functions and their evolutionary significancesignificance

representation

expression appeal

Poetic function, phatic function, metalingusitic function) (Jakobson)

Human language

Semiotic sign

Animal communication

Non-semiotic sign

For Bühler, functions (aims, intentions) are kinds of vital needs and thus presuppose the level of life (of animals). If such needs (or instincts in traditional terminology) are ge-neralized beyond animals and humans, a higher level of generalization can be

reached.

Bühler

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The evolutionary interpretation of the triad of The evolutionary interpretation of the triad of

functionsfunctions The last two functions, expression and appeal are The last two functions, expression and appeal are

strongly linked, because the use and meaning of strongly linked, because the use and meaning of expressive acts asks implicitly for some receiver and expressive acts asks implicitly for some receiver and appeal is without effect if no expressive content is appeal is without effect if no expressive content is transferred. We can use the label “social communi-transferred. We can use the label “social communi-cation” (social calls, grooming, body postures, etc.) as cation” (social calls, grooming, body postures, etc.) as a cover-term for both and distinguish it from functional a cover-term for both and distinguish it from functional referentiality (which first appears in the alarm-calls of referentiality (which first appears in the alarm-calls of e.g. velvet-monkeys). This simplifies Bühler’s triangle e.g. velvet-monkeys). This simplifies Bühler’s triangle to a binary opposition between social communication to a binary opposition between social communication (expression/appeal) and reference to the world (expression/appeal) and reference to the world common to all participants.common to all participants.

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The transition to humans The transition to humans If representation is in its first stages already present in If representation is in its first stages already present in

socially organized primates (or even in monkeys), the socially organized primates (or even in monkeys), the transition to humans concerns mainly:transition to humans concerns mainly:

The enrichment of representation, i.e., the lexicon and The enrichment of representation, i.e., the lexicon and via self-organization the syntax; andvia self-organization the syntax; and

The emergence of meta-functions.The emergence of meta-functions. The most prominent case of meta-function concerns The most prominent case of meta-function concerns

propositional attitudes and explicit performativespropositional attitudes and explicit performatives:: I believe that a snail is in the tree.I believe that a snail is in the tree. I tell you that a snail is in the tree.I tell you that a snail is in the tree.

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If in a further step one assumes that representation If in a further step one assumes that representation emerges from ecological cognition (categorization of emerges from ecological cognition (categorization of an ecology) and expression/appeal from some an ecology) and expression/appeal from some structure of the group (primitive, non-conscious social structure of the group (primitive, non-conscious social categorization of behavior), one obtains three inclusive categorization of behavior), one obtains three inclusive levels, levels,

where the inner circle is reached by all animals with a where the inner circle is reached by all animals with a social organization and specific reactions social organization and specific reactions (perception /motor control) to their environment, (perception /motor control) to their environment,

the middle circle concerns animal communication with the middle circle concerns animal communication with a minimal reference to the context and a minimal reference to the context and

the outer circle encompasses humans (and possibly the outer circle encompasses humans (and possibly some primates with self-awareness). The functions in some primates with self-awareness). The functions in Bühler’s triad emerge from ecological categories and Bühler’s triad emerge from ecological categories and from social categories already apparent in animal from social categories already apparent in animal behavior. behavior.

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Biosemiotic hierarchy of functionsBiosemiotic hierarchy of functions

Meta-representation

Representation

Ecological categories

Meta-communication

Social cognition

Expression/appeal

The inner circle is reached by all animals with a social organization and specific reactions to their environment,

the middle circle concerns animal communication with a minimal reference to the context and

the outer circle encompasses humans

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Self-organization and functionalismSelf-organization and functionalismIn relation to overall selective pressure this means that:In relation to overall selective pressure this means that: Adequate cognitive (perceptual, motor and memory) skills must be Adequate cognitive (perceptual, motor and memory) skills must be

available. This increase is related to a bigger and more energy available. This increase is related to a bigger and more energy consuming brain, which in turn must be “paid” by the availability of consuming brain, which in turn must be “paid” by the availability of high-energy food.high-energy food.

The power of the linguistic system can be decomposed in many The power of the linguistic system can be decomposed in many different ways and distributed over the principal components: different ways and distributed over the principal components: phonology, lexicon, syntax, discourse, i.e., many equally powerful phonology, lexicon, syntax, discourse, i.e., many equally powerful forms of organization are possible. This is the basis for (de forms of organization are possible. This is the basis for (de Saussure’s) arbitrariness in the lexicon and in many areas of Saussure’s) arbitrariness in the lexicon and in many areas of morphology, syntax, and discourse.morphology, syntax, and discourse.

As a consequence, it becomes impossible to judge the functional power As a consequence, it becomes impossible to judge the functional power of a language in relation only to sub-components. Moreover, the of a language in relation only to sub-components. Moreover, the context of usage becomes an important factor. context of usage becomes an important factor.

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The catastrophic transition to The catastrophic transition to languagelanguage

Non-language Language

Communicative capacities

2 my BP to 40.000 y BP

Evolutionary time scale since the Cambrian revolution

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From image to concept (referential meaning)From image to concept (referential meaning)

The Cambrian revolution created an The Cambrian revolution created an image making “machine”image making “machine” which became the motor of evolutionary diversity and which which became the motor of evolutionary diversity and which controlled body shapes, color displays, camouflage, mimicry, controlled body shapes, color displays, camouflage, mimicry, pursuit and escape behaviors, social identification, and social pursuit and escape behaviors, social identification, and social cooperation. In a sense, the image-machine became the cooperation. In a sense, the image-machine became the functional heart of higher organized animals and it is still at the functional heart of higher organized animals and it is still at the heart of human behavior and culture.heart of human behavior and culture.

The Paleolithic revolution created the The Paleolithic revolution created the concept making concept making “machine”.“machine”. The question is how could concepts which The question is how could concepts which categorize and socialize ambient meanings already relevant for categorize and socialize ambient meanings already relevant for the behavior of animals emerge and expand to such complex the behavior of animals emerge and expand to such complex systems as human languages.systems as human languages.

This question asks for the proper transition between objective This question asks for the proper transition between objective (external) features and subjective, but socially shared features (external) features and subjective, but socially shared features related to the relevant environment. Thom’s theory of related to the relevant environment. Thom’s theory of pregnance tries to fill this gap.pregnance tries to fill this gap.

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Thom compares subjective pregnancies found in animals Thom compares subjective pregnancies found in animals (and man) with objective pregnancies (forces) in nature. (and man) with objective pregnancies (forces) in nature. Linguistic meaning (concepts) which are necessary to form Linguistic meaning (concepts) which are necessary to form propositions by predication are at a point of convergence propositions by predication are at a point of convergence between biological pregnancies, natural forces, motion between biological pregnancies, natural forces, motion patterns and geometric formspatterns and geometric forms

Objective pregnancies (saliencies) versus subjective pregnancies

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subjectiveobjective

free isotropic propagationdiffusion

controlled propagation

constrained propagation

no propagation

temperaturesoundchemical diffusion

physical fieldse.g. lightstate transitions

motion of solid bodies

geometrical forms

biological pregnances

concepts:words and syntax

phonetic gestalts

written words

color

odor, taste,touch

valence-patterns

Thom‘s agenda of „diffusion of pregnancies“

Cambrian revolution

Palaeolithicrevolution

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Thom’s conjectureThom’s conjecture René Thom conjectured that the lexico-syntactic valences René Thom conjectured that the lexico-syntactic valences

described by Tesnière (1959) or the case-frames enumerated described by Tesnière (1959) or the case-frames enumerated by Fillmore (1968) are basically a reflection of restrictions by Fillmore (1968) are basically a reflection of restrictions imposed on natural processes. This hypothesis underlies imposed on natural processes. This hypothesis underlies catastrophe theoretic semantics (cf. Wildgen, 1982). In semiotic catastrophe theoretic semantics (cf. Wildgen, 1982). In semiotic terms, the relational architecture underlying language has a terms, the relational architecture underlying language has a foundation in natural laws, or more provocatively, the foundation in natural laws, or more provocatively, the archetypical architecture of linguistic utterances (sentences) is archetypical architecture of linguistic utterances (sentences) is rooted in natural laws, it is an icon of the real world in which rooted in natural laws, it is an icon of the real world in which human beings live. human beings live.

As a corollary this explains why humans endowed with As a corollary this explains why humans endowed with language are able to discover natural laws, use them for language are able to discover natural laws, use them for technology and control the ambient world which for all other technology and control the ambient world which for all other beings, including non-human hominids, is opaque and just an beings, including non-human hominids, is opaque and just an all-mighty force which beings must endure passively. all-mighty force which beings must endure passively.

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An illustrative fragment of An illustrative fragment of catastrophe theoretic semantics catastrophe theoretic semantics

The valence pattern is globally described as a conflict of The valence pattern is globally described as a conflict of “pregnancies” in Thom (1978c: 76). If these conflicts are “pregnancies” in Thom (1978c: 76). If these conflicts are stripped off their specific intentional and real-life content, a stripped off their specific intentional and real-life content, a formal topologico-dynamic pattern is left, which can be formal topologico-dynamic pattern is left, which can be matched against the hierarchy of elementary catastrophes in matched against the hierarchy of elementary catastrophes in Thom (1972). Thom (1972).

These archetypes are theoretical entities, which allow the These archetypes are theoretical entities, which allow the formulation of a family of interesting hypotheses. Like the formulation of a family of interesting hypotheses. Like the theoretical terms used in physics, they formulate a program theoretical terms used in physics, they formulate a program of empirical research, such that some of the hypotheses of empirical research, such that some of the hypotheses formulated in these terms may be elaborated or falsified.formulated in these terms may be elaborated or falsified.

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If we assume a linear space with two poles we can describe the change in quality (or in space) in the way shown in the Figure. The curved surface above describes the states of stability and instability (the attractors and the repellors of the system). The process makes a catastrophic jump from one partial surface to another (e.g. from 'dirty' to 'clean').

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The archetypes of simple and mutual givingThe archetypes of simple and mutual giving

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The The differentiationdifferentiation of the referential function of the referential function

1.1. Increase of social vocabulary referring to actions in the Increase of social vocabulary referring to actions in the group and in relation to preys and predators (cf. the group and in relation to preys and predators (cf. the alarm calls as base line).alarm calls as base line).

2.2. The increase in linguistically labeled distinctions in the The increase in linguistically labeled distinctions in the ambient world; i.e., the differentiation of the lexicon of ambient world; i.e., the differentiation of the lexicon of flora and fauna.flora and fauna.

3.3. The complexity of utterance organization, i.e., the The complexity of utterance organization, i.e., the emergence of syntax.emergence of syntax.

As in child development, the increase of the lexicon (1 and 2) As in child development, the increase of the lexicon (1 and 2) asks for a proper phonological organization. Therefore, asks for a proper phonological organization. Therefore, phonology (enabled be an efficient cognition/memory phonology (enabled be an efficient cognition/memory /motor planning of phonetic sequences) is a self-/motor planning of phonetic sequences) is a self-organized outcome of an increased lexicon. In a similar organized outcome of an increased lexicon. In a similar way syntax is a self-organized consequence of larger way syntax is a self-organized consequence of larger utterances, which are less context-dependent. utterances, which are less context-dependent.

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Evolutionary explanation of Thom’s Evolutionary explanation of Thom’s conjectureconjecture

Thom’s assumption is on one side tempting, because it could Thom’s assumption is on one side tempting, because it could provide a much deeper foundation of linguistics than any provide a much deeper foundation of linguistics than any current theory, but on the other side it cannot explain how current theory, but on the other side it cannot explain how human language could become a mirror of natural processes. human language could become a mirror of natural processes. In Wildgen (2004) I proposed a transition mediated by tool In Wildgen (2004) I proposed a transition mediated by tool making and early technologies. In fact, language has not making and early technologies. In fact, language has not emerged in isolation, it rather came together with other emerged in isolation, it rather came together with other “symbolic forms” (a term coined by Cassirer) like myth (ritual), “symbolic forms” (a term coined by Cassirer) like myth (ritual), art and technology. Lithic technologies used since more than art and technology. Lithic technologies used since more than 2 my could stand for a first stage (possibly in the context of 2 my could stand for a first stage (possibly in the context of rituals, an early proto-language and body-painting). rituals, an early proto-language and body-painting).

Insofar as such technologies asked for a precise control of Insofar as such technologies asked for a precise control of natural forces, human symbolic behavior was at the start natural forces, human symbolic behavior was at the start parallel to a kind of “scientific” insight and corresponding parallel to a kind of “scientific” insight and corresponding conceptual elaborations.conceptual elaborations.

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The evolution of discourse The evolution of discourse At the macro-level human housing and house-building is a At the macro-level human housing and house-building is a

domain where structures emerge, which can be reorganized in domain where structures emerge, which can be reorganized in the shape of space-oriented communication, linguistic the shape of space-oriented communication, linguistic orientation in space and memory of narrative contents related orientation in space and memory of narrative contents related to space.to space.

The background of these processes is given by the The background of these processes is given by the ecological/situational context. Some objects or context features ecological/situational context. Some objects or context features become become culturally significantculturally significant. These are mainly:. These are mainly:

places (of living, of chase, etc.),places (of living, of chase, etc.), tools and the techniques of their use,tools and the techniques of their use, motion patterns, gestures, gestured signs, dance, motion patterns, gestures, gestured signs, dance, The relevance of places (in space and time), of spatial orientation The relevance of places (in space and time), of spatial orientation

and categorization are of primordial importance for the and categorization are of primordial importance for the semantics of natural languages as the tradition of localistic semantics of natural languages as the tradition of localistic theories shows. theories shows.

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Already in the last common ancestor of humans and Already in the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees (LCA), contextual space acts as an chimpanzees (LCA), contextual space acts as an external memory of affordances, which is indexically external memory of affordances, which is indexically given by paths (of social locomotion and predator/prey-given by paths (of social locomotion and predator/prey-locomotion), harvesting locations (and times), dangerous locomotion), harvesting locations (and times), dangerous locations, places for sleep, courtship, housing, frontiers locations, places for sleep, courtship, housing, frontiers of territories, etc. These indexically loaded areas and of territories, etc. These indexically loaded areas and places function like a catalyst of social action, insofar as places function like a catalyst of social action, insofar as they can coordinate social perception and action. they can coordinate social perception and action.

As soon as space is more specifically organized in As soon as space is more specifically organized in relation to cognition and social use, it unfolds in a cycle relation to cognition and social use, it unfolds in a cycle of social “investment”. Architecture and the spatial of social “investment”. Architecture and the spatial organization of a village (or later a town) are clear organization of a village (or later a town) are clear examples. This level is autocatalytic insofar as the examples. This level is autocatalytic insofar as the spatial organization becomes itself a cyclic structure in spatial organization becomes itself a cyclic structure in which different functions cooperate. which different functions cooperate.

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Semiotically invested subspaces Semiotically invested subspaces

housing

fire place

myth. space

ritual

public space

tool making

outside

chase, harvest

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From social pragmatics to From social pragmatics to discourse discourse

Tool manufacturing, body art and rituals may be either Tool manufacturing, body art and rituals may be either preadaptations enabling the emergence of language or already preadaptations enabling the emergence of language or already be parallel and fostered by a protolanguage. Due to the non-be parallel and fostered by a protolanguage. Due to the non-permanent nature of spoken language, we have no chance to permanent nature of spoken language, we have no chance to check which of the alternatives is valid. The fact that language check which of the alternatives is valid. The fact that language usage is primarily a social communicative phenomenon usage is primarily a social communicative phenomenon encourages the search for a cultural/social origin of language encourages the search for a cultural/social origin of language and discourse. In this perspective it is not predication or and discourse. In this perspective it is not predication or propositional structure, but discursive processing in social propositional structure, but discursive processing in social contexts which must be foregrounded. contexts which must be foregrounded.

Therefore, one must ask, if discourse functions like narrative, Therefore, one must ask, if discourse functions like narrative, descriptive, argumentative or ritual discourse had a survival descriptive, argumentative or ritual discourse had a survival value in early human populations (before hominisation), which value in early human populations (before hominisation), which differs sharply from the survival patterns in chimpanzees and differs sharply from the survival patterns in chimpanzees and other primates which did not evolve a linguistic capacity.other primates which did not evolve a linguistic capacity.

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A possible hierarchy of A possible hierarchy of discoursediscourse functions functions

Classical speech-act theories placed the proposition (and its Classical speech-act theories placed the proposition (and its elocution) at the center and added illocution and perlocution. elocution) at the center and added illocution and perlocution. The perlocution (the impact on the audience) and its social The perlocution (the impact on the audience) and its social effects are neglected. The relation of language use to its effects are neglected. The relation of language use to its contextual evaluation and thus to its selective relevance is contextual evaluation and thus to its selective relevance is excluded. An evolutionary account must start from excluded. An evolutionary account must start from perlocutionary effects, like: A persuades / convinces B (via an perlocutionary effects, like: A persuades / convinces B (via an utterance), A evokes positive feelings / gets help /in/by B (via utterance), A evokes positive feelings / gets help /in/by B (via an utterance); A contributes verbally to the solution of a an utterance); A contributes verbally to the solution of a problem / teaches / helps to find a solution (via an utterance).problem / teaches / helps to find a solution (via an utterance).

If the perlocutionary effect is increasing the fitness of the group, If the perlocutionary effect is increasing the fitness of the group, such a feature (and the underlying faculty) can be selected. As such a feature (and the underlying faculty) can be selected. As no other human species with lesser communicative faculties no other human species with lesser communicative faculties exists, it is impossible to test the selective advantage our exists, it is impossible to test the selective advantage our species got and why. The only approach which is feasible species got and why. The only approach which is feasible concerns the analysis of actual discursive effects. concerns the analysis of actual discursive effects.

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1.1. If the scout can describe the place and number If the scout can describe the place and number of a herd of bison accurately, the group will of a herd of bison accurately, the group will follow him and bring food to the clan, which will follow him and bring food to the clan, which will not starve and thus survive.not starve and thus survive.

2.2. If the experienced warrior can give a good story If the experienced warrior can give a good story for his undertakings others will join a new for his undertakings others will join a new enterprise and learn from his experience how to enterprise and learn from his experience how to overcome the enemy.overcome the enemy.

3.3. If the perpetrator can defend his cause If the perpetrator can defend his cause effectively he will not be expelled or killed.effectively he will not be expelled or killed.

These examples show three different discourse These examples show three different discourse functions: functions: descriptive, narrative and descriptive, narrative and argumentativeargumentative..

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Discourse as basic achievementDiscourse as basic achievement

My hypothesis is that rhetoric (and possibly poetic) functions My hypothesis is that rhetoric (and possibly poetic) functions stood at the beginning when discourse emerged. I will only stood at the beginning when discourse emerged. I will only discuss he narrative function in the folowing.discuss he narrative function in the folowing.

The central concern in the The central concern in the narrativenarrative is: is: How can a sequence of events/actions be How can a sequence of events/actions be

segmented/compressed into sentences? segmented/compressed into sentences? How are these arranged such that not only the temporal How are these arranged such that not only the temporal

sequence can be derived but also spatial itineraries and sequence can be derived but also spatial itineraries and causal effects can be imagined or reproduced? The causal effects can be imagined or reproduced? The problem concerns a mapping of time, space and problem concerns a mapping of time, space and cause/force in a text such that an easy and reliable cause/force in a text such that an easy and reliable understanding by the audience is made possible. understanding by the audience is made possible.

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Evaluative and relevance functionsEvaluative and relevance functions

This is, however, not sufficient. In each narrative text, This is, however, not sufficient. In each narrative text, evaluative and relevance assigning processes have to evaluative and relevance assigning processes have to be controlled. As Labov (1972) has shown, the be controlled. As Labov (1972) has shown, the Abstract/Title must sketch the relevance of the story Abstract/Title must sketch the relevance of the story which will be told, the Climax separates the Complication which will be told, the Climax separates the Complication and the Result and spans an arch of interest for the and the Result and spans an arch of interest for the audience. In many cases, self-evaluative information is audience. In many cases, self-evaluative information is distributed over the story, etc. Thus even simple stories distributed over the story, etc. Thus even simple stories contain two components:contain two components:

Time/space/force mappingsTime/space/force mappings A socio-evaluative profile or a relevance component in A socio-evaluative profile or a relevance component in

which social values are exchanged (respecting the which social values are exchanged (respecting the audience and self-advertisement)audience and self-advertisement)

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These factors point into the direction of a twofold functionality of These factors point into the direction of a twofold functionality of (narrative) discourse. It has a referential function (mapping a (narrative) discourse. It has a referential function (mapping a sequence of events/actions) and a socio-evaluative function. In sequence of events/actions) and a socio-evaluative function. In the emergence of (narrative) discourse, two different selective the emergence of (narrative) discourse, two different selective processes must have cooperated. If in small talk the socio-processes must have cooperated. If in small talk the socio-evaluative component dominates, this does not mean (as evaluative component dominates, this does not mean (as Dunbar suggests) that discourse emerged from social contact Dunbar suggests) that discourse emerged from social contact (grooming).(grooming).

The two factors have probably different evolutionary histories. The two factors have probably different evolutionary histories. The referential function elaborates cognitive functions already The referential function elaborates cognitive functions already developed since the Cambrian revolution (helped by bigger developed since the Cambrian revolution (helped by bigger brain, which was made possible by high energy food and brain, which was made possible by high energy food and allowed for the construction of sophisticated tools). A further allowed for the construction of sophisticated tools). A further function is based on the evolution of social groups and their function is based on the evolution of social groups and their organization and more specifically of cooperative/competitive organization and more specifically of cooperative/competitive processes in dense social networks. processes in dense social networks.

The key to the solution, the social organization of human The key to the solution, the social organization of human populations 300.000 y ago and that of neighboring human populations 300.000 y ago and that of neighboring human species in competition with them is not accessible empirically. species in competition with them is not accessible empirically.

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Consequences for an evolutionary Consequences for an evolutionary grammar grammar

A grammar is called A grammar is called evolutionaryevolutionary, if its architecture , if its architecture reflects the order in which important linguistic features reflects the order in which important linguistic features emerged and respects the natural (causal) relations emerged and respects the natural (causal) relations between components which were selected at different between components which were selected at different stages (e.g., 2 my, 500.000 y, 100.000 y, 50.000 y, stages (e.g., 2 my, 500.000 y, 100.000 y, 50.000 y, 5.000 y BP).5.000 y BP).

In conclusion of the facts and hypotheses exposed in In conclusion of the facts and hypotheses exposed in this lecture, a grammar should first consider the this lecture, a grammar should first consider the cognitive basics, i.e., the mapping of space, time, force cognitive basics, i.e., the mapping of space, time, force (cause) into a language. (cause) into a language.

Secondly, it should pay attention to discourse Secondly, it should pay attention to discourse organization in relation to social functions of language. organization in relation to social functions of language.

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Self-organization and the arbitrariness of Self-organization and the arbitrariness of languageslanguages

The basic factors which shaped human language led to The basic factors which shaped human language led to numberless but functionally equivalent individual numberless but functionally equivalent individual languages/dialects/jargons/repertoires, etc. This feature was languages/dialects/jargons/repertoires, etc. This feature was called the called the arbitrarinessarbitrariness of the linguistic sign by Ferdinand de of the linguistic sign by Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure.

In reality it is only the effect of multiple processes of self-In reality it is only the effect of multiple processes of self-organization which fulfill the basic cognitive and social organization which fulfill the basic cognitive and social functions. As the set of concepts grows, and at the same pace functions. As the set of concepts grows, and at the same pace the length of utterances, the fine-grained structure of languages the length of utterances, the fine-grained structure of languages is only grossly constrained by the basic functions. Internal is only grossly constrained by the basic functions. Internal measures of economy and optimality select one or several measures of economy and optimality select one or several solutions and by a law of conservation the system stops the solutions and by a law of conservation the system stops the search for other solutions. search for other solutions.

The differences between languages are the out-come of a The differences between languages are the out-come of a process weakly constrained by the basic functions and selected process weakly constrained by the basic functions and selected by mechanisms of self-organization, which allow for many by mechanisms of self-organization, which allow for many equivalent solutions.equivalent solutions.

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Some bibliographical hintsSome bibliographical hintsLabov, William, 1972. Labov, William, 1972. The Transformation of Experience in Narrative The Transformation of Experience in Narrative

Syntax, chapter 9 of: Labov, W., LanguaSyntax, chapter 9 of: Labov, W., Language in the Inner City. Studies ge in the Inner City. Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 354-396.Pennsylvania Press, 354-396.

Parker, Andrew, 2005. Seven Deadly Colours. The Genius of Nature’s Parker, Andrew, 2005. Seven Deadly Colours. The Genius of Nature’s Palette and How it Eluded Darwin, Free Press, London.Palette and How it Eluded Darwin, Free Press, London.

Thom, René, 1990. Semiophysics : a sketch, Addison-Wesley, Thom, René, 1990. Semiophysics : a sketch, Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, Calif Redwood City, Calif

Wildgen, Wolfgang, 1982. Catastrophe Theoretic Semantics. An Wildgen, Wolfgang, 1982. Catastrophe Theoretic Semantics. An Elaboration and Application of René Thom’s Theory, Benjamins, Elaboration and Application of René Thom’s Theory, Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Wildgen, Wolfgang, 1994. Process, Image, and Meaning. A Realistic Wildgen, Wolfgang, 1994. Process, Image, and Meaning. A Realistic Model of the Meanings of Sentences and Narrative Texts, Model of the Meanings of Sentences and Narrative Texts, Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.

Wildgen, Wolfgang, 2004a. The Evolution of Human Languages. Wildgen, Wolfgang, 2004a. The Evolution of Human Languages. Scenarios, Principles, and Cultural Dynamics, Benjamins, Scenarios, Principles, and Cultural Dynamics, Benjamins, AmsterdamAmsterdam/Philadelphia/Philadelphia..