“Wisdom, Humanity, and Courage…Maybe In This World: Philosophical perspectives”
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Transcript of “Wisdom, Humanity, and Courage…Maybe In This World: Philosophical perspectives”
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W i s d o m , H u m a n i t y , a n dC o u r a g e M a y b e In T h i s W o r l d :
P h i l o s o p h i c a l p e r s p e c ti v e s
Janelle Harrison
Religious Studies 166A
Professor William Powell
Due: Tues. Nov. 17th
, 1998
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There are issues in every culture and, in every timeframe; from centuries before
the birth of Christ to our modern contemporary era that have been discussed in the realm
of philosophical debates of the intelligentsia, to the conversations of the common folk
working in the agricultural fields. There is no doubt however, that the topic of humanity,
that is, how to treat one another in a humane manner is the most widely, yes, the most
frequently discussed of all. From the written works of our greatest Western thinkers of
the past, such minds as Aristotle, Plato, Hume, Hegel, Kant and Decartes, to one of the
greatest known philosophers of Ancient Eastern society, namely Confucius, humanity has
been, and hopefully will continue to be a discussion topic and enacted ritual that invokes
a temendous response within persons of every background and, from every society.
In todays context, in which we are now quickly approaching the turn of a century
that is unfolding into a new millennium, the topic of humanity in the context of each
individuals life within and outside of a society should be considered in its past form, as
a reflective process. That is so that we may understand what humanity meant in the
context of that era and, what it should (hopefully retaining the same connotation and
meaning) mean for the future generations that will be sharing this planet as an
organismic whole.
There are of course different connotations attributed to the word humanity. Given
that different cultures approach the subject in different fashions we need a clear
understanding of the contextual setting of the word humanity. In the Websters
Dictionary (a Western translation used widely in the United States) humanity is defined
as the fact or quality of being human, human nature, human qualities or characteristics,
especially those considered desirable; the human race, mankind, people. But in our
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consideration the last definition: The fact or quality of being humane; kindness, mercy,
sympathy, et cetera, is the definitional approach that most suitably fits into this
discussion. Though it is a Western definition it does possess the qualities or
characteristics of the humanity (ren) of Confucian thought. I believe the universal
underlining of this term which reaches across all cultures can be explained in the sense
that as humans we all are constructed, or formed from the same elemental factors (yes,
animals are also, but at this time, trying to avoid the heavy philosophical debate of human
consciousness Ill just postulate that the creature known as a human (in form) has a
consciousness, while animals do not (according to some scientist) ) and thus, one of them
being human consciousness there is the need for that universal quality of humanity.
In the following evaluation of humanity I will thus like to discuss several aspects
which are vital in our understanding of it, and I propose a hypothesis which deals with
the term humanity from a horizontal perspective as well as a vertical perspective. First,
the several aspects of humanity that are the focus of this paper are the contextual
underpinnings of East Asian culture, and more directly, Confucian thought. It is
important to layout this discussion with some significant historical background of
Confucius teachings, for he himself was a proponent of knowing history. Then the
concept of the self (ji) must be discussed in order to evaluate the term (ren) humanity.
Also, the concept of the self in relation to others and, to heaven (tien). These concepts
are asserted by Ames and Hall in greater detail in their workThinking from The Han:
Self, Truth, and Transcendence in Chinese and Western Culture. Secondly, viewing
humanity from a horizontal perspective (namely a class distinction) as well as a vertical
perspective (that usually being culturally definitive) one may begin to ponder on what
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humanity truly entails for all persons. Confucius was one to discuss humanity from the
horizontal perspective. While today from the perspective of the Western Culture we tend
to view it from the former as well as the latter (depending on a variety of factors).
A brief example that I would like to note is the different ways each culture greets
one another. The act of greeting is considered by society to be a ritual that expresses
humanity, or the embodied act of it. In the Japanese culture two males put their hands
together and bow, with some distance between each other. This is their humane way of
greeting, and it is the proper way. In Italy, two males tend to greet one another by a
strong embrace and, a kiss on the face. This is the Italian way of greeting one another
humanely. If, the Japanese man were to encounter the Italian man and, the Italian man
embraced the Japanese man and kissed him, the Japanese man would probably be quite
offended. He would think (more than likely) that the Italian was vulgar. And conversely,
if it were the Japanese man who greeted the Italian in his cultural the Italian would
probably be offended from the lack of expression.
Now, in searching for the humane, in reaching back through time to the period of
chaotic social disorder in which Confucius lived, and reconstructing the historical context
from which his thought arose, we find that critics of his sayings, (The Analects (Lun Yu)
of Confucius) have found a profound philosophical perspective that reflects the Chinese
idea of society. And yet, Confucius himself was not a recognized figure within his own
time (Huang1). It would not be until several centuries later during theHan dynasty that
the Masters sayings would truly be considered an intellectual force in Chinese
thought, and a thought which consisted of political and ethical ideas that were meant to
be the moral code of the upper classes of China (Eberhard 91).
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Kong Fu-Tzu (Confucius) was a man who greatly admired the social structures of
the past. His hero, the Duke ofChou, represents a period in Chinese history when the
feudal lord system was intact. It was this feudal system that Confucius had hoped would
once again unite Chinese society. This was probably because he himself was fully
conscious of his membership in a social class whose existence was tied to that of the
feudal lords. With their disappearance, his type of scholar would become superfluous
(Eberhard 92).
Here, it would be interesting to note that Confuciuss hero, the Duke ofChou had
a son whom, in fighting to gain power in Shantung, established a feudal state called Lu-
the state ofKing Fu-Tzus birth (Hsu 123). It was the Chous military strategy, along with
what they considered to be the Mandate of Heaven that empowered them to invade,
conquer, and reconstitute local structures by assimilating the local leaders into the power
elite (152). Whether or not this stringent tactic was proposed in theLun Yu is difficult to
espouse, because Confucius is known more for his teachings of the Tao of ren (way of
humanity),yi (righteousness),Li (rituals),zhi, ren, yong(wisdom, humanity, and
courage),Zhong shu (wholehearted sincerity and like-hearted considerateness),zhong
yong(The constant mean),xiaoti (filial piety and brotherly obedience), ru (the scholar-
teacher) and ren, min (men and people) (Huang14-35). He taught many other virtues
(de), but these tend to hold the most significance in the study of his workTheAnalects.
Thus, if we viewed Confuciuss teachings in light of the Chous military strategy, the
concern for humanity and its meaning takes a new context: because the Chou not only
subjugated those less powerful then them, but they also enslaved them into the laborious
class which supported the elite feudal system. If Confucius was in fact teaching the
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upward mobility of theRu, they would in turn have to also subjugate those less powerful
(this being the power of knowledge according toRu thought), and Confucius did teach
that we should love men on a graded basis, and thus perhaps those most distant from him
(in learning, not just blood) would be those persons. His system of teachings unfold into
who is most worthy to rule, not who was born of nobility.
Yet, this is why the subject of humanity was so vital in Chinese society as well as
the rest of the world. Those who are worthy to serve in governmental positions should
reflect on ren, and extend ren to all men. That is why Confucius said To be able to
practice the five things under Heaven constitutes humanity (Analects 17:5) The concern
here though is that enslaving those who could not learn the classics and take
governmental positions may not seem humane in the eyes of everyone. This perspective
was found in the writings ofMo Tzu. There is a contrast between the Mohist school of
thought and that of Confucianism. Namely, Confucius felt a sympathetic understanding
for the traditional institutions, rituals, music, and literature of the early Chou dynasty,
and he tried to rationalize and justify them in ethical terms (Yu-Lan 49). Conversely,
the Mohist questioned the usefulness and validity ofThe Classics (49).
It is this divide between the Mohist school of thought that we can consider to be
physically militant because they were an organization capable of military action and,
Confucianisms love of ritual and music which were exclusively for the aristocrats that
imposes difficulty in making the assumption that Confucius had aggressive motives
behind his teachings (50). But as I said before, this battlefield for Confucian thought and
theRu school was an educational one. While Confucius taught the advancement through
education, Mohist could, if needed use defensive war tactics for the lower classes
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(which is what they were constituted). And it is their enslavement that would be called
into question for the aristocrats to live a luxurious lifestyle.
Advancing now from the Chou dynastic period, and past Confucius own time era
(which saw the dissolution of the feudal lord system) we find his teachings finally taking
root in theHan period when the gentry (in which the same way as the European
bourgeoisie) continually claimed that there should be access for every civilized citizen to
the highest places in the social pyramid, and the rules of Confucianism became binding
on every member of society if he were to be considered a gentleman (Eberhard 93). It
was during the reign ofEmperor Yang DI(605-618) that the imperial examinations of the
classics of theRu school were incepted as a selective mode for those who wanted to serve
as officials in the Chinese government (Huang 10). The examinations were the basis of
Chinas hierarchical society until 1905 when EmperorGuang-xu abolished them (10).
MasterKongs ideology formed the basis of Chinese life for over eleven hundred years.
Realizing that one man could have such a great influence over a country and its
governmental system as large and powerful as Chinas, a more in depth look at some of
his philosophical positions about social and political behavior, which must be
encompassed within the concepts ofjen (human-heartedness) and li (ritual) (for both are
vital in theLun Yu) is the direction I would like to move into. This approach to Confucian
thought from an analytical perspective is fundamental in evaluating the heterogeneous
aspects of Confucianism, as opposed to the varieties of Chinese schools and to our own
Western ideology.
It was Mencius, whom in his writings formed the idealistic wing of Confucianism.
Mencius debated heavily aboutjen (human-heartedness) and li (ritual); evaluating the
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original goodness, which he said, was innate in human nature. Having thisjen innate in
each and every person within Confucian philosophical teachings was the underlining
element of humanity that I espoused at the beginning of this paper. Once again, if we
contrast Confucianism and more specifically Menciustheory ofjen with the Mohist
perspective that humans are innately bad the philosophical debate of humanity once again
is taken into a contextual mode. In Confucian thought, humanely treating one another is
possible for everyone if they cultivate themselves to fit into society. In the Mohist school
of thought, which states human-nature for all is innately bad there maybe some who, with
all their effort could not cultivate thejen needed for all-embracing love and that is, in
Chinese society a valued aspect of humanity. Mo Tzu even questioned why someone
should even try and cultivate all-embracing love at all, stating that it was in fact false.
That is quite the opposite of Confucian thought.
In contemporary theory however, Confucian philosophy takes a completely
different perspective in the analytical approach of humanity, and what it meant for
Confucius. In Peerenbooms discussion of the Anthropocentric Pragmatism of Confucius,
he relates the differences between pragmatic coherence and foundational correspondence
theories. The difference in these theories is somewhat of a bifurcation of philosophical
thought. It is the former he notes that is understood in terms of postmodern
hermeneutics rather than traditional epistemology in Platonic-Enlightenment-Kantian
sense (112). Foundation correspondence in his view is an attempt to reduce all rival
claims to a single, privileged discourse and to postulate a neutral algorithm capable of
adjudicating between all such claims (112). Foundational correspondence brings all
thought to closure, while hermeneutics brings all thought not to a rational closure but a
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consensual agreement (112). Here, Peerenboom's thesis begins to synthesize with a
portion of this discussions earlier argument which, stated that the concept of humanity is
contextual. His statement below is one example of the similarities:
To this extent it [being the consensual agreement] guards against dogmatism and promotes, rather
than stifles, creativity and the exploration of new avenues. It is this focus on the creative
possibilities for interpersonal achievement that typifies the Confucian social and political project
in which exemplary persons strive to realize a humane state through the harmonizing of the
disparate interests of the many members of society (113).
It is this creativity that allows the two scholars Hall and Ames to assert that Confucian
philosophy can best be understood as having an aesthetic rather than a logical order
(113).
By viewing Confucian thought from a non-conformist perspective as Ames and
Hall has in Thinking Through Confucius, my earlier postulation of a contextual setting
for the meaning of humanity (ren) is thus substantiated. But it also helps to substantiate a
conceptual polarity to our discussion of the self as it is to the other, and to heaven-
aspects which I said were fundamental to Confuciuss teachings. It is conceptual polarity
that requires one aspect to explain the other (Peerenboom 114). In other words, yin can
be explained only by reference to theyang (114). This thought is contrary to the
traditional viewpoints of Confucian philosophy, but because Confucianism lacks a
transcendental source of order with a distinct separation between heaven and human,
mind and body, which forms a dualistic traditional view, Hall and Ames are able to
espouse this theory (114). The aesthetic order of Hall and Ames is also a viable and
attractive philosophical position which is closely intertwined with the tenability of the
pragmatists epistemological position (115). For this reason, Peerenbooms pragmatic
coherence view and, Hall and Ames aesthetic view will help to promote the contextual
meaning of humanity, the self, the other (or society) and heaven. Rather than a
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foundational perspective of the concepts (I use the word concept instead of terms to note
that this discussion is not focusing on absolute definitional meanings per se, but rather,
ideas which evolve or transform in their contextual setting).
In the first portion of this discussion, when giving a definitional meaning to
humanity I thus began to touch on the issue of what a human is, presupposing that all
humans have what we call a consciousness (this separating us from the animal kingdom).
When we juxtapose this idea of humans as a biological species having privileged rights
because they are biologically distinct from animals with Confuciuss idea of a human
being we find the contextual differentiation which superimposes problematic meanings
between the Enlightenment concept of the West and his (Peerenboom 128).
Confucius, however, draws a distinction between human beings qua members of a biological
species and humans qua social beings. The well- publicized and much debated distinction between
masses (min) and persons (ren) as well as that between the small person (xiaoren) and the
exemplary person (junzi) suggests that one must earn the benefits granted to one and guaranteed
by society by achieving some minimal level of personhood, of humanity (128).
This then, gives humanity a contextual meaning that has to be viewed in relationship to
society. This relationship is a conceptual polarity given that the self, being of humane
nature, can only be humane in relation to a society, or other. This point of view is
distinctive from other Chinese concepts of humanity. The Taoist perspective, which is
that of a recluse, is quite the opposite. In a summarization of Confuciuss opinion, these
recluses needed to be dealt with in a proper manner; for society to aim at securing a
minimum level of basic rights for alienated individuals unable or unwilling to participate
cooperatively in collective living is to admit failure (129). He states in The Analects:
Lead the people with edicts, keep them in line with penal law, and they will avoid
punishments but will have no sense of shame. Lead them with virtue, keep them in line
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with the rites, and they will not only have a sense of shame but will order themselves
harmoniously (Analects 2:3).
Here, Confucius is speaking in terms of an ideal society. One governed by the
traditional adherence to rituals and rites (li) of the dynastic systems (Hsia, Shang, and
Chou) that were prior to his own, and the texts which were produced in those eras: The
Classics. Persons are lead by an exemplary person (junzi) who possesses a charismatic
power (de) that will lead to the harmonious functioning of society (Peerenboom 128).
In Confuciuss philosophy of the Tao of humanity, rituals (li) and rites are the
threads that would unite the people in a harmonious order. By each person knowing and
understanding the five classics a person could know how to perform ritual ceremonies
and know not only the past, but also the present and, the future in that respect. The
performance of rituals in the traditional form presented in The Classics were an
underlining, unchanging concept that united the Chinese society throughout time. So no
matter how much intellectual thought evolved over time, changing the everyday values
and customs of the Chinese people, the rituals would thus remain constant giving a sense
of stability in a society which for Confucius was in disorder.
The person then, had a role to perform within society. The role to cultivate oneself
in the way ofren, to perform rituals, and to function in a harmonious unity with the rest
of society. Halls and Ames clarifies this in a statement which also shows how humanity,
embodied by ritual is contextual to the society one is in. Though it does not mention
humanity, but rather the body, its the role the body plays in these rituals (embodiment)
which cultivates humanity.
These ritualized roles and practices, never separate from the physical body, shape and are shaped
by the community with both its identity and its character. The term for body (ti) and ritual (li) are
cognate, sharing as they do the core idea of articulated form (32).
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It is this formalization of ritual that in Confucian terms brings about humanity.
Hall and Ames begin with the body which as they stated shapes the performance. Now
what role than does all of this play in relationship to heaven (tien)? Confucius himself
never liked to speculate too much on metaphysical questions, yet he does state at fifty
I realized the ming oftien (Analects). In all respects, the characteristics oftien in
Confuciuss thought was one of an anthropocentric conception that was given earlier by
Peerenboom. It was tien that made sage kings and determined the social status of all
(Confucius Ames 200). Since it is a power that has the capacity to understand human
beings to such an extent that they cannot deceive it, we do well to stand in awe of it
(200). In fact: Where one offends against tien, he has nothing to which to pray (206).
Tien (heaven) helped in each persons enlightenment and perfection. By
perfecting oneself (inner and outer) there is a conceptual polarity between the
perfectionist and tien.
While perfecting oneself, one must also see that others are likewise perfected. One cannot perfectoneself while disregarding the perfection of others. The reason is that one can develop ones nature to the
utmost only through the human relationships, that is, within the sphere of society. This goes back to the
tradition of Confucius and Mencius, that for self-perfection one must practice chung,shu, andjen; that is, it
consists in helping others. To perfect oneself is to develop to the utmost what one has received from heaven
(Yu-Lan 176, 177)
This idea of perfection corresponds to Hall and Ames perspective of the body,
while at the same time emphasizing Confucianisms inner self-cultivation in learning and
jen, along with all of the other virtues that constitute humanity in Confucian thought.
Tien has a conceptual polarity between persons cultivating ren and, the society
which embodies the humane aspects of Chinese culture. Tiens anthropocentric role in
determining ones status is a relationship allegorical to the self and society. If the self is
cultivating ren it will function well in society. If the self is functioning in harmony with
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tien than the cultivation of ren is possible. It are these relationships which govern most
of Confuciuss philosophy. It is a philosophy that espoused the Way (Tao) of humanity,
the way of humanity through numerous doctrines in his sayings Lun Yu
This discussion has covered a variety of issues that deal with the concepts of
humanity. The main focus was a concentration on the Chinese perspectives postulated in
Confucian thought. There was a contrast between Mencius and the MohistSchool which,
helped to highlight the differences in Ancient Chinese thought. But Western ideologies
and modern contemporary perspectives were also evaluated to round out philosophical
perspective of the past with modern thinking and theory. Viewing Confucius teachings
in light of its historical context enabled this discussion to find a firm grounding to which,
the theories of contextual meaning of ren were formed. Also, it was theories such as Hall
and Ames aesthetic view verses the logical view of Confucian thought that helped to
substantiate the goals in this discussion. Peerenboom's anthropocentric pragmatism, and
the differentiation between foundational correspondence and pragmatic coherence was
vital in formulating a thesis which allowed an evolutionary process of the concepts of the
self, society, and tien. Without these various points of view contrasted to early
Enlightenment thought of the West it would be impossible to understand Confucius way
of approaching humanity through politics and social order.
Confucius was an example for most of the Chinese culture. The fact that his
philosophies dominated Chinese thinking for over eleven hundred years may attest to
that. By placing wren in the context of todays society, across all cultures, and realizing
that we are approaching a new century with an ever changing social structure, and
developing modern technology that affects the way the world communicates we must ask
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if the sayings in theLunYu could form a foundation for a world society for those
within and outside of its cultural context? Many affirm this statement, but it is a
contextual meaning that we must keep in mind.
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WORKS CITED
Eberhard, Wolfram. Confucius and the Chinese Basic Values. (Reader 91-98).
Hall, David L., and Roger T. Ames. Thinking Through Confucius. New York: State
University of New York Press, 1987.
Hall, David L. and Roger T. Ames. Thinking From The Han: Self, Truth, and
Transcendence in Chinese and Western Culture. New York: State University of
New York Press, 1998.
Huang, Chichung. The Analect of Confucius. New York: Oxford Press, 1997.
Hsu, Chu-Yun, and Katheryn M. Linduff. Western Chou Civilization Yale University,
1988.
Peerenboom, R. P. Law and Morality in Ancient China: The Silk Manuscripts of Huang-
Lao.New York: State University of New York Press, 1993.
Yu-Lan, Fung. A Short History of Chinese Philosophy. New York: The Free Press, 1948.