winter 2013 volume xliv issue 1 in this issue

winter 2013 | volume xliv | issue 1 in this issue

On the Profession

Analytic Resources for Emerging Methodological Repertoiresby Thomas musTillo

Paper Machines: A Text Analysis and Visualization Toolkit for Zotero Librariesby Jo Guldi

Public Cyber-Infrastructure for Spatial Analysisby sTeven manson

Debates

Evolving Practices of Citizenship amid Institutional Reformby Claudio FuenTes

When Constitutions Shape National Identityby ZaChary elkins

Instituciones de representación y calidad de la democracia: Agenda de estudiopor leTiCia m. ruiZ rodríGueZ

¿Quién ocupa la silla vacía? La participación como representación en la vigente innovación democrática latinoamericanapor Franklin ramíreZ GalleGos

Movimiento indígena: La lucha por la autodeterminación mapuche en Chilepor José a. marimán

1 FromthePresident | byevelyne huber

ON THE PROFESSION

2 AnalyticResourcesforEmergingMethodologicalRepertoiresbyThomas musTillo

3 PaperMachines:ATextAnalysisandVisualizationToolkitforZoteroLibrariesbyJo Guldi

6 PublicCyber-InfrastructureforSpatialAnalysis | bysTeven manson

DEBATES

8 EvolvingPracticesofCitizenshipamidInstitutionalReform | byClaudio FuenTes

9 WhenConstitutionsShapeNationalIdentity | byZaChary elkins

11 Institucionesderepresentaciónycalidaddelademocracia:AgendadeestudioporleTiCia m. ruiZ rodríGueZ

13 ¿Quiénocupalasillavacía?Laparticipacióncomorepresentaciónenlavigenteinnovacióndemocráticalatinoamericana | porFranklin ramíreZ GalleGos

16 Movimientoindígena:LaluchaporlaautodeterminaciónmapucheenChileporJosé a. marimán

ON LASA2013

18 NotefromtheLASA2013ProgramChairsbyGwen kirkpaTriCkandkenneTh m. roberTs

19 BookExhibitForm

20 FilmFestivalForm

CALLING ALL MEMBERS

21 CampaignforBequestsfortheLASAEndowmentbyCynThia mCClinToCkandkevin middlebrook

SECTION NEWS

21 Haiti/DominicanRepublicAward

SPECIAL PROJECTS

22 ¿Experimentosparaexportar?¿EsadecuadalametodologíaexperimentalparaestudiarAméricaLatina? | porFernanda boidiyrosario Queirolo

PresidentEvelyne Huber University of North Carolina [email protected]

Vice PresidentMerilee Grindle Harvard University

Past President Maria Hermínia Tavares de Almeida Universidade de São Paulo

TreasurerCristina Eguizábal Florida International University

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

For term ending May 2013 Rosalva Aída Hernández Castillo, Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social Maxine Molyneux, University of London Gioconda Herrera, FLACSO/Ecuador

For term ending May 2014: Graciela Montaldo, Columbia University María Clemencia Ramírez, Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia Catalina Romero, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú

Ex OfficioGwen Kirkpatrick, Georgetown University Kenneth M. Roberts, Cornell University Milagros Pereyra-Rojas, University of Pittsburgh Philip Oxhorn, McGill University

FORUM EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

EditorEvelyne Huber, University of North Carolina

Managing EditorMilagros Pereyra-Rojas, University of Pittsburgh

GUEST ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Claudio Fuentes, Universidad Diego Portales Thomas Mustillo, Purdue University

LASA STAFF

Special Projects CoordinatorMaría Soledad Cabezas, University of Pittsburgh

Assistant Director for Institutional AdvancementSandra Klinzing, University of Pittsburgh

Communications SpecialistSara Lickey, University of Pittsburgh

Executive DirectorMilagros Pereyra-Rojas, University of Pittsburgh

Membership CoordinatorIsrael R. Perlov, University of Pittsburgh

Operations Manager – Congress CoordinatorPilar Rodriguez Blanco, University of Pittsburgh

The LASA Forum is published four times a year. It is the official vehicle for conveying news about the Latin American Studies Association to its members. Articles appearing in the On the Profession and Debates sections of the Forum are commissioned by the Editorial Committee and deal with selected themes. The Committee welcomes responses to any material published in the Forum.

Opinions expressed herein are those of individual authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the Latin American Studies Association or its officers.

ISSN 0890-7218

TableofContents

FromthePresidentbyevelyne huber | UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill | [email protected]

meansalossoftheinvestedtimeandenergy.Toalleviatethisproblemtotheextentpossible,theECdecidedtoraisetheminimumnumberofmembersrequiredtoformanewsectionfromfiftytoseventy-five.TheminimumnumberofmembersrequiredtomaintainaSectiononceithasbeenformedremainsatfifty,unchanged.

TheECalsodiscussedtheissueofresolutions.Apparently,thereissomeconfusionabouttheprocess.Hereishowitworks:OncearesolutionhasbeenapprovedbytheLASAmemberspresentandvotingatthebusinessmeeting,itissenttothemembershipatlargeforavote.UndertherulesadoptedbytheECatitsmeetinginSanFrancisco,inorderforaresolutiontobeformallyadoptedbyLASA,atleast20percentofthemembershipmustvote,andamajorityofthosevotingmustvoteinfavor.So,iffewerthan20percentofmembersvote,theresolutionisnotformallyadopted.ThisiswhathappenedtotheresolutionsadoptedbytheLASAbusinessmeetinginSanFranciscoandsubsequentlysenttothemembershipforavote.

TheLASAExecutiveCouncil(EC)metonNovember10,2012,todeliberateanddecideonanumberofissues.Tobeginwiththehighlights:LASAasanorganizationisthriving.Wehavesurpassedamembershipof8,000individualsandinstitutionscombined.Thisistruedespitethefactthatinstitutionalmembershiphasdeclined,particularlyamonglibraries.Thisdownturniscertainlyinpartduetothespreadofelectronicaccesstojournalsandotherinformation.TheECdecidedtoconveneafocusgroupofinstitutionalmembersattheWashingtonCongress,toexplorewhatnewneedsthesemembersmighthaveandhowLASAcouldbetteraddressthem.WeshallalsoreachouttoCentersofLatinAmericanStudieswhoarenotnowbutmightbecomemembers.VicePresident/President-electMerileeGrindlewillchairthatmeetingandfollowupontheissueduringherpresidency.

Asexpected,thenumberofsubmissionsforthecomingCongress,thefirstoneonthenewannualschedule,declined,withthedesiredresultthattheacceptancerateclimbedsteeply.Thetrackchairsandprogramco-chairsdeserveourthanksfortheirhardandconcentratedwork.Formoreinformation,pleasereadthereportfromtheprogramchairsinthisissue.

OneofthepositiveaspectsofthegrowthofLASAmembershiphasbeenthegrowthofSections.SincethelastCongress,fournewSectionshavebeenapproved.Thisdemonstratesahighlevelofinvolvementofourmembership.However,thereisalsoapotentialdownsidetotheproliferationofSections.TheformationoftheSectionsrequiresagoodamountoftimeandenergyonthepartofboththememberswhoareorganizinganewSectionandtheSecretariat.WhenSectionmembershipdeclinesandfallsbelowtheminimumoffiftyrequiredtomaintainaSection,this

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documents,inhercasewithaneyetowardthestudyoftwentieth-centurypropertylawreformacrosstheglobe.GeographerStevenManson,amemberoftheScientificLeadershipGroupoftheTerraPopulusproject,describesTerraPopandU-Spatial,twobitsofcyber-infrastructurethatunderliespatialdataanalysisapplicationsacrossawiderangeofdisciplines—inhiscaseforthestudyofchangingurbanandrurallandscapes.

Novelmethodologicalapproachesareablazeinthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Earlyadoptersofnetworkscience,spatialdataanalysis,anddigitalhumanitiesareenrichingourfieldswithsurprisingfindings.Newmethodologicalrepertoiresdiversifythequestionswecanaskandtheknowledgewecanbuildacrossavarietyofsubstantivethemes.

Butnovelmethodsoftendemandnovelresourcestoenabletheirdeployment.Inthiseditionof“OntheProfession,”wefeaturecyber-infrastructureandanalytictoolsthatenablefreshtreatmentofresearchthemesoldandnew.OurpurposeistoraisetheprofileofmethodologicalinnovatorsoperatingnearthemarginsoftheLASAcommunityandtherebyfacilitateanexpansionofourcollectiveimaginationaboutthekindsofquestionswecanaskandthetypesoftoolswecanuse.Wehopetoinspirecross-fertilizationoverdisciplinaryandmethodologicalboundariesthatareoftentooimpervious.

PaulPiersoninPolitics in Time(2004)notedthepovertyassociatedwithamethodologicalspecialistwhoclaims,“Icanmodelthat,”whenconfrontedwithauniqueorcomplextheoreticalproposition,butwhose“theoreticalimageries”neverleadhertoimaginesuchpropositionsinthefirstplace.Weconcur,butnotethatitcanalsoapplyintheoppositedirection:methodologicaltraditionshavetheirownimageries,andsoscholarswhotryonnewmethodologicaleyewearmightbeinspiredwithnewpropositions.

Wefeaturetwocontributors,bothofwhomarepartnerstoinitiativesthatexploitdataintensity,computationalcapacity,andingenuity.HistorianJoGuldidescribes“PaperMachines,”atextualanalysisandvisualizationtoolshedevelopedwithcolleaguestostudyvastcollectionsof

AnalyticResourcesforEmergingMethodologicalRepertoiresbyThomas musTillo | PurdueUniversity | [email protected]

on the profession

lasaforum winter 2013 : volume xliv : issue 1

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themselvesarethusengagedinpreserving,annotating,andmakingdiscoverablehistoricalresourcesthatotherwiseriskneglect,decay,orevenintentionaldamage.

InPaperMachines,thesehand-tailoredlibrariesarevisualizedwithdata-miningtechniqueslikegeoparsing,namedentityrecognition,andlatentDirichletallocation(LDA).Theresultsoftheseprocessescanthenbetranslatedintoavarietyofcategorical,chronological,andgeographicalvisualizationstoshowthedistinctivefeaturesoftextualcorpora.WithPaperMachines,scholarscancreatevisualrepresentationsofamultitudeofpatternswithinatextcorpususingasimple,easy-to-usegraphicalinterface.Onemayusethetooltogeneralizeaboutawidebodyofthought—forinstance,thingshistorianshavesaidinaparticularjournaloverthelasttenyears.Oronemayvisualizelibrariesagainsteachother—say,novelsaboutnineteenth-centuryLondonsetagainstnovelsaboutnineteenth-centuryParis.Usingthistool,amultitudeofpatternsintextcanberenderedvisible

characterrecognition(OCR)frompapersourceslikegovernmentarchives.PaperMachinesisanopen-sourceZoteroextension;Zoteroisaprogramthatallowsuserstocreatebibliographiesandbuildtheirownhand-curatedlibrariesinanonlinedatabase.Theselibrariesmaybelargeorsmall—asminuteasaparticularliteraryauthororaslargeasthedisciplineofeconomicsinthenineteenthcentury—andthelibrariesmayoverlap(forexample,novelsabouteconomiclifecouldappearinaneconomicslibrary).Zoteroalsoprovidesforscholarlycollaboration.NestedinsideZotero,PaperMachinesworkswithZotero’sprovisionformultiusertextcollections,allowingaclass,agroupofscholars,orscholarsandactiviststogethertocollectandsharearchivesoftexts.Thesegrouplibrariescanbesetaspublicorprivatedependingonthesensitivityandcopyrightrestrictionsofthematerialbeingcollected.Indeed,IhaveheardreportsofhistoriansofPanamausingaZoterogrouplibrarytocollectandsharethetextsofgovernmentlibrariesforwhichnoofficialfindingaidexists.Thescholars

Fromthe1790son,officialgovernmentminutesandreportswereprintedformostWesterngovernments.Printingwasexpensiveandoccasionedonlybymeetingsofofficialbodies.Fromthe1820son,thesestatepapersweresupplementedbyoccasionalpropagandafromnongovernmentbodiesliketheSocietyforthePromotionofChristianKnowledge.Bythe1880sandtheriseofFabiansocialism,thisformofpara-governmentalreportinghadbecomeastandardapparatusofprofessionalgroups,eachofwhich,fromdoctorstolawyerstopropertysurveyors,haditsownprofessionaljournal,routinelydistributingprofessionalreports.Modernhistoryisthemomentoftoomuchpapertoread,aproblemthattrapshistoriansinagameofcharacterizingtheinstitutionsofpowerevenwhentheirsocialanddisciplinarycommitmentsleadthemtocriticalstancestowardthoseinstitutions.

Thissummer,myteamofresearchersreleasedPaperMachines,adigitaltoolkitdesignedtohelpscholarslikemyselfparsethemassiveamountsofpaperinvolvedinanycomprehensive,internationallookattheover-documentedtwentiethcentury.Itspurposeistomakestate-of-the-arttextminingaccessibletoscholarsacrossavarietyofdisciplinesinthehumanitiesandsocialscienceswholackextensivetechnicalknowledgeorimmensecomputationalresources.

PaperMachineswasdesignedwiththerangeofhistorians’textualsourcesinmind.WhiletoolsetslikeGoogleBooksNgramViewerutilizepresetcorporafromGoogleBookSearchthatautomaticallyemphasizetheAnglo-Americantradition,PaperMachinesworkswiththeindividualresearcher’sownhand-tailoredcollectionsoftexts,whetherminedfromdigitalsourceslikenewspapersandchatroomsorscannedandsavedthroughoptical

PaperMachines:ATextAnalysisandVisualizationToolkitforZoteroLibrariesbyJo Guldi | BrownUniversity;HarvardSocietyofFellows | [email protected]

on the profession

Figure 1: Geoparser map showing mentions of place-names in a corpus of texts about land law, with time slider at top left.

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The Long Land War tellsthestoryoftheglobalprogressoflandreformmovements,tracingideasaboutworkerallotmentsandfoodsecurity,participatorygovernance,andrentcontrolfromtheendofBritishEmpiretothepresent.BritishlawyerswrestledwithideasofpeasantproprietorshipinIndia,Ireland,andScotland,inventingpatternsoflandreformthatappealedtoadministratorsattheUnitedNationsandthepostcolonialgovernmentsoftheglobalsouth.ThroughoutmyreadinginthehistoryofBritishpropertylaw,IhaveusedPaperMachinestosyntheticallycharacterizethenatureofparticulardebatesandtheirgeographicreferents,makingforinstancetimelinesandspatialmapsoftopicsandplace-namesassociatedwithrentcontrol,landreform,andallotmentgardening.

PaperMachinesalsomakesthescholarbetterabletodiscernwhicharchivestochooseandinwhichpartsofarchivestoinvestherreadingtime.IcamebackfromvisitingRomethissummerwith4,600OCRdocumentsfromthearchiveoftheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations,oneofthechiefofficestopresideovermidcenturylandreform.PaperMachineswasdesignedasatoolforhackingthosebureaucracies,forforminganinstantportraitoftheirworkings,givinganimmediatecontexttodocumentsfromthearchivethatismoresubstantialthanthehigh-profileevents,schoolsofthought,orindividuals—MiltonFriedman,JohnF.Kennedy,andsoon—whotendtodominateourunderstandingofhistory.Instead,theuserofPaperMachinescanaffordtopayattentiontothefieldagents,branchheads,anddirectors-generalofUNoffices,orindeedtotheintermediatefacultyoftheUniversityofWisconsinandtheUniversityofSussexwhoofferedsomuchadvicetobothheadsofstateandgenerationsofundergraduatesontheirway

influenceofideas,individuals,andprofessionalcohorts.Bymeasuringtrends,ideas,andinstitutionsagainsteachotherovertime,scholarswillbeabletotakeonamuchlargerbodyoftextsthantheynormallydo.InmyownworkIhavebegunapplyingPaperMachinestoatextcorpusthatIhand-curatedformyLong Land War monographproject.Itisalreadyprovingusefultotheproblemof“distantreading”largenumbersofbureaucratictextsfromthetwentiethcentury,whichisamajorproblemforscholarsaskinglarge-scalequestionsinmyfield.However,scholarsfromotherfieldswillbeabletoimaginenewandinnovativeusesforPaperMachines’functions—ornewandinnovativefunctionsaltogether.

WorkingwithPaperMachinesallowsmetotracetheconversationsinBritishhistoryfromthelocalstoriesattheirpointsoforiginforward,leapingfrommicrohistoricalresearchintheBritisharchiveintolongue-duréesynthesisofpolicytrendsonaworldwidescale.Thatdigitallyenabledresearchoperatesthroughathreefoldprocess:digitallysynthesizingbroadswathsoftime,criticallyinquiringintothemicrohistoricalarchivewithdigitallyinformeddiscernmentaboutwhicharchivestochoose,andreadingmorebroadlyinsecondaryliteraturesfromadjacentfields.Forexample,inFigure2,thetopic-modelingalgorithmMallethasbeenrunonacorpusofscholarlytextsaboutlandlaw.Theresultingimageisacomputer-guidedtimelineoftherelativeprominenceofideas—somementioningIrelandandsomementioningIndia—thatcanthenbechangedandfine-tuned.Thisvisualizationofchangingconceptsovertimeguidesmetolookmorecloselyinmycorpusatthe1970s,whentheintellectualmemoryoflandstrugglesinIrelandwashelpingtoguidecontemporarypolicyinLatinAmerica.

throughasimplegraphicalinterface.Forexample,Figure1isamapofplace-namesmentionedinacorpusoftextsonlandlaw.Intheinteractiveversion,atimesliderwouldallowthescholartowatchtheappearanceofnewplace-namesovertime.

PaperMachinesitself,asapieceofinfrastructure,isbothaworkinprogressandacommunityinitiative.Asthegrantwriterbehindacollaborativeeffortinvolvingseveralpeople,IdesignedPaperMachinestohelpscholarslikemyselfbycapitalizinguponthemassesoftextsalreadyavailableonline,digitizedbythoughtfuldigitalarchivists,andalsodrawingupontheworkalreadydevelopedbyourcolleaguesincomputerscience.Tothisend,itprovidesaneasilyextensibleframeworkforcombiningdatasources—includingJSTORDataforResearchandtheuser’sowncorpusoftexts—withtechniquessuchasgeoparsing,namedentityrecognition,andlatentDirichletallocation(LDA),eachofthemtheproductofgraduateworkbycomputerscientists.Forinstance,DavidMimno,aPrincetonpostdoctoralstudent,wroteMallet,thetimelineusedbyPaperMachinesforvisualizingtopicmodeling.Figure2showsatimelinedesignedwithMalletwhereinthecomputeridentifiesparticulartopics(setsofwordsthatprobabilisticallyappearneareachotherinabook)overtime.DesignedtoworkwithEnglish,itwasreleasedasanearlyopen-sourcealphaversionofcodethissummer,withtheideathatscholarsinterestedinretoolingthecodetoworkwithSpanish-corpusplace-namesoralternativehistoricalgazetteersmightdoso,hiringcomputationalresearchassistantsoftheirowntoadjustthetooltotheirspecificneeds.

ApplyingPaperMachinestotextcorporaallowsscholarstoaccumulatehypothesesaboutlongue-duréepatternsinthe


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onLatinAmericanandSouthAsianhistory,comingtogripswiththewaylandstoriesunfoldonaglobalscale,andthusseriouslyaddressingtheimportofmysubjectthroughdialoguewithcolleaguesinneighboringfields.Digitalsynthesis,byallowingmetolookatthegrandersweepoftime,hasmademe,asahistorianofBritain,betterabletowriteasacitizenoftheworld.

Myhopeisthattoolslikethesecanteachhistorianshowtotakeourownquestionsmoreseriously.Ialsohopethatopen-source,reusabletoolslikePaperMachines,buildinguponexistingresources,willencouragehistoriansandindeedthepublictolookateventsintheirdeepcontexts,drawingoutthemostimportantnarrativespossibleforahistoryofthepresent.

pesticides,assomehistorianshavedone.Byidentifyingvyingtopicsovertime,PaperMachinesallowsthereadertoidentifyandpursueparticularmomentsofdissent,schism,andutopianism—zeroinginonconflictsbetweenthepesticideindustryandtheAppropriateTechnologymovementorbetweentheWorldBankandtheLiberationTheologymovementoverexploitativepractices,forexample.Digitallystructuredreadingmeansgivingmoretimetocounterfactualsandsuppressedvoices,realigningthearchivetotheintentionsofhistoryfrombelow.

ForthescholarwritingasaBritishhistorian,thatgestureimpliesanendtoscholasticisolationofAnglo-Americantraditionsfromdebatesinothercornersoftheworld.MyworkwithPaperMachineshasrequiredmetospendmoreandmoreofmytimereadingcontemporaryliterature

tothecivilservice.PaperMachinesallowsustoinstantlytaketheDNAofeachoftheseorgans,identifyingthewaysinwhichtheydivergeandconverge.Allofthesefieldsspokeacommonlanguageofmodernizationtheory:ofnationalgovernments,democraticreform,government-providedextension,trainingandmanagementandtheprovisionofnewequipmentthatresultedinquantitativelyverifiableincreasedproduction.

Readingwithadigitalfindingaidrenderspossibleintentionalreading,asforinstanceinreadingfordissent.Traditionalresearch,limitedbythesheerbreadthofthenon-digitizedarchiveandthetimenecessarytosortthroughit,becomeseasilyshackledtohistoriesofinstitutionsandactorsinpower,forinstancecharacterizinguniversaltrendsintheAmericanEmpirefromtheFordandRockefellerFoundations’investmentsin

Figure 2: Mallet, topic modeling software by David Mimno, modeling the relevant prominence of mentions of India, Ireland, and other topics in relationship to each other over time.

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workshopsandtrainingsessions,andanInternetpresence.

•Establishinganorganizationalstructuretoensurethelong-termsustainabilityoftheproject,includingdevelopmentofanendowmentfundandcross-institutionaltieswithleadingdataarchivesaroundtheworld.TerraPopisalsoapartnerintheNationalScienceFoundation’sSustainableDigitalDataPreservationandAccessNetwork(DataNet).TheDataNetinitiativeaimstoprovidereliabledigitalpreservation,access,integration,andanalysiscapabilitiesforsciencedataoveradecades-longtimeline.

U-Spatial

OverfivehundredresearchersinoverfiftydepartmentsatUniversityofMinnesota(UMN)activelyconductspatialscienceresearch,andmanymorehaveexpressedinterest,yettheuniversityhashadnoorganizedresearchinfrastructureinthisareauntilnow.U-Spatialfocusesonmodestyetcriticalcoordinatedinfrastructureimprovementstoenhancetheuniversity’sspatialscienceactivities.U-SpatialisanetworkofresearchnodesthatenhancesexistingUMNresearchstrengths,eliminatesduplicationandfragmentationofscientificresources,andprovidesaframeworkofdata,equipment,expertise,andresources.ThesenodesprovidetheU-Spatialinfrastructureviafourinfrastructurecores:

Central Core.Thecentralcoreprovidesgeneralassistanceandresourcecoordination.Servicesincludewalk-inhelpdesksandonlineservicestoprovidegeneralassistancewithanalysisandsimplemapping.Assistantswillalsodirectadvancedproblemstosecondarynodesand

TerraPop

TerraPopulus:AGlobalPopulation/EnvironmentDataNetwork,isanambitiousprojecttocreatepopulation-environmentdatathatarebothlocallyaccurateandglobalincoverage.TerraPopwillcombinetwocenturiesofcensusdatafromclosetoahundredcountrieswithglobalenvironmentaldata,includinglandcover,landuse,andclimaterecords.Beyondthegoalofintegratingthisinformationintoacommondatabase,theteamplanstodisseminatethenewlyavailabledatatoresearchersaroundtheworld.Manyhigh-qualityenvironmentalandpopulationdatasetsexist,buttheyarewidelydispersed,haveincompatibleorinadequatedocumentation,andoftenincludeincompatibleorincompletespatiallocationalinformation.Newlyavailablepopulationdatacloselyintegratedwithdataontheenvironmentwillmoreclearlydescribetheunfoldingtransformationofhumanandecologicalsystems.

TerraPopaimstoaccomplishfourspecifictasksoverthecomingyears:

•Collecting,preserving,integrating,anddescribingdatasetsthatmeasurechangesintheworld’spopulationandenvironmentoverthepasttwocenturies.

•Developingtoolsandprocedurestomanageanddisseminatethedatacollections.Thisworkinvolvesspatiotemporallyharmonizingcensusdatabyaddressingstatisticalandmathematicalchallengesofintegratinglargesocioeconomicdatasets.

•Carryingouteducationandoutreachtoengagethescientificcommunityandthepublicandreachthebroadestpossibleaudience.Thisinvolvesoutreachatprofessionalconferences,specialized

Spatialscienceisafast-growingfieldthatstudiesspatiotemporalaspectsofpeople,places,andprocessesusinginformationtechnologies.Itencompassestechnologiesrangingfromsatelliteimagingandgeographicinformationsystems(GIS)tospatialdataandmodelsofdataderivedfromsocialnetworksandfieldwork.Keyresearchagencies—includingtheNationalScienceFoundationandNationalInstitutesofHealthintheUnitedStates—havetargetedspatialsciencefordramaticallyincreasedfunding.Scientificbodies,includingtheU.S.NationalAcademiesandtheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization,heraldspatialscienceasanintegrativeapproachandaresearchtopicofvitalimportancetoawidearrayofdisciplinesencompassingLatinAmericanists.Importantly,theseagenciespointtoaneedforbetterspatialscienceinfrastructure,includingphysicalsystemscenteredoncomputingandcommunicationaswellasscientificdatastandardsforarchiving,discovery,anddissemination.

Thisspatialscienceinfrastructuretakesmanyforms,butwedescribetwoexampleshere.ThefirstisTerraPopulus(TerraPop),spatialdatainfrastructuredesignedtocreatenewopportunitiesforunderstandingtherelationshipbetweenpopulationandtheenvironmentatscalesrangingfromthelocaltoglobal<http://www.terrapop.org>.ThesecondisU-Spatial,theUniversityofMinnesotaSpatialSciencesandSystemsInfrastructure,whichcoordinatesandsupportsspatialdata,training,andresearchoncampus<http://uspatial.umn.edu>.Inadditiontoexaminingspecificsofeachproject,weusetheseexamplestoexaminesomeofthelargerinstitutionalandresourcedimensionsoflarge-scalespatialdatainfrastructure.

PublicCyber-InfrastructureforSpatialAnalysisbysTeven manson | UniversityofMinnesota | [email protected]

on the profession


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example,andovertwohundredrespondentsacrossthearts,humanities,andsocialscienceswantedtousespatialscienceintheirwork,butonlyahandfulhadtherequisitesupportandavailableexpertise.DesiredprojectsincludedrepresentingshiftingperceptionofLatinoimmigrantsovertimetoquantitativesociologicalstudiesofracialinequalityincities.ManysimilarissuesheldtrueforTerraPop,whereliterallyhundredsofresearchersaroundtheglobehavestartedtousetheunderlyingharmonizedcensusdataandhaveexpressedgreatinterestinlinkingittoenvironmentaldata.TerraPopandU-Spatialprovidejusttwoexamplesofthelargerneedsforspatialscienceanddata.

Spatialdatainfrastructureiscomplexandthereforeexpensive.Whiletheaccessingofspatialdata—suchasfreesatellitedataviatheInternetortheglobalreachofGoogleMaps—isncreasinglyeasyandinexpensive,usingthedataandtheirassociatedmethodsandtheoryusuallynecessitatesdeeperinfrastructure.U-Spatialisfundedby$2.5millionover2012–2017,two-thirdsofwhichisfromtheUniversityofMinnesota’sInfrastructureInvestmentInitiative,withtheremainingthirdcontributedbysevencolleges,threelargeresearchcenters,andthreecentraladministrativebodiesincludinglibrariesandinformationtechnology.Itinvolvesdozensofstaff,faculty,andstudents.TerraPopissimilarlycomplicated.Itwasawardedafive-year,$8milliongrantfromtheU.S.NationalScienceFoundation’sOfficeofCyberinfrastructure,whichrequirescooperationamongmanyinstitutions,giventhecomplexityanddepthoftheissuesinvolved.TheMinnesotaPopulationCenterleadstheeffortwithsupportfromtheInstituteontheEnvironment,theUniversityofMinnesotaLibraries,andfacultyfromtheCollegeofLiberalArtsandtheCollegeof

ismakingremoteimagingfullyaccessibletoUMNresearchers,whichinvolvesmanagingdatafrommultiple-sensorplatformsandofferingexperthelponimagecollectionandanalysis.

Analysis Core.Researchoncomplex,pressingproblemssuchasclimatevariabilityandrapidsocialchangerequiresadvancedspatialanalysis.Onepartofthecoreisdevelopingmodelinginfrastructure,includingalibraryofopen-sourcemodelsandexpertiseforapplyingittovariousdomains.U-Spatialisalsodevelopingspecificdatasetswhicharecurrentlyingreatdemand(e.g.,aspatiallyenabledpublichealthdatabasethatistiedtocensusdata).AnotherfocusofU-Spatialisongeodesign,theapplicationoftechnologytoallowdecisionmakerstocollaborativelyconstructandevaluatelandscapeplansusingspatiotemporalmodelingandthree-dimensionalvisualization.Geodesignnodeswilleachhosttouchtablesandmultipledisplayfacilitiesthatwillbesynchronouslyinteractive.Thefinalfocusismapping,whereU-SpatialisbuildingonsuccessfulGISandweb-mappingprogramsthatprovidedataandexpertisetoresearchersworkingonscientificproblemsinMinnesotaandelsewhere.

Outlook

Spatialscienceinfrastructureisnecessary.Forexample,weidentifiedtheneedforU-Spatialinfrastructurethroughacomprehensiveassessmentofexistingcapacity,includingsurveys,astrategicassessmentinwhichweintervieweddozensofstakeholders,andanationwidecomparisonwhereweinterviewedleadersandusersofsimilarspatialscienceinfrastructureatadozentopresearchuniversities.Wesurveyedfacultyandstudentsinasingleacademicunit,for

experts.Thecentralcorealsoprovidestrainingviaaprogramofshortworkshopsthatcoverspatialsciencebasicsallthewaythroughtoadvancedcoursestailoredtospecificdomains(e.g.,publichealthorhumanities).Forexample,weofferaGIS101course,afreeone-dayworkshopintroducingparticipantstoGISfundamentals.Lastyear,almost150peopleparticipatedintheworkshops,andthesessionsremainoversubscribed.ManyGIS101participantslearnthebasicskillsneededtouseGISintheirresearch,whileotherscontactthehelpdeskformorespecifictraining.

Data Core.ArecentspecialissueofSciencetitled“DealingwithData”(February11,2011)arguesthatwemustbetterdealwiththe“deluge”ofhugeandcomplexdatasetsinthefaceofcriticalshortcomingsindataarchivinganddiscovery.Theseneedsarewritlargeforspatialscienceresearchoncampus.U-Spatialhelpsresearchersarchivetheirdataandmakeitdiscoverableandreusablebyothers.U-Spatialprovidesexpertiseindatamanagement,archiving,anddiscoveryservicesthatgreatlyimprovedatareuseandcitationcapabilities.Accesstospatialdataisbeingaddressedbytwogroups.Thefirstgroupispilotingaweb-basedsystemtomakespatialdataeasytodiscoverandaccess,whilethesecondisfocusingonthelong-termarchivingandpreservationofdata.

Imaging Core.Remoteimaging,ordigitalimagesoftheearthmadefromplanesandsatellites,iscriticaltoresearchdomainsrangingfromdeforestationmeasurementtourbangrowthanalysis.Giventhevastamountofdatainvolvedandtheexpertiseandsystemsnecessaryforconvertingrawdataintoaformatsuitableforscientificanalysis,researcherscannotcurrentlytakefulladvantageoftheseresources.U-Spatial

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TheDebatessectioninthisissueexploresthewaysinwhichpoliticalinstitutionalreformhasalteredthemannerinwhichcitizenshipisexpressedandpracticed.

ThethirdwaveofdemocratizationinLatinAmericahasbeenaccompaniedbyreformsinrepresentativeaswellasparticipatoryinstitutions.Countrieshavefolloweddiversepaths.Insomecases,pactsamongtheelitesmaterializedduringprocessesoftransition.Inothercases,bottom-upprocessesofsocialmobilizationallowedforradicaltransformationsofthepoliticalsystems—usuallythroughtheapprovalofnewconstitutions.Insomecases,sequentialmodestreformshaveallowedpoliticalactorstoadaptinstitutionstochangingenvironments.

Inalltheseprocesses,threemainissuesareatstake.First,reformershavescrutinizedrepresentativeinstitutions,suchaselectoralsystems,andtheeffectivenesswithwhichtheychannelandaggregatecitizeninterests.Second,politicalandsocialactorshaveaddressedthequestionofempoweringcitizenswithinthedecision-makingprocess.Debatesonthepromotionofdirectmechanismsofcitizenparticipationarecentralatlocalandnationallevelsandreflectbottom-upapproachestowarddemocraticpolitics.Finally,inseveralcountriesorganizedindigenousgroupshaveadvancedapoliticalagendaconcerningself-determinationandculturalandpoliticalrecognitionandautonomy.Thus,institutionalshiftsarereflectingnewdemocraticchallengesinahighlydynamicpoliticallandscape.

EvolvingPracticesofCitizenshipamidInstitutionalReformbyClaudio FuenTes | UniversidadDiegoPortales | [email protected]

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ScienceandEngineering.AdditionalpartnersincludetheCenterforInternationalEarthScienceInformationNetworkatColumbiaUniversity(CIESIN),aleadingresearchanddatacenterfocusedonhuman-environmentinteractions,andtheInter-UniversityConsortiumforPoliticalandSocialResearch(ICPSR)attheUniversityofMichigan,theworld’slargestsocialsciencedataarchive.TheMinnesotaPopulationCenterishometothelargestcollectionofcensusdataintheworld,whiletheInstituteontheEnvironmenthasoneofthemostextensivedatabasesofgloballanduseinthecountry.

Learnmoreat<uspatial.umn.eduandwww.terrapop.org>.


8

What Do Constitutions Say about Citizenship?

Citizenshipclausescanvaryininterestingways,butoneofthemostimportantandcharacteristicdifferenceshastodowithjus soliversusjus sanguinisprovisions.Theprovisionofjussoli (rightofthesoil)entitlesthosebornintheterritorytocitizenship,whilejussanguinis (rightofblood)entitlesthosewithnationalparentage.Thedivisionofjussoli fromjussanguinis makessensehistorically,sincethereareveryfewconditionsotherthanbloodandsoilthathavealonebeensufficienttograntcitizenship.Since1789,43percentofthe626constitutionsinoursamplehaveofferedapathtocitizenshipinwhichbirthinterritoryissufficient,andin42percentdescentaloneissufficient.Constitutions,ofcourse,canprovideforbothpaths:almostallcountriesthatofferjussoli(89percentofjussoliconstitutions)alsoofferjussanguinis.Effectively,then,thequestioniswhethercountriesofferjussoliornot.Iftheydo,wecanthinkofthemascomparativelyinclusive.

Twohistoricalfactsconcernushereregardingjussoli.First,therightofjussoliisinrelativedecline.Accordingtoourdata,roughly60percentofconstitutionsthroughoutmostofthe1800sprovidedtheright;only35percentdosonow,adeclinethatstartedatthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.Second,alargemajorityofconstitutionsthatprovide(andhaveprovided)therightarefromtheAmericas.

Whatdotheylooklike?Article23oftheHonduranconstitutionof1982istypicaloftheunconditionalversionoftheright:

Hondurans by birth are:

1. Those born in national territory, except those of diplomatic agents

fairnumberofdraftersmakethedistinctionbetween,ontheonehand,nationals,subjects,and“Brazilians”(allunderstoodasmembers),andontheotherhand,citizens(memberswithvotingrights).HereandbelowIrefertodatathatIhavebeencollectingwithmycollaboratorsontheComparativeConstitutionsProject.Accordingtoourdata,aboutone-fifth(22percent)oftheworld’sconstitutionssince1789havedistinguishedbetweenthetwoclasses(oratleastreferredtobothterms).1Another71percentofconstitutionsuseeither“citizen”orsomevariationof“national/Brazilian”(butnotboth“citizen”and“national/Brazilian”).Generally,thosethatrefertocitizenswithoutmentioningnationals(suchasthedraftersoftheU.S.Constitution)seemtomeansimplymembershipinthestate.Citizens,inthisnon-Aristoteliansense,areentitledtoapassport,buttheymaynotbeentitledtovote.Afinaltwopercentofconstitutionsusetheterm“subject.”Clearly,thistermismeanttorefertomembershiponly.Myconcerninthisessayissimplywiththeideaofmembership,notmembershipwithpoliticalprivileges.

Whetheritisaboutcitizensornationals,adiscussionofsomeclassofnationalidentityisoneofthefewtopicsthatarecommontonearlyeveryconstitution.Roughly96percentofconstitutionssince1789saysomethingabouteithercitizenshiporstatusasanational,andafull70percentprovidethecriteriaforeligibilityforoneortheotherdesignations.Whatismore,fewerthanhalf(44percent)ofthoseconstitutionsthatdonot addressthesecriteriaincludeaclauseindicatingthatthecriteriaaretobespecifiedbyordinarylaw.Theselatterdraftersseemtoacknowledge,perhapsapologetically,thatsuchcriteriaaresomethingthatreadersshouldhaveexpectedtoreadinthedocument.

WhenConstitutionsShapeNationalIdentitybyZaChary elkins | DepartmentofGovernment,UniversityofTexasatAustin |

[email protected]

Someofthemostintriguingclausesinnationalconstitutionsarethosethatdefinethenationanditsmembers.Imeanthekindofemphaticstatementstypicallyprefacedbythestemwords,“Braziliansarethosewho…,”followedbyahostofcriteria.Comparedtoothersourcesofnationalidentity,theseclausesarenotparticularlysubtle.Indeed,itishardtoimagineamoreprominentsource(theconstitution)oraclearerdefinitionofmembershipthantheseprovisions.Ofcourse,thepurposeofthesecitizenshipclausesistobestowmembershipprivilegesonsomebutnotothers.And,justasobviously,theseclausescanvaryintheirexclusivity.Byinternationalstandards,citizenshiprulesinLatinAmericanconstitutionshavehistoricallybeenremarkablyinclusive.What,ifanything,istheeffectofsuchinclusivity?Isuspectthatthiscitizenshiptraditionhashadanappreciableeffectonthedegreeofnationalunity.

Clearing Some Conceptual Underbrush

Letusfirstwrestletothegroundtheconceptof“citizen,”aswellasitssynonymsanditsrelatedterms.Therelevant“semanticfield”(Sartori1984)includestheterms“national”and“subject,”aswellasthetitulardesignation(e.g.,“Brazilian”)anditsequivalents.Abasicdistinctionhastodowithwhetherthetermreferssimplytomembershipinthestate’scommunityortosomethingmorethanmembership—membershipplussomesetofpoliticalrights,principallyvotingrights.ThelattersenseiswhatAristotlehadinmindbypolitai,whichisoftentranslatedas“citizen”inEnglishand,indeed,hasdefinedthatconceptformany.

ManyconstitutionaldraftersmaintainthisAristoteliansenseoftheterm.Actually,a

debates

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Consequences

Thesedecisionslikelyhaverealconsequences,somewelcomeandsomeunwelcome.Onecouldarguethatamoredemandingsetofcitizenshiprequirementsmightleadcitizenstovaluemembershipmore,anattachmentthatcould,inturn,implyadeepercommitmenttosocietyandparticipatorygovernance.Certainly,thosewhopushforamore“consensual”(effectivelymeaningnotautomaticallygranted)citizenshiptakethatview(SchuckandSmith1986).

However,thereisanotherconsiderationhavingtodowithnationalunity.CitizensofmultiethnicLatinAmericancountrieswithinclusivecitizenshiprulestendtolivetogetherincomparableharmony.Asoneindicator,acrosssevenmultiethniccountriesinLatinAmericaincludedintheWorldValuesSurvey,citizensofvariousethnicitiesexpressthesamehighlevelofnationalattachmentwhenaskedtorespondtosurveyquestionssuchas“HowproudareyoutobeanBrazilian?”Thisisnotsoinothercountries.Whateverthevalidityofthesesortsofsurveyitems,thisisaremarkablefindingthatdeservesfurtherscrutiny.

Itishardtosaywhetherjussolihasfosteredsuchremarkableunityinthesecountriesorwhetherothercorrelatedfactorsaremorerelevant.Still,ajussolieffectonnationalunitymakessense.Grantingmembershiptootherwisealienatedandmarginalizedindividualsandtheirchildrenisasimplebutfundamentalgesture.Ittellstheindividualandmembersoftheirethniccommunitythat—whateverperceivedandrealostracismanddiscriminationtheyface—theyarefull-fledgedmembersofsociety.Itisalsoagesturethatvalidateslong-cherishedprinciplesofinclusionandopportunity.As

foreigners who are in Chile in the service of their government, and of the children of transient foreigners. However, all may apply for Chilean nationality.

Commonlawisthoughttoexcludethesecategoriesofpeople(diplomats,transients,andforeignarmies)byconvention,butinfacttheexactconditionsattachedtojussoliareattheheartofthedebateoverbirthrightcitizenshipintheUnitedStates.There,advocatesofamorerestrictivepolicyhavepushedalimitedreadingoftheFourteenthAmendmentthatwouldexcludechildrenofundocumentedimmigrants.Still,thesevariousexamplesofjussoliprovisionsputtheAmericasinstarkreliefwiththerestoftheworld,forwhichjussoliisnolongercommon.

NoneofthisistosuggestanysortofhomogeneitywithrespecttocitizenshipclausesintheAmericas,whichadmittedlycanvarysubstantially.Considertwocontrastingbookends,Haiti1805andBolivia2009,theoldestandmostrecentconstitutionsfromtheregion,respectively.ContemporaryLatinAmericanistswillbefamiliarwithBolivia’splurinationalconstitutionof2009,whichnotonlyinvitesanyandalltoadoptBolivianidentitybutalsoencouragesmultiplenationalidentities.Haiti’srevolutionaryconstitutionof1805setsastartlingtone,thoughinkeepingwithitsrevolutionarybeginning:

Article 9: No person deserves to be a Haitian who is not a good father, good son, a good husband, and especially a good soldier.

Article 11: Every citizen must possess a mechanic art.

2. Those born abroad of a Honduran mother or father

3. Those born aboard boats and planes of Honduran nationality and those born aboard merchant ships in Honduran waters

4. An infant of unknown parentage found in the territory of Honduras

TheHonduranlawgivesrightofmembershipnotonlytothosebornonsoilbutalsotothosebornonHonduranseaorair(jus mari andjus caeli,perhaps)—anexceedinglygenerousversionofjussoli.Ontheotherhand,somejussoli constitutionsrequireaperiodofresidencepriortograntingmembership(callthisjus soli et domicilium).Forexample,Article22,subsectionvofthePortugueseconstitutionof1822states:

Portuguese citizens by birth include:

v. The sons of a foreign father, who [the sons] are born and acquire residence in the kingdom and who upon gaining the age of majority declare that they wish to be Portuguese.

ThisversionofjussoliissimilartothecurrentlawinGermany,acountrythathaslongbeenassociatedwithjussanguinis policies.TheGermanNationalityLaw,asrevisedin2000,allowsthechildrenoflegallyresidentimmigrantstoapplyforcitizenshipbytheirtwenty-thirdbirthday.Morecommonly,jussoli policiesexcludethoseworkinginthediplomaticcorpsofanothercountryandthoseintransit,asinArticle10ofChile’s1980constitution:

Chileans are:

1. Persons born in the territory of Chile, with the exception of children of


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Institucionesderepresentaciónycalidaddelademocracia:AgendadeestudioporleTiCia m. ruiZ rodríGueZ | UniversidadComplutensedeMadrid | [email protected]

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tercerospaísesuorganismosinternacionales).Laamplituddeestosobjetivosdificulta,enalgunoscasos,quelasinstitucionescumplanconunosestándaresmínimosentodasestasdimensionesdelacalidaddelademocracia.Pero,alavez,esteretoapremiayanimaaquelaacademiaylospolicymakerscontinúensureflexiónsobreelfuncionamientodelasinstitucionesdemocráticas.Aquíseproponentresámbitosdeestudioque,bienporsunovedad,suimpacto,osudesatención,respectivamente,reclamanlaatencióndelaagendadelosestudiososdelasinstituciones.

Enprimerlugar,elintentodeincorporacióndelasociedadcivilalasinstitucionesderepresentaciónconstituyeunanovedadquelaconvierteenmateriadeanálisisobligado.Lospresupuestosparticipativosylasrevocatoriasdemandatoentraríandentrodeestacategoríasibienconresultadosdisparesy,enloqueserefierealasrevocatoriasdemandatos,generandounagrancontroversia.Setratadeunmecanismoquealgunospaíseshanincluidoparadestituiralasautoridadesyquehacomenzadoaserutilizadoenelámbitolocal(Argentina,Colombia,Ecuador,PerúyVenezuelasonalgunosejemplosdepaísesconestanormativa).Elespírituqueinspirólaintroduccióndeestafiguracombinabaelobjetivodeadquirirmayoresnivelesdeaccountabilityydeprevencióndeabusos,asícomoelacercamientodelapolíticaalciudadano.Ademásdevalorarelgradodecumplimientodeestasmetas,mereceríalapenaanalizarotrosdañoscolateralescomolainestabilidadpolíticaquepuedengenerar,elusoderecursosdesmedidosparaafrontarcoyunturaselectoralesadicionalesysobrevenidas,asícomolautilizacióndedichafiguradeformainteresadaporpartedealgunosgruposdepoderconfinesnonecesariamentedemocráticos.Hastalafechaestetemahasidoabordado

SehavueltounarutinaafirmarqueenAméricaLatinalasinstitucionesderepresentaciónhanrecibidounanotableatencióndesdelastransicionesydemocratizacionesquecomenzarontreintaañosatrás.Noestanfrecuente,porelcontrario,reconocerqueenelprocesodeacumulacióndeconocimientohahabidounaciertaincapacidadparasuaplicaciónenlassucesivasreformas.

Ademásdelatendenciaalas“mesasseparadas”entreacadémicosypolicymakers,elinevitabledesacompañamientoentrelarealidadysuanálisistampocohaayudado.Unejemplosirveparailustrarestehecho.Lacrisisderepresentaciónqueelmundoandinovivióenladécadapasadaapenashabíasidoanticipadaporlosestudiososdeinstituciones.Sinembargo,unaprofundareformadelasinstitucionesderepresentaciónfueunodelosbuquesinsigniadelosnuevosgobiernosdeEcuadoryBolivia.Paraevitarfuturasfaltasdeanticipación,esnecesariounesfuerzosostenidopordefinirunaagendadeinvestigaciónsobreinstitucionesactualyrelevante.

Unnuevoejeatraviesalosdebatessobrereformasinstitucionalespendientesenlaregión:lacalidaddelademocracia.SitrasladamoslaconcepcióndecalidaddelademocraciadeLevineyMolina(2011)alestudiodelasinstituciones,vemosquesonvariaslasdimensionesqueéstashandeperseguir.Enestesentido,lasposiblesreformashabrándeprofundizarenlaconsecucióndeinstitucionesmásparticipativaseinclusivas,conunacomposiciónquedependadeprocesoselectorales,sometidasalcontrolciudadanoysoberanasconrespectoapresionesdomésticasdegruposvariados(comolosmilitaresogruposeconómicosdelpaís)yexternas(comolasquepuedanejercer

constitutionaldrafterstinkerwithcitizenshipclauses,therelativelycostlessbenefitsofinclusionseemworthsecuring.

Endnote

1 AlldatacomefromtheComparativeConstitutionsProject(CCP).Atthispoint,CCPinvestigatorshaveexamined85percentofconstitutionalsystemsonce(i.e.,byonecoder),75percenttwice(bytwocoders),and59percentthreetimes(bytwocoders,withanydiscrepantcodingsreconciledbyoneoftheprincipalinvestigators).Inthispaperweusecasesfromeachofthethreegroups.Iftherearecaseswithtwocodingsthathavenotbeenreconciled,weselectoneofthecodingsrandomly.

References

Sartori, Giovanni, ed.

1984.Social Science Concepts: A Systematic Analysis.BeverlyHills,CA:SagePublications.

Schuck, Peter H., and Rogers M. Smith.

1986.Citizenship without Consent: Illegal Aliens in the American Polity.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress.

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Esobvioqueelanálisisdelasinstitucionesnoagotanisuinterésnisuvigenciaenlosobjetosdeestudiodescritos.Juntoaestastrespropuestashayunacascadadeotrosmuchostemasrelevantes.Loscambiosconstitucionalesquesehansucedidoenmuchospaíseslatinoamericanos(Negretto2013);lasreformaspendientesenmateriadefinanciacióndelospartidospolíticos;elentramadoinstitucionaldelosprocesosdeintegración;laparlamentarizacióndelfuncionamientodealgunosregímenespresidencialistas,juntoconlaconcentracióndepoderesenlafiguradepresidenteolasclavesdelavariaciónenelgradodeestabilidaddelosregímenes(LlanosyMarsteintredet2010);asícomolainteracciónentrepolíticoseinstitucionesderepresentación(Alcántara2012)sonotrasavenidasdelaagendaactualsobreinstitucionesyvínculosconlacalidaddelademocracia.

modificadorecientementesusestructuras,talescomoEcuadoryRepúblicaDominicana.EsteescenarioanimaaestudiarloscriteriosutilizadosenéstasyotrasreformasdelosOE,losindicadoresdedesempeñodeestosorganismos,asícomoelgradoenquesehansatisfecholasexpectativassegúnactorestanrelevantescomosonlospartidospolíticosylosciudadanos.

Eltercertemadeestapropuestadeagendadeinvestigaciónabordalasinstitucionescomovariabledependiente.¿Porquélospaísesoptanporunosdiseñosinstitucionales?Setratadedesnudarlasrazonesypresionesqueguíanlosprocesosdereforma.Quizálospolicymakersencuentrenquenoestanrelevanteestareflexión,perosindudaesútilprofundizarenlalíneainiciadaportrabajoscomoeldeWeyland(2011).Ellopermitiríatrazarunmapadelasimportacionesyexportacionesdeinstitucionesentrepaíseslatinoamericanosyconrespectoaotrasregiones,asícomodelosactoresmásrelevantesdeestosprocesos.Dentrodeestatemáticapodríantenercabidaestudios,porejemplo,sobreellegadodealgunosprogramasdecooperaciónenfortalecimientoinstitucional(comoeldemodernizacióndepodereslegislativosdelBIDolainclusióndelConsejosdelaMagistraturaporpartedelacooperaciónespañola)osobreelefectocontagiodelosprocesosrefundacionalesentrepaísescomoEcuadoryBolivia.Elestudiodeestosprocesospermitiríadesvelarelpesodefactoresdomésticos(liderazgo,presiónpartidista,ideología…)internacionales(disponibilidadderecursoseconómicos,incorporacióndeexpertiseextranjero…)enlosprocesos,aveceserráticos,dereformadelasinstitucionesdeAméricaLatinaquenosiempreconducenaunamayorcalidaddelademocracia.

fundamentalmentedesdeunaperspectivajurídicaperoesnecesariounenfoquepolitológicoqueanalicelahuelladeestafigurasobrelosprocesosderepresentaciónenlosregímenesdemocráticos.Desdeunaperspectivamásamplia,estetipodeprocesosde(re)conexióndelasinstitucionesconlosciudadanosseencuentrantambiénenelanálisisdelarelaciónentrepartidosyciudadanos.Elinterésporelefectodelasreglaselectoralesenlaorganizacióndelospartidosyensucomportamientoendiferentesarenascomolalegislativa;olosanálisissobredemocraciainternaenlospartidososobrelagestacióndepartidosmáscontrolablesporelaparatoestatalperotambiénporlosciudadanos/afiliados,asícomolaformalizacióndeelloenlasleyesdepartidos,sonejemplosdelaatenciónrenovadaalpapeldelosciudadanosenelprocesoymecanismosderepresentacióndesusdemandaseintereses.

Elsegundotemaquepodríaintegrardeunanuevaagendadeestudiodelasinstitucioneseslaadministraciónelectoral.Setratadeunatemáticadondeyahayimportantesaportaciones(Hartlyn,McCoyyMustillo2008;MozaffarySchedler2002,porcitardosexponentes)perosuimpactosobrelacalidaddelademocraciaylasnuevasreformasdelosorganismoselectoraleslaconviertennuevamenteenepicentro.Latendenciamanifiestaalacomplejizacióndelaestructurayburocratizacióndelosprocedimientosdeestosorganismoselectorales(OE)aúnnohasidoabordada.EsnecesarioplantearloslímitesdelcrecimientodelosOEquesemantienenconlosrecursospúblicos,ydondenosiempremásinversiónenéstossetraduceenquelosprocesoselectoralesolasdecisionesenmateriacontencioso-electoralseanpercibidoscomolegítimosporpartedelosciudadanos.Porejemplo,variosorganismoselectoralesdelaregiónhan


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debates

¿Quiénocupalasillavacía?LaparticipacióncomorepresentaciónenlavigenteinnovacióndemocráticalatinoamericanaporFranklin ramíreZ GalleGos | FLACSO-Ecuador | [email protected]

movimientossocialesporlainclusiónpolíticadelasmayoríasyenelmarcodelascensodediversospartidosdeizquierdaalpoderlocaldesdelosaños80delsiglopasado,dichacorrienteparticipativahaganadoengeneralidadalpuntoderedefinir,endiversospaísesdelaregión,lascoordenadasgeneralesdesusregímenespolíticos.LasreformasconstitucionalesefectuadasenBrasilhaciafinesdelosochentaylaConstitucióncolombianade1991abrieronlarutaparadicharedefinición.Son,sinembargo,lasasambleasconstituyentesenVenezuela,BoliviayEcuador—yaenelsigloXXI—lasquehanconferidoensuconcepcióndelasoberaníapopularigualestatusalasinstitucionesdelademocraciarepresentativaquealaparticipacióndirectadelaciudadanía.

Másalládelasdiferenciasencadarégimenpolítico,yalinteriormismodelosactoresquelaimpulsan,estacorrientedeinnovaciónparticipativaprocuralaprofundizacióndelademocraciaapelandoalamásampliaimplicacióndeciudadanosyorganizacionessocialesenladiscusiónpúblicaqueatraviesalatomadedecisionesgubernativasyenlosprocesosdecontrolsocialdelasinstitucionespúblicas.La“democraciaparticipativa”procuraasírelativizarelpoderdefijarlaagendapúblicaqueguardanparasíelitespolíticasydecisorestradicionales—representantes,funcionarios,expertos—mientrasempodera,atravésdelapuestaenmarchadeespecíficosmecanismosinstitucionales(consejosdepolíticapública,veeduríasciudadanas,presupuestoparticipativo,etc.),alosactoressocialesqueallíseinvolucran.Dichoorientaciónnormativaabrióuncampodedisputateórico-políticaconlasconcepcioneselitistasdelademocraciatantoporlacentralidadqueotorganalmonopoliodecisionaldeloselectoscomo

LaSillaVacía(SV)aparececomounsuigénerismecanismoparticipativoestipuladoporlanuevaConstitucióndelEcuador.Setratadeundispositivoque,consagradoenelTítuloIVsobre“Participaciónyorganizacióndelpoder”,otorgaalosciudadanosunasientoenlassesionesdelosgobiernoslocalesconelobjetodequetomenpartedirectadelprocesodetomadedecisionesenfuncióndelasproblemáticasdesuinterés.

AunquelaCartaMagnaespródigaenlaimplantacióndemúltiplesinstanciasdeparticipaciónpública,apenasseaprobóeltextoconstitucional—víaconsultaefectuadaenseptiembre2008—semultiplicaronlasdemandasciudadanasporhacerusodelinnovadormecanismo.Algunosgobiernoslocalesdebieroninclusoexpedirordenanzasad hocpararegularlautilizacióndelaSVmientrasellegislativoexpedíalanormativaqueregularasuexistencia.Laleydeparticipaciónciudadanafueaprobadaen2010.

¿Enquéconsisteexactamentedichanovedosafiguraparticipativaquetantointeréshadespertadoentreorganizacionesyciudadanos?ElArtículo101delaConstituciónseñalasimplementeque“lassesionesdelosgobiernosautónomosdescentralizadosseránpúblicas,yenellasexistirálasillavacíaqueocuparáuna representante o un representante ciudadano en función de los temas a tratarse,conelpropósitodeparticipar en su debate y en la toma de decisiones”.

AprimeravistadichadefiniciónconstitucionalsitúaalaSVcomopartedelayaextensacorrientedeinnovacióninstitucionalabierta,desdehacealmenosdosdécadasatrásendiversospaísesdeAméricaLatina,entornoalimperativodelaparticipaciónciudadanaenelprocesodemocrático.Propulsadaporlapujadelos

Referencias

Alcántara, Manuel.

2012.El oficio de político.Madrid:Tecnos.

Hartlyn, Jonathan, Jennifer McCoy y Thomas M. Mustillo.

2008.“ElectoralGovernanceMatters:ExplainingtheQualityofElectionsinContemporaryLatinAmerica”.Comparative Political Studies41(1): 73–98.

Levine, Daniel H., y Jose E. Molina, eds.

2011.The Quality of Democracy in Latin America.Boulder,CO:LynneRiennerPublishers.

Llanos, Mariana, y Leiv Marsteintredet, eds.

2010.Presidential Breakdowns in Latin America: Causes and Outcomes of Executive Instability in Developing Democracies.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan.

Mozaffar, Shaheen, y Andreas Schedler.

2002.“TheComparativeStudyofElectoralGovernance:Introduction”.International Political Science Review23(1):5–27.

Negretto, Gabriel.

2013.Making Constitutions:Presidents, Parties and Institutional Choice in Latin America.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Weyland, Kurt.

2011.“CambioinstitucionalenAméricaLatina:Modelosexternosyconsecuenciasnoprevistas”.América Latina Hoy57(abril):117–143.

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someteradiscusióndelconsejolocal.Así,losdelegadosalaSVrepresentanproblemaspúblicosynopersonas;y,

c)La responsividad política de los nuevos delegados:losrepresentantesciudadanos—aligualquelosrepresentantespolíticos—puedenserobjetoderendicióndecuentasydeeventualessancionesadministrativas,civilesypenales.

Estosprincipiosengrananunabasedeconfiguracióndelarepresentaciónciudadanaquetomadistanciadelcanonliberal-representativo.Ésteúltimosesustentaenladesignaciónelectoraldelosrepresentantes,enlaparticipaciónindividualizada(porlavíadelvoto)endichoprocesoeleccionario,enlavinculaciónentrerepresentación,circunscripciónterritorialypartidospolíticos,yenunadinámicadecontrolsupeditadaalalógicadepesosycontrapesosinstitucionalesocomoefectodelamismacompetenciaelectoral3.

Deestemodo,lavigenteproduccióndeunanuevarepresentacióndelaciudadaníaseforjadesdemodalidades(¿post-liberales?)ajenasalaexperienciaelectoralconvencional.Talinnovaciónnoestáexentadedificultadesdelegitimacióndemocrática.Cabeseñalardosdeellas.Porunlado,laemergenterepresentacióndelasociedadcivilnocuentasiempreconunrequisitoexplícitodeautorizaciónyvinculacomobasedelarepresentaciónagrupossociales(asambleas,organizaciones)cuyocarácteresinevitablementeambiguo.Porotro,aúnsilosdelegadosciudadanosalaSVpuedenserobjetodesancionesdediversotipo,eldiseñoinstitucionalnocontemplaespecificacionessobreelcontrolpropiamentesocialalquedeberíansometerse.Lasposibilidadesdeautonomizacióndeldelegadorespectoalasproblemáticasquerepresentanoson

“representaciónciudadana”.Setratadeindagarenlasmodalidadesyvíasdelegitimacióndela vigente pluralización de las prácticas de representación democráticaqueatraviesanlosprocesosdeinnovacióninstitucionaldelaregión2.

¿QuéprimerasseñalesdejaalrespectolaconfiguracióninstitucionalylarecienteevolucióndelaSVenelEcuador?EnprimertérminoseobservaqueladefiniciónconstitucionaldelaSVarticulaalmenosdosaristasdelaparticipaciónciudadana:laposibilidaddelosciudadanosdetomarparteenlosdebatesqueencuadranlaadopcióndedecisiones,ylaqueconciernelapuestaenmarchadeunaespecíficadinámicaderepresentacióndelosocialenelespaciodelapolítica.LaSVprefiguraasílaconjuncióndelaparticipacióncomodeliberaciónycomorepresentación.Enlamedidaenque,porlavíadelvoto,laciudadaníaestáademásencapacidaddeincidirdemododirectoenlatomadedecisionestambiénsesugierequedichomecanismoformapartedeluniversodelademocraciadirecta.Todoelloabonaafavordelosargumentosqueseñalanqueviejosynuevosmecanismosparticipativostienen,porlogeneral,uncaráctermixtoohíbridoquenosecircunscribealidealdelciudadanooperandocontrayporfueradelasinstitucionesrepresentativas.

EncuantoalespecíficoprocedimientodeestructuracióndelarepresentacióndelasociedadcivilatravésdelaSVseapreciantresgrandesprincipiosregulatorios:

a)Ladesignación asamblearia:laleyestipulaque aquellosciudadanosqueocuparánlaSVseránelegidosen“asambleaslocales,cabildosoaudiencias”;

b)La representación temática:lospedidosparaocuparlaSVseharánenfuncióndetemasespecíficosquelaciudadaníaprocura

porsuestrictoapegoaunavisiónliberaldelarepresentaciónpolítica.

AlobservarcondetenimientolaespecificidadinstitucionaldelaSVseaprecia,noobstante,quesetratadeunmecanismodeinnovacióndemocráticaqueponeencrisislasimplecontraposiciónanalíticaentreciudadanosyelitespolíticas,entreparticipaciónyrepresentación.Enefecto,talcomoseñalaelArtículo101delaConstituciónecuatorianaantescitado,laSVesfundamentalmenteundispositivoque,pensadodesdeelimperativodelaparticipaciónpopular,otorgarepresentaciónalosciudadanosenuncuerpodeliberativo—losconsejosdelosgobiernoslocales—conpoderdetomardecisionesqueafectanalconjuntodelasociedadlocal.

Aunquecualquierprocedimientoparticipativoexigeciertosnivelesdedelegaciónyrepresentacióndelosciudadanosenalgúntramodelproceso,laregulacióndelaSVcolocaalarepresentacióndelasociedadcivilenelprimerplanodelapuestaenfuncionamientodeldispositivo.Elloexige,aligualqueenrelaciónaotrosexperimentosdemocráticosdelaregión1,desplazarelcampodeindagacióndelproblemadelainnovaciónparticipativaalterrenodelsurgimiento,ylalegitimidad,delasnuevasformasderepresentación quebrotandelinteriormismodeunsinnúmerodeinstitucionesqueprocuranampliarlaparticipacióndirectadelaciudadaníaenlacomunidadpolítica.

Enpocaspalabras,másquehaciaeldinamismodelaparticipaciónpopular—sobreelquesehacentradoeldebateacadémicoespecializadodurantelasdosúltimasdécadas—elejedeinterrogaciónapuntaalasformasenquedichodinamismovaaparejadoconelaumentode


14

(SãoPaulo)67(2006):49–103;yAdriánGurzaLavalleyErnestoIsunzaVera,“Precisionesconceptualesparaeldebatecontemporáneosobrelainnovacióndemocrática:Participación,controlessocialesyrepresentación”,enIsunzayGurza,eds.,Veredas de innovación democrática: Teoría y práctica de la representación, la participación y el control ciudadanos en América Latina(México:EditorialPorrúa,2008,documentodeInternet).

3 VeralrespectoPhilippeSchmitter,“Unposibleesbozodeuna‘democraciapost-liberal’”,enBenjamínArditi,ed.,¿Democracia post-liberal? El espacio político de las asociaciones(México:Anthropos,2005).

entoncesmenoresalasdecualquierrepresentantepolítico.ElimperativodepasarporunainstanciaasociativacomorequisitoparaquedeterminadociudadanoocupelaSVabrelaopción,entodocaso,paraquetalesinstancias—aúnsidifusas—demandenasusdelegadosrendircuentassobreelsentidodesusactuaciones.

Setrata,ensuma,dedilemascomplejosquenoescapanalosmismosdesafíosdelarepresentaciónpolíticatradicional.Noexiste,dehecho,discontinuidadentreambasformasderepresentación.Alcontrario.Haciafuturolacuestiónesobservarcómoloscuerposrepresentativoselectivossearticulanysecomplementanconlarepresentacióndelasociedadcivilendiversasarenasdeinteracciónsocio-estataly,sobretodo,siaquellocontribuyealare-legitimaciónglobaldelapolíticademocrática.Elempoderamientodelossectoresestructuralmenteexcluidosdelatomadedecisionesaparececomounfocodeparticularrelevanciaparaevaluarelpotencialdemocratizadordetalpluralizacióndelasprácticasderepresentaciónenlaregión.

Notas

1 LoscasosemblemáticosenlaregiónseríanlaelecciónderepresentantesdelascomunidadespopularesalosConsejosMunicipalesdeSaludenelBrasil.VeralrespectoVeraSchattanP.Coelho,BarbaraPozzoniyMarianaCifuentes,2005,“ParticipationandPublicPoliciesinBrazil”,enJohnGastilyPeterLevine,eds.,The Deliberative Democracy Handbook(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2005).

2 AlgunasreferenciasdeestedebatesepuedenencontrarenLeonardoAvritzer,“Sociedadecivil,instituiçõesparticipativaserepresentação:Daautorizaçãoàlegitimidadedaação”,Dados,Revista de Ciência Sociais(RíodeJaneiro)50,no.3(2007):443–464;AdriánGurzaLavalle,PeterP.HoutzageryGrazielaCastello,“Democracia,pluralizaçãodarepresentaçãoesociedadecivil”,Lua Nova

15

pertenencia.Bajolaautoridadmapuchedeberíahaberademásunconsejodeautoridadestradicionales.Esteúltimoelementoledaunsellotradicionalistaasupropuesta,queinfluiráenmuchosautonomistasaposterior.Afinesdelos1990selCTTdemandarácuposenelparlamentochilenoparalosmapuche.

LesiguenalCTTdosorganizacionesquenacendurantelasegundamitaddelos1990syqueseinspiranenél:laIdentidadTerritorialLafkenche(ITL)ylaCoordinadoraAraucoMalleco(CAM);quedesplazaránalCTTenpopularidadhaciafinesdelos1990sysobretodolaprimeramitaddel2000.AmbasbebierondelarsenalideológicoqueinstalóelCTTenlasociedadestado-nacional.Sinembargo,laITLplanteóunprogramaautonómicominimalista,quenomostróinterésenelconjuntodelosmapuche,sinoenunsegmentoparticulardeellos;loslafkencheocosteros.ParaellospropusounConsejoquegobernaraseiscomunasdelaProvinciadeArauco(VIIIRegión),yunaAsambleaTerritorial.LosITLjugaronmezclandoelementostradicionalesymodernosdegestiónadministrativa.Así,elconsejoylosconsejerosdebíanserelegidosdemocráticamente.SupropuestatampocoesunamodificacióndelaparatopolíticoadministrativodelEstado,aunqueintroduceelementosnovedosos.

LaCAM,encambio,nuncahapropuestoalgomásalládelaconfrontacióndirectaconlosintereseseconómicosdelcapitalismo,operandoatravésdecompañíasmadererasyenergéticasenterritoriomapuche.Unterritorioquenuncahadefinidoensuscontornos,peroqueguardaestrecharelaciónconsuluchaporrecuperartierrasusurpadasenelpasadoareduccionesmapuche.Laexplicaciónparanoavanzarenformularideasautonomistasmásalládelenunciado,

democraciaacotadaenelpaís,productodelasnegociacionesentremilitaresypolíticosopositores,queademásconsagrólaregiónmapuchealadepredacióndelasindustriasforestales,energéticasycelulosas.Militantesmapuchequeabrazaronlasnuevasideas,habríantenidounpasadovinculadoaorganizacionesdeizquierdaantidictadura,perohacíafinesdelos1980syenelcontextodedescréditoenquecayeronlasideassocialistasalcolapsodelmundosocialista,experimentarondesapegosdesusafiliacionespasadas,máscuandovieronadichasfuerzasacomodarsealasnuevasreglasdelademocraciapactadayelmodeloneoliberalimpuestoporlosmilitares.¿Cuáleselderroteroquesiguenlasideaautodeterministasmapuche?Y¿cuálessonlosobstáculosqueenfrentanparadesarrollarseexitosamente?

El quid de las ideas autodeterministas de los mapuche

Lasideasautodeterministasmapuchebajolaformadepropuestasdeautonomíaespecíficas,estánasociadasengranmedidaalavidagremial-política(viceversa)delasorganizacionessiguientes.Primero,elConsejodeTodaslasTierras(CTT)quenaceen1991yquedominaengranmedidaladécadadelos1990s.ElCTTpropusoalasociedadchilenaautonomizarunáreadelpaís(1991),quecubrelasregionesVIII,IX,XIVyX.Enesaáreapropusieronunco-gobiernoconunintendentemapucheyotrochilenoempoderadosigualitariamente.ElCTTtomócomoreferenciaadministrativalainstitucionalidadvigenteenChile,aexcepcióndeduplicarlaautoridadpolítica.En1992elCTTintrodujocorreccionesaesapropuesta,hablandodegobiernoparalelo.Estoes,dosautoridadesinvestidasdelmismopoder,peroconámbitosdeincumbenciarelacionadosestrictamenteasugrupode

UnodeloselementosmásnovedososdelapolíticaposdictaduraenChile,desdeelpuntodevistadelasideaspolíticas,hasidolaemergenciadeldiscursodelaautodeterminaciónenlasminoríasnacionalesdeChile1.Yesnovedosoporqueexpresaunintentodeellasporconvertirseensujetospolíticos,adiferenciadeépocaspolíticasanterioresenqueactuabancomoclientelaelectoraloacompañamientodeclasessocialesalasqueseatribuíarolesliberadoresmesiánicos(elproletariado,porejemplo).Enelcasodelosmapuche2,laminoríaétnicamásimportantedeChile,pionerosenestetemaydequienessehablaenestetexto,dichodiscursoapareceenarboladopororganizacioneseinstitucionesmapucheapartirdecomienzosdeladécadadelos1990s3.

Eldiscursodelaautodeterminaciónniesconsensualniespropioatodaslasorganizacionesmapuches.Eldiscursodelaautodeterminaciónespropioaunsegmentodelmovimientomapuche(elmásactivohoy),quereúnenuevosliderazgosynuevosmilitantes.Lasorganizacionesquesurgieronalcalordelciclomovilizatorioanterior,originadoenelintentodeladictadura(1973–1990)dedividiryenajenarlastierrasmapuche(DecretoLey—indígena—2.568del1979),yquedioorigenalasorganizacionesqueenlos1980senfrentaronladictadura(principalmenteAd-mapu,decuyofraccionamientosurgenotras),terminaroncooptadasporlanuevainstitucionalidaddelEstadoalfindeladictadura(CEPI–CONADI)ycomienzodelatransiciónalademocracia.

Eldiscursodelaautodeterminacióninauguraunnuevociclodemovilizacionesmapuche,enelcontextodeunanuevaarenapolítica,caracterizadaporelfindeladictadura(1990)yelsurgimientodeuna

Movimientoindígena:LaluchaporlaautodeterminaciónmapucheenChilepor José a. marimán | Investigadorindependiente | [email protected]

debates


16

tiempoqueenfrentabanunenemigocomún,elpresentenosmuestraquelatendenciaalaislamientodelasorganizacionesypensarsemesiánicamentecadaunadeellascomo“la”llamadaaconducirlaluchadelpueblomapuchehaciasuvictoria,nohaproducidobuenosdividendos.Losliderazgosmapuchenoconstruyenpuentesentreunasorganizacionesyotras,sinoporelcontrariotiendenacombatirseconcríticadescalificatoria,quenofavorecelacooperaciónpolítica.

¿Prosperaránestasideasoquedaránenelrecuerdo?Soloeltempolodirá.

Notas

1 EsteartículosigueensudesarrollolasideasdeesteautorpresentadasensulibroAutodeterminación: Ideas políticas mapuche en el albor del siglo XXI(Santiago,Chile:EditorialLOM,2012).

2 Seusamapucheenpluralosingularinvariablepueslapartículache indicagente.Enotraspalabras,yaesunplural.Serespetaasíelusoquelospropiosmapuchehacendelconcepto.

3 Sibiensepuedenrastrearantecedentesdeldiscursodelaautonomíaenlaorganizaciónquedominóladécadadelos1980s:Ad-mapu,ysuresolucióndeunCongresoen1983enqueproclamasudeseodeelaborarun“proyectoHistórico”,essoloenlos1990sdondeintelectualesmapuchesescribensobreeltópicoyorganizacionesmapuchecolocanlaideaensusprogramaspolíticosreivindicativos.

4 DiegoCalderónyFelipeCorrea,“EntrevistaaHéctorLlaitildesdelacárceldeAngol”,La Chispa,<http://www.mapuexpress.net/?act=publications&id=6870>,11septiembre2012.

5 JoséA.Marimán,“Cuestiónmapuche,descentralizacióndelEstadoyautonomíaregional”.Caravelle(Toulouse,France)59(1992):189–205.

autogobierno,handejadocomoconsecuenciadañosalapropiedadyelencarcelamientoencalidaddeterroristas,dejóvenesactivistasmapuchevinculadosaestasideas.Enelpresente,sonlosmilitantesmapuchequesostienenideasautodeterministas,quienesseconfrontanalpoderdelasempresasydelEstadochileno;mientraslosmapuchequenocompartendichasideas,engeneralfueronco-optadosporlaspolíticasasistencialistasgubernamentales.

Entreloslogrosmásdestacadosdelasideasautodeterministas,estáelhechodequeellashanpermeadoaunageneracióndenuevoslíderes,entreloscualesdestacanprofesionalesuniversitariosconaltosgradosacadémicos,quepodríanenelfuturoelaborarmuchomáspropuestasdeestetipo(porloprontolaproduccióndeliteraturaporestossectoresnoshaprovistodecuatrolibroseste2012).Tambiénesimportantemencionarlarecuperaciónefectivadetierrasmediantelosmétodosdelarecuperaciónuocupaciónproductivadehechodepropiedadesdelatifundistasdelazona,quehaobligadoalEstadoacomprarpropiedadesparadevolverlasalosmapucheytratardecontenerlamovilización.

Sinembargo,parapocomásde20añosdedesarrollo,lasideasaúnsonembrionarias.Ynosedesarrollanenparteporunfuertediscursoanti-intelectualalinteriordelasorganizacionesmapuche.Estedivorcioentreintelectualesyactivistasprácticosnolehahechounfavoraldesarrollodelmovimientoautonomistaniasusideas.Igualmenteoperacomounobstáculoalogrosmásimportantes,laguerraparalelaporlarepresentaciónnacionaldelosmapuche,entreorganizacionesquepromuevenestediscurso.Aligualqueelpasado—sigloXIX—enqueseenfrentabanmapucheentreellosalmismo

hasidolacreenciaenellos,dequeelproyectosehaceenlaluchayporelpueblo(noporintelectuales),aunquesulíderhaavanzadoalgunasideasrudimentariasesteúltimoaño,quetomanlaformadeundiscursodevueltaatrás,alpasado,algoquenoestámuybiendefinidoporahora,peroalocualellosprefierenllamar“vueltaalosprincipiosdelmundomapuche”4.

Laúltimaorganizaciónenabrazarlasideasautodeterministasnacióamediadosdel2000,ysibiennuncahapodidoasentarsebienenelmundomapuche,aúnsigueconvidayenlasrecienteseleccionesmunicipalesobtuvounalcaldeyunpardeconcejales.EstoyhablandodeWallmapuwen.WMWrecogióunapropuestadeautonomía,elaboradoensusideasgruesasporintelectualesmapucheacomienzosdelos1990s5,yconpequeñasmodificacioneslatransformóensuprogramapolítico.Setratadelademandadeautonomíaparalaregiónmapuchedelpaís(laIXregiónycomunasadyacentes).AllípromuevenlaexistenciadeunaAsambleaRegionalelegidademocráticamenteportodalapoblaciónpluriétnicalocal,reglamentadaporunEstatutodeAutonomía,yregidaporunGobiernoRegionalAutónomoemanadodedichaAsamblea.Elresumen,unmodeloqueemulalasautonomíasespañolas.

Logros y estancamiento

Condosdécadasdeexistenciaalinteriordelasociedadmapuche,lasideasautodeterministashanpuestounselloparticularalapolítica,enelsenodelasociedadestado-nacionalchilena.Enfrentamientosentreempresariosdelamadera-energéticosymapuchequepromuevenlarecuperacióndetierrasusurpadasenelpasadoylareconstruccióndeunterritoriomapucheparael

17

IncoordinationwithLASAPresidentEvelyneHuber,weareplanningaseriesofpreconferenceworkshops,specialevents,andtheme-relatedpanelsandroundtables.Theworkshopswillinclude“PublishinginLatinAmericanStudies,”ledbyPhilipOxhorn,editoroftheLatin American Research Review;“DataBasesonLatinAmericanPoliticalInstitutions,”ledbyMichaelCoppedgeandGerryMunck;and“LatinAmericanResourcesoftheLibraryofCongress,”onsiteattheLibraryofCongressandledbyGeorgetteDorn,DirectoroftheHispanicDivision,andherassociates.Presidentialpanelswillinclude“U.S.–LatinAmericanRelations,”featuringOASSecretaryGeneralJoséMiguelInsulza,aswellaspanelson“BasicUniversalismandSocialPolicyintheNewSocialContract”and“PoliticalPartiesandtheNewSocialContract.”Featuredtheme-relatedpanelswillincludesessionson“TheProjectonEthnicityandRaceinLatinAmerica,”“SocialMovementsandtheNewSocialContract,”and“TheFutureofStudiesofLatinAmericanPoliticalEconomy.”SpecialinvitationpanelswillincludesessionsorganizedbyCEPAL,theWorldBank,theNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,andasessionfeaturingtheMexicanwriterJorgeVolpi.

MoredetailsontheseeventsandotherCongressfestivitieswillbeforthcoming.WelookforwardtoseeingallofyouinWashington,D.C.!

NotefromtheLASA2013ProgramChairsbyGwen kirkpaTriCk|GeorgetownUniversity|[email protected]

andkenneTh m. roberTs|CornellUniversity|[email protected]

on lasa2013

AswewriteinNovember2012,LASA’s31stInternationalCongressinWashington,D.C.,isonlymonthsaway.TheCongresstheme,“LatinAmerica:TowardaNewSocialContract,”encouragesmultidisciplinaryexplorationsoftheprospectsforachievingsocial,economic,political,andculturalinclusioninaregionmarkedbydeephistoricalinequalities.Withitsinternationaloutlookandrichcultural,intellectual,andpoliticaltraditions,ourhostcity,Washington,D.C.,isanespeciallyappropriatesettingforscholarlydialogueonthisthemeanditspublicpolicyimplications.

CongressheadquarterswillbeattheWashingtonMarriottWardmanPark,veryclosetotheMetroandtotheNationalZoo,andalocationamenabletoparticipantsandtheirfamilies.TheopeningreceptionoftheCongresswillbeheldatthecampusofGeorgetownUniversity,withco-sponsorshipofLASAandGeorgetownUniversity.

TheresponsetoLASA’scallforpapersfortheWashingtonCongresswasvigorous.Atotalof1,524proposalsweresubmitted,distributedacross33differentprogramtracks.Nearly40percentoftheseproposalswereforpre-assembledpanels,ensuringcoherentandfocusedpanels.LASAhasmadeeveryefforttoincludeasmanyparticipantsaspossibleinthefinalconferenceprogram.Wearedeeplygratefultothe47trackchairsandco-chairswhovolunteeredtheirtimeandexpertisetoevaluatetheseproposals,formpanelsfromindividualpapersubmissions,andorganizetheirtracks.WealsothankLASA’sorganizedsectionsforthepanelstheyhavecreatedandfortheirongoingcommitmentintheirareasofinterestthroughouttheyears.


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LASA2013 Exhibit Form

RESERVATION FORM FOR THE LASA2013 EXHIBIT Organization Name:

Address:

City:

State:

Zip:

Primary Contact:

Title:

Phone & ext. (office): Fax: E-mail:

Web-site:

FULL EXHIBIT SPACE (10’ x 8’) ☐ $855 Commercial/ University Press ☐ $755 each additional commercial ☐ $735 Charitable Organization ☐ $635 each additional charitable ☐ $450 + $80 (sharing fee) Booth Share ($530 total)

Total # of Booths: ☐one ☐two

☐three ☐four ☐five

Combined booth: One $80 book☐ Additional $60☐ More than five please contact

[email protected]

“Take one” display $125 ☐

ADVERTISING Deadlines Reservations: March 15, 2013

April 15, 2013 Materials: ☐ $600 full page ☐ $1500 Back Cover ☐ Inside back

cover ☐ $350 half page ☐ $ 1100 Inside

Front Cover Total # of pages

MAILING LIST

☐ $450 Pre-registrant list (commercial) ☐ $350 Pre-registrant list (nonprofit) ☐ $500 On-site list (commercial) ☐ $400 On-site list (nonprofit)

Payment information Check ☐ Credit Card ☐ Wire Transfer ☐

Amount (check must be payable to LASA)

Visa ☐ MasterCard ☐ Transaction # (outside USA)

PLEASE INDICATE YOUR BOOTH PREFERENCES:

Card #

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SUBMITTION DATE

Click here to enter a date.

Cancellations If an exhibitor is forced to withdraw from participation by February 15, 2013, all sums paid by the exhibitor less a $350 service fee will be refunded. No refunds will be issued after February 15, 2013. Cancellations are not effective until received in writing by LASA. No refund will be made if an exhibitor fails to occupy the space. No refund on late or no arrival of materials. Payment A minimum deposit of 50% of the total booth rental fee is required. Booths will not be assigned without the 50% deposit. Failure to remit payment for the booth rental by January 15, 2013 constitutes cancellation of the contract, and the space will be subject to resale without refund. As the authorized contact for the above organization, I agree to comply with, and be bound by, the terms of LASA’s Rules and Regulations.

Printed Name:

Signature:

Return form to: LASA Book Exhibit 416 Bellefield Hall University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA 15260. Telephone: 412-648-7929 Fax: 412-624-7145

Email: [email protected] / [email protected]

FILM FESTIVAL LASA2013 XXXI INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF THE LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES ASSOCIATION

Towards a New Social Contract?

May 29 – June 1, 2013 – Washington, DC, USA

Claudia Ferman, Director

You may submit a film or video (not integrated into a panel, workshop, or other regular Congress session) for selection to participate in the LASA Film Festival & Exhibit. Selection criteria are: artistic, technical, and cinematographic excellence; uniqueness of contribution to the visual presentation of materials on Latin America; and relevance to disciplinary, geographic, and thematic interests of LASA members, as evidenced by topics proposed for panels, workshops, and special sessions at recent Congresses. These films and videos will be screened free of charge in the LASA2013 Film Festival, and compete for the juried designation of LASA2013 Award of Merit in Film, which is given for “excellence in the visual presentation of educational and artistic materials on Latin America.” Films and videos released after January 2012 and those that premiere at the LASA Congress will be given special consideration, if they also meet the above criteria. LASA membership is not required to compete. Films must be received no earlier than October 1, 2012, and no later than February 1, 2013. Selection will be announced by April 1, 2013. Entries constitute acceptance of the rules and regulations of the LASA Film Festival. Film screeners will not be returned and will be deposited in the festival archives.

LASA2013 FILM FESTIVAL SUBMISSION FORM Submissions for the Film Festival will be received only from October 1, 2012 through February 1, 2013.

Title of work enclosed

Format:

Director Brief description of subject matter, including countries or areas treated (or attach descriptive brochure) Producer

Year of release

Format

Running Time Language/s /subtitles

Distributor

Email

Phone / Fax

Address

Your name Affiliation

Address Phone / Fax

Email

To enter the competition for the LASA2013 Film Festival

Mail the completed submission form, along with a DVD copy of your film to the Festival director. To ensure consideration, all submissions should be mailed through express services (i.e., UPS, DHL, FedEx). Please, keep your tracking number to guarantee delivery. Films without a submission form will not be considered.

Claudia Ferman / Director, LASA2013 Film Festival LAIS – CWIC 334 -- University of Richmond – 28 Westhampton Way – Richmond VA 23173 – USA

Email: [email protected]

PresidentEvelyneHuberandPresident-electMerileeGrindlewillhostaspecialreceptionattheupcomingLASACongress(Thursday,May30,8:00p.m.)tohonorcontributorstothiscampaign.

Wehopethatmanyofyouwilljointhiseffort.ForfurtherinformationandthepracticalstepsinvolvedinmakingabequesttoLASA,pleasecontacteitherofus([email protected];[email protected])orSandyKlinzingattheLASASecretariat([email protected]).

WelookforwardtoseeingyouinWashingtoninMay.

attractagroupofdonorswhowillbeidentifiedasthefoundingmembersofanewKalmanSilvertSociety.ThenamesofSilvertSocietymemberswillbeinscribedonaplaqueonpermanentdisplayattheLASASecretariat.

WehavealreadyreceivedcommitmentsfromsixteenLASAmembers:ColeBlasier,RonaldChilcote,JohnCoatsworth,CarmenDianaDeere,CorneliaButlerFlora,MerileeGrindle,EvelyneHuber,JaneJaquette,CynthiaMcClintock,KevinMiddlebrook,MarysaNavarro,ScottPalmer,HelenSafa,LarsSchoultz,BarbaraStallings,andGeorgeVickers.Wehopethatothermemberswhoattachhighprofessionalandpersonalimportancetoourassociationwilljoininthisimportantinitiative.

CampaignforBequestsfortheLASAEndowmentbyCynThia mCClinToCkandkevin middlebrook | Co-chairs,LASAFundraisingCommittee

calling all members

LASAislaunchingamajorcampaigntobuilditsendowmentfundthroughbequestsfromitsmembers.Specifically,weareseekingbequestsofaminimumof$10,000(orapercentageofanestatethatwillproduceabequestof$10,000ormore)tobenefitLASA’spermanentendowment.Weemphasizethatthisinitiativeisaboutbequests,notcurrentgiftstoLASA.

TheendowmentfundistheprincipalsourceoftravelgrantstoLASACongresses.ItalsosupportsmanyoftheAssociation’sspecialprojects.ThegenerosityofdonorstotheendowmentbenefitsfuturegenerationsofLatinAmericanistsbynurturingtheirscholarshipformanyyearstocome.

BetweennowandtheWashington,D.C.,annualmeeting(May2013),wehopeto

Haiti/DominicanRepublicAward

section news

TheHaiti/DominicanRepublicSectionisproudtoannouncethecreationofanawardforthebestpaperpresentedatLASA2013onHaiti,theDominicanRepublic,orboth.Sectionmembersandnonmembersalikeareeligibletosubmittheirwork;alldisciplinesarewelcomed.ThewinnerwillbeannouncedatLASA2013inWashington,D.C.

21

GeorgeMasonUniversity);CindyKam(CienciaPolítica,VanderbiltUniversity);AbbyCórdova(CienciaPolítica,UniversityofKentucky);RyanCarlin(CienciaPolítica,GeorgiaStateUniversity);GregoryLove(CienciaPolítica,UniversityofMississippi);yRickWilson(CienciaPolítica,RiceUniversity).

Tambiénparticiparoncomomoderadoresdelasdiscusiones:ElisabetRutstrom(NegociosyEconomía,GeorgiaStateUniversity);SeanRicheyyDanielYoung(CienciaPolítica,GeorgiaStateUniversity);AmyEricaSmith(CienciaPolítica,IowaStateUniversity);yChristopherDawes(CienciaPolítica,NewYorkUniversity).

Laconsignaparalosparticipantesfuequerealizaranpresentacionesydialogaransobrelospotencialesbeneficiosteóricos,losdesafíosmetodológicosylasconsideracionesprácticasderealizarexperimentosdecomportamientoenAméricaLatina.Elresultadofueronexposicionesmuyinteresantesyprofundas,yenalgunoscasos,acaloradasdiscusionessobreladefinición,alcanceypotencialidadesdelametodologíaexperimental.Elcompromisoyentusiasmodelosexpositores,delosmoderadoresydeaquellosqueasistieroncomooyentesalaconferenciapermitiótenerunajornadamuyfructífera,quesignificóunmojónenladiscusiónsobreelalcanceycapacidaddetrasladarseaotroscontextosdelametodologíaexperimental2.

ComocorolariodelworkshopdeAtlanta,susprincipaleshallazgosyunaprofundizacióndeladiscusiónsetrasladaronalaXXXConferenciadeLASAenSanFrancisco.Allí,enunpanelespecial“¿Experimentosparaexportar?¿EsadecuadalametodologíaexperimentalparaestudiarAméricaLatina?”seextendióeldebatellevándoloaunpúblicomás

EconomicRisk),ydelDepartamentodeCienciaPolíticadeGeorgiaStateUniversity.

Aesteeventoconvocamosaexpertosdedistintasáreasgeográficasydisciplinasenlasquelosexperimentoshansidousadosextensamente.Lajornadaseorganizóencincograndestemas:1)Loslímitesdetrasladarsedellaboratorioalcampo;2)Experimentosenperspectivacomparada;3)Haciendoexperimentosencontextosendesarrollo;4)TrabajoexperimentalrecienteenAméricaLatina;y5)Usodeexperimentosdeconductaparaentenderfenómenospolíticos1.

Losparticipantesqueexpusieroneneltallerfueron(siguiendoelordendesusexposiciones):JuanCamiloCárdenas(Economía,UniversidaddeLosAndes,Colombia);JamesCoxyUrmimalaSen(Economía,GeorgiaStateUniversity);CatherineEckel(Economía,UniversityofTexasatDallas);DonaldGreen(CienciaPolítica,ColumbiaUniversity);ClarkBarrett(Antropología,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles);FernandaBoidi(Comunicación,UniversidaddeMontevideoyLAPOP,VanderbiltUniversity);RosarioQueirolo(Comunicación,UniversidaddeMontevideoyCienciaPolíticayEconomía,UniversidaddelaRepública,Uruguay);RobertoGonzálezyJorgeManzi(Psicología,PontificiaUniversidadCatólicadeChile);RaymondDuch(CienciaPolítica,OxfordUniversity);TaraGrillos(HarvardUniversity,KennedySchool);CarolynLesorogol(TrabajoSocial,WashingtonUniversity);GlennHarrison(Negocios,GeorgiaStateUniversity);PeterLoewen(CienciaPolítica,UniversityofToronto);ElizabethZechmeister(CienciaPolítica,VanderbiltUniversity);MarcoCastillo(Economía,GeorgeMasonUniversity);RosarioAguilar(EstudiosPolíticos,CIDE-México);RaganPetrie(Economía,

Eslametodologíaexperimental,yenparticular,losexperimentosdeconducta,adecuadaparaentenderlosproblemassocialesypolíticosenAméricaLatina?DesdequeVernonSmithyDanielKahnemanganaronelPremioNobelenEconomíaen2002,losexperimentosdeconductasevolvieronmáspopulareseneconomía,sociología,cienciapolíticayantropología.Apriori,todoindicaqueestametodologíapodríasermuyútilparaentenderdilemassocialestambiénpresentesenlaregión.Sinembargo,sóloraramenteesusadaenlosestudioscomparadosenAméricaLatina,ylosacadémicoslatinoamericanosvenaúnconmuchoescepticismosupotencialparaentenderlos“verdaderosproblemas”delaregión.Estafuelarazónquemotivóelproyecto“ExperimentsforExport?AssessingtheSuitabilityofBehavioralExperimentsinLatinAmerica”,elquedesarrollamosjuntoaRyanCarlin(GeorgiaStateUniversity),GregoryLove(UniversityofMississippi)yAbbyCórdova(UniversityofKentucky),yfueganadordeunabecaMellon-LASA2011–2012quesedestinóalaorganizacióndeunseminariointerdisciplinarioparadiscutirlacapacidaddelametodologíaexperimentalde“viajar”haciaAméricaLatina.

ElobjetivodelproyectofueayudaraintegraresteabordajemetodológicoylasteoríasdelcomportamientoalcampodelosestudiossobreAméricaLatina,incorporandolasperspectivasanalíticasdeinvestigadoresquetrabajanenotraspartesdelmundoenlasdiscusionessobrenuestraregión,yasuvezdesafiarlastradicionalesfronterasdelosestudiosdeárea.Paraello,realizamosunworkshopenGeorgiaStateUniversity,Atlanta,losdías19y20deabrildel2012.AdemásdelabecaMellon-LASA,esteeventorecibióelauspiciodeExCen(ExperimentalEconomicsCenter),delCEAR(CenterfortheAnalysisof

¿Experimentosparaexportar?¿EsadecuadalametodologíaexperimentalparaestudiarAméricaLatina?por Fernanda boidi | UniversidaddeMontevideoyLAPOP,VanderbiltUniversity | [email protected]

yRosarioQueirolo | UniversidaddeMontevideo | [email protected]

special projects


22

Notas

1 RyanCarlinyGregoryLoveresumenlosprincipalesresultadosdelworkshopenThe Experimental Political Scientist,lanewsletterdelaseccióndeCienciaPolíticaExperimentaldeAPSA:http://scholar.harvard.edu/dtingley/pages/exppolisci.

2 Elprogramacompletodelevento,asícomovariasdelaspresentacionessepuedenleeren:https://sites.google.com/site/ryanecarlin/research/experiments-for-export.

amplio.Enelmismo,ademásdelasexposicionesdequienesorganizamoselworkshop,hubopresentacionesdeNoamLupu(FundaciónJuanMarch);MatthewR.Cleary(SyracuseUniversity);ThadDunning(YaleUniversity);JuanPabloLuna(PontificiaUniversidadCatólicadeChile)yKirkA.Hawkins(BrighamYoungUniversity).Algunosaspectospositivosdelametodologíaexperimentalquefueronresaltadossonquesonfácilesdehacer,yquesusresultadossonfácilesdepresentaryentender,lautilidadquetienenparamedirconceptos,yquelosexperimentossonsencillamentereplicables.EntrelasdesventajasquemencionaronlosexpositoresestáquenosonmuyaplicablesavariasdelaspreguntasmásimportantesquetienepararesponderactualmenteAméricaLatina.Otrotemaquesetratóeseldenosacrificarlariquezadelosdiversoscontextosculturalesdelaregión,ylaspreguntasquesurgendeello,sóloacambiodeprobarhipótesiscausales.Tambiénsemencionóqueesdifícilllevaracabounacorrectaasignaciónaleatoriadelosindividuosyteneruntamañodemuestraadecuado,yquemuchosdelosexperimentosqueserealizanenlaregiónnocumplenconestascondiciones.

Lametodologíaexperimental,yenparticularlosexperimentosdeconducta,sonunabordajeútilparaanalizarmuchosdelostemassociales,políticosyeconómicosalosqueAméricaLatinaseenfrenta.Conestonodecimosqueseannilaúnica,nilamejorformadecontestarlaspreguntasrelevantesquehoytienelaregión.Simplementesonunaherramientamásalaquerecurrircuandolapreguntadeinvestigaciónloamerite.

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Boston University is currently accepting applications for its Latin American Studies Master’s Program (LASMA). The interdisciplinary program involves two semesters of coursework at Boston University, one semester of study in Latin America (ideally with an internship) to master a high level of language competency, and one semester to complete a master’s research or policy paper. Working closely with diverse faculty, students can take courses on globalization and development, politics and civil society, U.S. foreign policy and inter-American relations, history, archaeology, literature, art, and culture.

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winter 2013 volume xliv issue 1 in this issue

Documents

Transcript of winter 2013 volume xliv issue 1 in this issue