Wine

This article is about the beverage. For other uses, seeWine (disambiguation).Wine (from Latin vinum) is an alcoholic beverage made

16th-century wine press

from fermented grapes, generally Vitis vinifera or its hy-brids with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris. Grapes fer-ment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, wa-ter, or other nutrients,[1] as yeast consumes the sugar inthe grapes and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide.Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts pro-duce different styles of wine. These variations result fromthe complex interactions between the biochemical devel-opment of the grape, the reactions involved in fermen-tation, the terroir (the special characteristics impartedby geography, geology, climate, viticultural methods andplant genetics), and the production process. Many coun-tries define legal appellations intended to define styles andqualities of wine; these typically restrict the geographicalorigin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as otheraspects of wine production.There are also wines made from fermenting other fruits or

cereals, whose names often specify their base, with somehaving specific names. Wines made from plants otherthan grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines suchas those made from plums or cherries. Some well knownexample are hard cider from apples, perry from pears,pomegranate wine, and elderberry wine.Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The ear-liest known evidence of wine comes from Georgia (Cau-casus), where 8000-year-old wine jars were found.[2][3][4]Traces of wine have also been found in Iran with 7000-year-old wine jars[5][6] and in Armenia, in the 6100-year old Areni-1 winery, the earliest known winery.[7][8]Wine had reached the Balkans by c. 4500 BC and wasconsumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace andRome. Throughout history, wine has been consumed forits intoxicating effects, which are evident at normal serv-ing sizes.[9][10]

Wine has long played an important role in religion. Redwine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyp-tians[11] and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysusand the Romans in their Bacchanalia; Judaism also incor-porates it in the Kiddush andChristianity in the Eucharist.

1 History

Main article: History of wineArchaeological evidence has established the earliest

Entrance to the Areni-1 cave in southern Armenia near the townof Areni. The cave is the location of the world’s oldest knownwinery and where the world’s oldest known shoe has been found.

known production of wine from fermented grapes dur-ing the late Neolithic site of Hajji Firuz in the northernZagros Mountains or early Chalcolithic in the northern

1

2 1 HISTORY

edge of the Middle East.[12] The earliest chemically at-tested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in thenorthwestern Zagros Mountains, ca. 5400 BC. Both ar-chaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the ear-liest production of wine may slightly predate this, withthe earliest wine-making likely having taken place inTrans-Caucasia (including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Geor-gia), through the region between Eastern Turkey, andNorthwest Iran.[13][14]

The earliest evidence of a grape-based fermented drinkwas found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramicjars dates from c. 6000 BC,[3][15][16] and in Iran, from c.5000 BC.[5] The earliest evidence of a wine productionfacility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least6100 years old;[17] presumably, wine had started beingproduced much earlier.[7][8][18]

Detail of a relief of the eastern stairs of the Apadana, Persepolis,depicting Armenians bringing an amphora, probably of wine, tothe king.

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibil-ity that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixedfermented beverages in China in the early years of theseventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithicsite of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acidand other organic compounds commonly found in wine.However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such ashawthorn, cannot be ruled out.[19][20] If these beverages,which seem to be the precursors of rice wine, includedgrapes rather than other fruits, they would have been anyof the several dozen indigenous wild species in China,rather than Vitis vinifera, which was introduced there6000 years later.[19]

The spread of wine culture westwards was most prob-ably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward froma base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, andIsraeli coasts.[21] The wines of Byblos were exportedto Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout

the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenicianshipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard,whose cargo of wine was still intact.[22] As the first greattraders in wine (cherem), the Phoenicians seem to haveprotected it from oxidation with a layer of olive oil, fol-lowed by a seal of pinewood and resin, similar to retsina.

Georgian Kvevri ancient wine vessel

The earliest remains of Apadana Palace in Persepolis dat-ing back to 515 BC include carvings demonstrating sol-diers from Achaemenid Empire subject nations bringinggifts to the Achaemenid king, among them Armeniansbringing their famous wine.Literary references to wine are abundant in Homer (8thcentury BC, but possibly relating earlier compositions),Alkman (7th century BC), and others. In ancient Egypt,six of 36 wine amphoras were found in the tomb of KingTutankhamun bearing the name “Kha'y”, a royal chiefvintner. Five of these amphoras were designated as orig-inating from the king’s personal estate, with the sixthfrom the estate of the royal house of Aten.[23] Traces ofwine have also been found in central Asian Xinjiang inmodern-day China, dating from the second and first mil-lennia BC.[24]

The first known mention of grape-based wines in India isfrom the late 4th-century BC writings of Chanakya, thechief minister of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. In hiswritings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol whilechronicling the emperor and his court’s frequent indul-gence of a style of wine known as madhu.[25]

The ancient Romans planted vineyards near garrisontowns so wine could be produced locally rather thanshipped over long distances. Some of these areas arenow world-renowned for wine production.[26] The Ro-mans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside emptywine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vine-gar smell.[27] In medieval Europe, the Roman CatholicChurch supported wine because the clergy required it forthe Mass. Monks in France made wine for years, agingit in caves.[28] An old English recipe that survived in var-ious forms until the 19th century calls for refining whitewine from bastard—bad or tainted bastardo wine.[29]

3

Wine boy at a symposium

Pressing wine after the harvest; Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century

1.1 Etymology

The English word “wine” comes from the Proto-Germanic *winam, an early borrowing from the Latinvinum, “wine” or "(grape) vine", itself derived from theProto-Indo-European stem *win-o- (cf. Armenian: գի�նի, gini; Ancient Greek: οἶνος oinos; Aeolic Greek:ϝοῖνος woinos; Hittite: wiyana; Lycian: oino).[30][31][32]The earliest attested terms referring to wine are theMycenaean Greek me-tu-wo ne-wo (*μέθυ-ϝος νέϝῳ),[33][34] meaning “in (the month)" or "(fes-tival) of the new wine”, and wo-no-wa-ti-si,[35] meaning “wine garden”, written in Linear Binscriptions.[36][37][38][39] Linear B also includes, interalia, an ideogram for wine, i.e. .Ultimate Indo-European origin of the word is the subject

gwin

vein

vino

vino

víno

vi

vin

wijn

viini

vin

gini

şərabghvino

krasí

bor

vín

fíon

vino

vīns

vynas

vino

inbid

vin

wino

vinho

vin

vino

vino

vino

víno

vino

vino

vin

şarap

vyno

fìon

viño

vinu

binu

gwin

verë

vino

vín

wäin

şarap

şerab

nabiidh

wyn

vegn

sarap

šärab

vinet

feeyn

Word for wine in European languages

wine

wein

ardo

viidna

saen

әrk

sane

sane

chhagiar

chahir

čagyr

vinu

chyagirchagir

šrab

Map showing the word for wine in European languages.

of continued debate. Some scholars have noted the simi-larities between the words for wine in Indo-European lan-guages (e.g. Armenian gini, Latin vinum, Ancient Greekοἶνος, Russian вино [vʲɪˈno]), Kartvelian (e.g. Georgianღვინო [ɣvinɔ]), and Semitic (*wayn; Hebrew יין [jaiin]),pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the worddenoting “wine” in these language families.[40] The Geor-gian word goes back to Proto-Kartvelian *ɣwino-,[41]which is generally believed to be a borrowing from Proto-Indo-European.[41][42][43][44][45][46] Another hypothesis isthat the lexeme was borrowed from Proto-Armenian*ɣʷeinyo-,[47][48][49] whence Armenian gini, but this isdisputed.[41] On the other hand, Fähnrich considers*ɣwino- a native Kartvelian word derived from the ver-bal root *ɣun- ('to bend').[50] See *ɣwino- for more. Allthese theories place the origin of the word in the same ge-ographical location, Trans-Caucasia, that has been estab-lished based on archeological and biomolecular studies asthe origin of viticulture.

2 Fruit wines

Main article: Fruit wine

Wines from other fruits, such as apples and berries, areusually named after the fruit from which they are pro-duced combined with the word “wine” (for example,apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically calledfruit wine or country wine (not to be confused with theFrench term vin de pays). Other than the grape varietiestraditionally used for winemaking, most fruits naturallylack either sufficient fermentable sugars, relatively lowacidity, yeast nutrients needed to promote or maintainfermentation, or a combination of these three character-istics. This is probably one of the main reasons why winederived from grapes has historically been more prevalentby far than other types, and why specific types of fruitwine have generally been confined to regions in which the

4 5 CLASSIFICATION

fruits were native or introduced for other reasons.

3 Starch-based “wine” and wine-based products

Other beverages called “wine”, such as barley wine andrice wine (e.g. sake), are made from starch-based mate-rials and resemble beer more than traditional wine, whileginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these latter cases,the term “wine” refers to the similarity in alcohol contentrather than to the production process.[51] The commercialuse of the English word “wine” (and its equivalent in otherlanguages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.[52]

Some UK supermarkets have been criticised for selling“wine based” drinks, which only contain 75% wine, butwhich are still marketed as wine. The International Or-ganisation of Vine and Wine requires that a “wine baseddrink” must contain a minimum of 75% wine, but pro-ducers do not have to divulge the nature of the remaining25%.[53]

4 Grape varieties

Grape vineyard

Main article: List of grape varieties

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties ofthe European species Vitis vinifera, such as Pinot noir,Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay and Merlot.When one of these varieties is used as the predominantgrape (usually defined by law as minimums of 75% to85%), the result is a "varietal" as opposed to a “blended”wine. Blended wines are not considered inferior to vari-etal wines, rather they are a different style of winemak-ing; some of the world’s most highly regarded wines, fromregions like Bordeaux and the Rhone Valley, are blendedfrom different grape varieties.Wine can also be made from other species of grape orfrom hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of two

species. V. labrusca (of which the Concord grape isa cultivar), V. aestivalis, V. ruprestris, V. rotundifoliaand V. riparia are native North American grapes usuallygrown to eat fresh or for grape juice, jam, or jelly, andonly occasionally made into wine.Hybridization is different from grafting. Most of theworld’s vineyards are planted with European V. viniferavines that have been grafted onto North Americanspecies’ rootstock, a common practice due to their resis-tance to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills thevine. In the late 19th century, most of Europe’s vine-yards (excluding some of the driest in the south) weredevastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vinedeaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in everywine-producing region in the world except in Argentina,the Canary Islands and Chile—the only places not yet ex-posed to the insect.[54]

In the context of wine production, terroir is a conceptthat encompasses the varieties of grapes used, eleva-tion and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry ofsoil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeastcultures.[55] The range of possible combinations of thesefactors can result in great differences among wines, influ-encing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes aswell. Manywineries use growing and productionmethodsthat preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influencesof their unique terroir.[56] However, flavor differences areless desirable for producers of mass-market table wineor other cheaper wines, where consistency takes prece-dence. Such producers try to minimize differences insources of grapes through production techniques such asmicro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration,thin-film evaporation, and spinning cones.[57]

5 Classification

Main article: Classification of wineRegulations govern the classification and sale of wine inmany regions of the world. European wines tend to beclassified by region (e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja and Chianti),while non-European wines are most often classified bygrape (e.g. Pinot noir and Merlot). Market recognitionof particular regions has recently been leading to theirincreased prominence on non-European wine labels. Ex-amples of recognized non-European locales include NapaValley, Santa Clara Valley and Sonoma Valley, AndersonValley and Mendocino County in California, WillametteValley and Rogue Valley in Oregon; Columbia Valleyin Washington; Barossa Valley in South Australia andHunter Valley in New South Wales; Luján de Cuyo inArgentina; Central Valley in Chile; Vale dos Vinhedos inBrazil; Hawke’s Bay and Marlborough in New Zealand;and Okanagan Valley and Niagara Peninsula in Canada.Some blended wine names are marketing terms whoseuse is governed by trademark law rather than by spe-

5.2 Beyond Europe 5

Wine grapes on a vine

cific wine laws. For example, Meritage (sounds like “her-itage”) is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of CabernetSauvignon and Merlot, but may also include CabernetFranc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec. Commercial use of theterm Meritage is allowed only via licensing agreementswith the Meritage Association.

5.1 European classifications

France has various appellation systems based on the con-cept of terroir, with classifications ranging from Vinde Table (“table wine”) at the bottom, through Vin dePays and Appellation d'Origine Vin Délimité de QualitéSupérieure (AOVDQS), up to Appellation d'Origine Con-trôlée (AOC) or similar, depending on the region.[58][59]Portugal has developed a system resembling that ofFrance and, in fact, pioneered this concept in 1756 with aroyal charter creating the Demarcated Douro Region andregulating the production and trade of wine.[60] Germanycreated a similar scheme in 2002, although it has not yetachieved the authority of the other countries’ classifica-tion systems.[61][62] Spain, Greece and Italy have classi-fications based on a dual system of region of origin andproduct quality.[63]

Moscato d'Asti, a DOCG wine

5.2 Beyond Europe

New World wines—those made outside the traditionalwine regions of Europe—are usually classified by graperather than by terroir or region of origin, althoughthere have been unofficial attempts to classify them byquality.[64][65]

6 Vintages

Main article: VintageIn the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and

Vintage French Champagne

labeled with a country of origin or American Viticultural

6 7 TASTING

Area (AVA) (e.g. Sonoma Valley), 95% of its volumemust be from grapes harvested in that year.[66] If a wineis not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the per-centage requirement is lowered to 85%.[66]

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch sothat each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate’s im-pact on the character of a wine can be significant enoughto cause different vintages from the same vineyard to varydramatically in flavor and quality.[67] Thus, vintage winesare produced to be individually characteristic of the par-ticular vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of theproducer. Superior vintages from reputable producersand regions will often command much higher prices thantheir average ones. Some vintage wines (e.g. Brunello),are only made in better-than-average years.For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended frommore than one vintage, which helps winemakers sustaina reliable market image and maintain sales even in badyears.[68][69] One recent study suggests that for the aver-age wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as signifi-cant for perceived quality as had been thought, althoughwine connoisseurs continue to place great importance onit.[70]

7 Tasting

Judging color is the first step in tasting a wine.

Main article: Wine tastingSee also: Wine tasting descriptors

Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation ofwine. Wines contain many chemical compounds similaror identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. Thesweetness of wine is determined by the amount of resid-ual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to theacidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, hasonly a small amount of residual sugar. Some wine labelssuggest opening the bottle and letting the wine “breathe”for a couple of hours before serving, while others rec-ommend drinking it immediately. Decanting (the act of

pouring a wine into a special container just for breath-ing) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts. Inaddition to aeration, decanting with a filter allows the re-moval of bitter sediments that may have formed in thewine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, butaeration may benefit younger wines.[71]

During aeration, a younger wine’s exposure to air often“relaxes” the drink, making it smoother and better inte-grated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines gener-ally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with ex-tended aeration.[72] Despite these general rules, breathingdoes not necessarily benefit all wines. Winemay be tastedas soon as the bottle is opened to determine how long itshould be aerated, if at all. When tasting wine, individ-ual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mixof organic molecules (e.g. esters and terpenes) that grapejuice and wine can contain. Experienced tasters can dis-tinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grapeand flavors that result from other factors in winemaking.Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate,vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oakcasks rather than the grape itself.[73]

Vertical and horizontal tasting involves a range of vin-tages within the same grape and vineyard, or the lat-ter in which there is one vintage from multiple vine-yards. "Banana" flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the prod-uct of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as“medicinal” or “Band-Aid” (4-ethylphenol), “spicy” or“smoky” (4-ethylguaiacol),[74] and rotten egg (hydrogensulfide).[75] Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral fla-vor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result oflimestone’s presence in the vineyard’s soil. Wine aromacomes from volatile compounds released into the air.[76]Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated bytwirling the wine glass or serving at room temperature.Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are alreadyhighly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais.[77]

The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is amatter of debate by wine enthusiasts and sommeliers, butsome broad guidelines have emerged that will generallyenhance the experience of tasting certain common wines.A white wine should foster a sense of coolness, achievedby serving at “cellar temperature” (13 °C [55 °F]). Lightred wines drunk young should also be brought to the ta-ble at this temperature, where they will quickly rise a fewdegrees. Red wines are generally perceived best whenserved chambré (“at room temperature”). However, thisdoes notmean the temperature of the dining room—oftenaround (21 °C [70 °F])—but rather the coolest room inthe house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than thedining room itself. Pinot noir should be brought to thetable for serving at (16 °C [61 °F]) and will reach its fullbouquet at (18 °C [64 °F]). Cabernet Sauvignon, zinfan-del, and Rhone varieties should be served at (18 °C [64°F]) and allowed to warm on the table to 21 °C (70 °F)for best aroma.[78]

7

8 Collecting

See also: Aging of wine, Investment wine, and Storage ofwineOutstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell

Château Margaux, a First Growth from the Bordeaux region ofFrance, is highly collectible.

for thousands of dollars per bottle, though the broaderterm “fine wine” covers those typically retailing in excessof US$30–50.[79] "Investment wines" are considered bysome to be Veblen goods: those for which demand in-creases rather than decreases as their prices rise. Partic-ular selections have higher value, such as “Verticals”, inwhich a range of vintages of a specific grape and vineyard,are offered. The most notable was a Château d'Yquem135 year vertical containing every vintage from 1860 to2003 sold for $1.5 million. The most common wines pur-chased for investment include those from Bordeaux andBurgundy; cult wines from Europe and elsewhere; andvintage port. Characteristics of highly collectible winesinclude:

1. A proven track record of holding well over time

2. A drinking-window plateau (i.e., the period for ma-turity and approachability) that is many years long

3. A consensus among experts as to the quality of thewines

4. Rigorous production methods at every stage, includ-ing grape selection and appropriate barrel aging

Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take ad-vantage of their victims’ relative ignorance of this winemarket sector.[80] Such wine fraudsters often profit bycharging excessively high prices for off-vintage or lower-status wines from well-known wine regions, while claim-ing that they are offering a sound investment unaffectedby economic cycles. As with any investment, thoroughresearch is essential to making an informed decision.

9 Production

Main article: WinemakingSee also: List of wine-producing countries and List ofwine-producing regions

* FAO estimate.** May include official, semi-official or estimated data.

* FAO estimate.** May include official, semi-official or estimated data.*** FAO data based on imputation methodology.

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50degrees latitude north and south of the equator. Theworld’s southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otagoregion of New Zealand’s South Island near the 45th par-allel south,[84] and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden,just north of the 59th parallel north.[85]

9.1 Exporting countries

The UK was the world’s largest importer of wine in2007.[87]

9.1.1 Wine production in the European Union in2005 and 2006

2005 Estimate (thousands of hectoliters)

1. Italy: 60,562

2. France: 52,107

3. Spain: 34,789

4. Germany: 9,256

5. Portugal: 7,266

8 12 RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE

Wine Exports by Country (2014) from Harvard Atlas of Eco-nomic Complexity

Grapes fermenting to make wine in Western Australia

6. Greece: 3,997

2006 Estimate (thousands of hectoliters)

1. Italy: 52,036

2. France: 51,700

3. Spain: 39,301

4. Germany: 8,995

5. Portugal: 7,390

6. Greece: 3,908

9.1.2 World production in 2003

In 2003, world wine production had reached 269 millionsof hectoliters. The world’s main 15 wine producers were:

9.1.3 The world’s 10 main wine exporting countriesin 2005

10 Consumption

Wine-consumption data from a list of countries by alco-hol consumption measured in liters of pure ethyl alco-

hol consumed per capita in a given year, according tothe most recent data from the World Health Organiza-tion. The methodology includes persons 15 years of ageor older.[88]

11 Culinary uses

Reduction of red wine for a sauce.

Wine is a popular and important beverage that accom-panies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from thesimple and traditional stews to the most sophisticated andcomplex haute cuisines. Wine is often served with din-ner. Sweet dessert wines may be served with the dessertcourse. In fine restaurants inWestern countries, wine typ-ically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons arehelped to make good food-wine pairings by the restau-rant’s sommelier or wine waiter. Individuals dining athome may use wine guides to help make food-wine pair-ings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment ofa meal in wine bars or with a selection of cheeses (at awine and cheese party).Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as abeverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks andbraising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savory orsweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinarysauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.[89] Naturalwines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, frombelow 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being inthe 12.5%–14.5% range.[90] Fortified wines (usually withbrandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.

12 Religious significance

See also: Alcohol and religion, Kosher wine, Christianityand alcohol, and Islam and alcohol

12.4 Islam 9

12.1 Ancient religions

The use of wine in ancient Near Eastern and AncientEgyptian religious ceremonies was common. Libationsoften included wine, and the religiousmysteries of Diony-sus used wine as a sacramental entheogen to induce amind-altering state.

12.2 Judaism

Wine is an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. TheKiddush is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice tosanctify the Shabbat. On Pesach (Passover) during theSeder, it is a Rabbinic obligation of adults to drink fourcups of wine.[91] In the Tabernacle and in the Temple inJerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrifi-cial service.[92] Note that this does not mean that wine isa symbol of blood, a common misconception that con-tributes to the Christian myth of the blood libel. “It hasbeen one of history’s cruel ironies that the blood libel—accusations against Jews using the blood of murderedgentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the false pretext for numerous pogroms. And dueto the danger, those who live in a place where blood libelsoccur are halachically exempted from using red wine, lestit be seized as “evidence” against them.”[93]

Mosaic depicting grapes and wine with Armenian inscription inJerusalem

12.3 Christianity

See also: Christian views on alcohol and Alcohol in theBibleIn Christianity, wine is used in a sacred rite calledthe Eucharist, which originates in the Gospel accountof the Last Supper (Gospel of Luke 22:19) describ-ing Jesus sharing bread and wine with his disciples andcommanding them to “do this in remembrance of me.”Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary amongdenominations (see Eucharistic theologies contrasted).While some Christians consider the use of wine from thegrape as essential for the validity of the sacrament, manyProtestants also allow (or require) pasteurized grape juice

The bishop elevates the chalice while the deacon fans the gifts.

as a substitute. Wine was used in Eucharistic rites byall Protestant groups until an alternative arose in thelate 19th century. Methodist dentist and prohibitionistThomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurizationtechniques to stop the natural fermentation process ofgrape juice. Some Christians who were part of the grow-ing temperance movement pressed for a switch fromwineto grape juice, and the substitution spread quickly overmuch of the United States, as well as to other countriesto a lesser degree.[94] There remains an ongoing debatebetween some American Protestant denominations as towhether wine can and should be used for the Eucharist orallowed as an ordinary beverage, with Catholics and somemainline Protestants allowing wine drinking in modera-tion, and some conservative Protestant groups opposingconsumption of alcohol altogether.

12.4 Islam

Alcoholic beverages, including wine, are forbidden undermost interpretations of Islamic law.[95] In many Muslimcountries, possession or consumption of alcoholic bev-erages carry legal penalties. Iran had previously had athriving wine industry that disappeared after the IslamicRevolution in 1979.[96] In Greater Persia, mey (Persianwine) was a central theme of poetry for more than a thou-sand years, long before the advent of Islam. Some Alevisects–one of the two main branches of Islam in Turkey(the other being Sunni Islam)–use wine in their religiousservices.Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcoholderived from a source other than the grape (or its byprod-ucts) and the date[97] is allowed in “very small quantities”(loosely defined as a quantity that does not cause intoxi-cation) under the Sunni Hanafi madhab, for specific pur-poses (such as medicines), where the goal is not intoxi-cation. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcoholconsumption as totally forbidden.[98]

10 13 HEALTH EFFECTS

Jesus making wine from water in The Marriage at Cana, a 14th-century fresco from the Visoki Dečani monastery

13 Health effects

See also: Health effects of wineFurther information: Red wine headache

13.1 Short-term effects

Main article: Short-term effects of alcohol

All alcohol is prohibited under Islamic law, although there hasbeen a long tradition of drinking wine in some Islamic areas,especially in Iran.

Wine contains ethyl alcohol, the same chemical that ispresent in beer and distilled spirits and as such, wineconsumption has short-term psychological and physio-logical effects on the user. Different concentrations ofalcohol in the human body have different effects on aperson. The effects of alcohol depend on the amountan individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol inthe wine and the timespan that the consumption tookplace, the amount of food eaten and whether an individualhas taken other prescription, over-the-counter or streetdrugs, among other factors. Drinking enough to causea blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03%−0.12%typically causes an overall improvement in mood and pos-sible euphoria, increased self-confidence and sociability,decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the faceand impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. ABAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, bal-ance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18%to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech(e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomit-ing. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, un-consciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting, and deathmay occur due to inhalation of vomit (pulmonary aspira-tion) while unconscious and respiratory depression (po-tentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80%causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respi-ratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. Aswith all alcoholic beverages, drinking while driving, oper-ating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of

11

an accident; many countries have penalties against drunkdriving.

13.2 Long-term effects

See also: Long-term effects of alcohol consumption

The main active ingredient of wine is alcohol, and there-fore, the health effects of alcohol apply to wine. Drink-ing small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink inwomen and two in men) is associated with a decreasedrisk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and earlydeath.[99] Drinking more than this amount; however, in-creases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure,atrial fibrillation, and stroke.[99] Risk is greater in youngerpeople due to binge drinking which may result in vio-lence or accidents.[99] About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% ofall deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year.[100]

Alcoholism also known as “alcohol use disorder” is abroad term for any drinking of alcohol that results inproblems.[101] It was previously divided into two types:alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence.[102][103] In a med-ical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or moreof the following conditions is present: a person drinkslarge amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cut-ting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a greatdeal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results innot fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social prob-lems, usage results in health problems, usage results inrisky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, andalcohol tolerance has occurred with use.[103] Alcoholismreduces a person’s life expectancy by around ten years[104]and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early deathin the United States.[99] No professional medical associa-tion recommends that people who are nondrinkers shouldstart drinking wine.[99][105]

Although lower quality evidence suggest a cardioprotec-tive effect, no controlled studies have been completed onthe effect of alcohol on the risk of developing heart dis-ease or stroke. Excessive consumption of alcohol cancause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism.[106] The AmericanHeart Association “cautions people NOT to start drink-ing ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult yourdoctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol inmoderation.”[107]

Population studies exhibit a J-curve correlation betweenwine consumption and rates of heart disease: heavydrinkers have an elevated rate, while people who drinksmall amount (up to 20 g of alcohol per day, approx-imately 200 ml (7 imp fl oz; 7 US fl oz) of 12.7%ABV wine) have a lower rate than non-drinkers. Stud-ies have also found that moderate consumption of otheralcoholic beverages is correlated with decreased mortal-ity from cardiovascular causes,[108] although the associa-tion is stronger for wine. Additionally, some studies havefound a greater correlation of health benefits with red than

white wine, though other studies have found no differ-ence. Red wine contains more polyphenols than whitewine, and these could be protective against cardiovascu-lar disease.[109]

Although red wine contains the chemical resveratroland there is tentative evidence it may improve hearthealth, the evidence is unclear for those at high risk asof 2013.[110] Grape skins naturally produce resveratrolin response to fungal infection, including exposure toyeast during fermentation. White wine generally containslower levels of the chemical as it has minimal contact withgrape skins during this process.[111]

14 Forgery and manipulation

Honoré Daumier: All These Grapes Seem to Have Fallen Ill...(Tous ces raisins me font l'effet d'avoir la maladie...)

Main article: Wine fraudSee also: List of food contamination incidents

Incidents of fraud, such as mislabeling the origin or qual-ity of wines, have resulted in regulations on labeling.“Wine scandals” that have received media attention in-clude:

• The 1985DiethyleneGlycolWine Scandal, in whichdiethylene glycol was used as a sweetener in someAustrian wines.

• In 1986, methanol (a toxic type of alcohol) was usedto alter certain wines manufactured in Italy.

• In 2008, some Italian wines were found to includesulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.[112]

• In 2010, some Chinese red wines were found tobe adulterated, and as a consequence China’s Hebeiprovince has shut down nearly 30 wineries.[113][114]

12 17 PROFESSIONS

15 Packaging

See also: Cork (material), Closure (bottle), Alternativewine closure, Wine bottle, Box wine, and Screw cap(wine)Most wines are sold in glass bottles and sealed with corks

Assorted wine corks

(50% of which come from Portugal).[115] An increasingnumber of wine producers have been using alternativeclosures such as screwcaps and synthetic plastic “corks”.Although alternative closures are less expensive and pre-vent cork taint, they have been blamed for such problemsas excessive reduction.Some wines are packaged in thick plastic bags withincorrugated fiberboard boxes, and are called "box wines",or “cask wine”. Tucked inside the package is a tap affixedto the bag in box, or bladder, that is later extended by theconsumer for serving the contents. Box wine can stay ac-ceptably fresh for up to a month after opening becausethe bladder collapses as wine is dispensed, limiting con-tact with air and, thus, slowing the rate of oxidation. Incontrast, bottled wine oxidizes more rapidly after open-ing because of the increasing ratio of air to wine as thecontents are dispensed; it can degrade considerably in afew days.Environmental considerations of wine packaging revealbenefits and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines.The glass used to make bottles is a nontoxic, naturally oc-curring substance that is completely recyclable, whereasthe plastics used for box-wine containers are typicallymuch less environmentally friendly. However, wine-bottle manufacturers have been cited for Clean Air Actviolations. A New York Times editorial suggested thatbox wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reducedcarbon footprint from its distribution; however, box-wineplastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be morelabor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process thanglass bottles. In addition, while a wine box is recyclable,its plastic bladder most likely is not.[116]

16 Storage

Main article: Storage of wineWine cellars, or wine rooms, if they are above-ground,

Oak wine barrels

are places designed specifically for the storage and ag-ing of wine. Fine restaurants and some private homeshave wine cellars. In an active wine cellar, temperatureand humidity are maintained by a climate-control sys-tem. Passive wine cellars are not climate-controlled, andso must be carefully located. Because wine is a natural,perishable food product, all types—including red, white,sparkling, and fortified—can spoil when exposed to heat,light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humid-ity. When properly stored, wines can maintain their qual-ity and in some cases improve in aroma, flavor, and com-plexity as they age. Some wine experts contend that theoptimal temperature for aging wine is 13 °C (55 °F),[117]others 15 °C (59 °F).[118]

Wine refrigerators offer a smaller alternative to wine cel-lars and are available in capacities ranging from small,16-bottle units to furniture-quality pieces that can contain400 bottles. Wine refrigerators are not ideal for aging, butrather serve to chill wine to the proper temperature fordrinking. These refrigerators keep the humidity low (usu-ally under 50%), below the optimal humidity of 50% to70%. Lower humidity levels can dry out corks over time,allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces thewine’s quality through oxidation.[119]While some types ofalcohol are sometimes stored in freezer, such as vodka, itis not possible to safely freeze wine in the bottle, as thereis insufficient room for it to expand as it freezes and thebottle will usually crack. Certain shapes of bottle may al-low the cork to be pushed out by the ice, but if the bottleis frozen on its side, the wine in the narrower neck willinvariably freeze first, preventing this.

17 Professions

There are a large number of occupations and professionsthat are part of the wine industry, ranging from the indi-

13

viduals who grow the grapes, prepare the wine, bottle it,sell it, assess it, market it and finally make recommenda-tions to clients and serve the wine.

18 See also

Main article: Outline of wine

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[3] Spilling, Michael; Wong, Winnie (2008). Cultures of TheWorld Georgia. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7614-3033-9.

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[5] Ellsworth, Amy (18 July 2012). “7,000 Year-old WineJar”. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeologyand Anthropology.

[6] Berkowitz, Mark (1996). “World’s Earliest Wine”.Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 49(5).

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[12] Newman, James L (2000). “Wine”. Cambridge WorldHistory of Food. 1.

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16 21 EXTERNAL LINKS

[114] “Adulterated Chinese wine seized”. Drink-ingny.wordpress.com. 27 December 2010. Retrieved 17May 2014.

[115] J. L. CALHEIROS E MENESES, President, Junta Na-cional da Cortiça, Portugal. “The cork industry in Portu-gal”

[116] Muzaurieta, Annie Bell, thedailygreen.com (1 October2008). Holy Hangover! Wine Bottles Cause Air Pollu-tion

[117] fineliving.com Storing Wine

[118] maridajesgourmet.com Storing Wine Temperature

[119] “Wine Fridges and Wine Cabinets”.

20 Further reading

• Colman, Tyler (2008). Wine Politics: How Govern-ments, Environmentalists, Mobsters, and Critics In-fluence the Wines We Drink. University of Califor-nia Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25521-0.

• Foulkes, Christopher (2001). Larousse Encyclope-dia of Wine. Larousse. ISBN 2-03-585013-4.

• Johnson, Hugh (2003). Hugh Johnson’s Wine Com-panion (5th ed.). Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 978-1-84000-704-6.

• McCarthy, Ed; Mary Ewing-Mulligan; Piero Anti-nori (2006). Wine for Dummies. HarperCollins.ISBN 0-470-04579-5.

• MacNeil, Karen (2001). The Wine Bible. Work-man. ISBN 1-56305-434-5.

• Oldman, Mark (2004). Oldman’s Guide to Out-smarting Wine. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-200492-0.

• Parker, Robert (2008). Parker’sWine Buyer’s Guide.Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-7198-1.

• Pigott, Stuart (2004). Planet Wine: A Grapeby Grape Visual Guide to the Contemporary WineWorld. Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 978-1-84000-776-3.

• Robinson, Jancis (2006). The Oxford Companion toWine (3rd ed.). Oxford: OUP. ISBN 0-19-860990-6.

• Simpson, James (2011). Creating Wine: The Emer-gence of a World Industry, 1840–1914. PrincetonUniversity Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-3888-2. onlinereview

• Zraly, Kevin (2006). Windows on the World Com-plete Wine Course. Sterling. ISBN 1-4027-3928-1.

21 External links• The Guardian & Observer Guide to Wine

17

22 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

22.1 Text• Wine Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine?oldid=739625402 Contributors: Magnus Manske, MichaelTinkler, Carey Evans,

Sodium, Lee Daniel Crocker, Mav, Wesley, Robert Merkel, Manning Bartlett, Clasqm, Magnus~enwiki, Rjstott, Andre Engels, Haj-house, Rmhermen, Novalis, Vanderesch, Enchanter, Fubar Obfusco, Perique des Palottes, Heron, Montrealais, Sfdan, KF, Hephaestos,Olivier, Rickyrab, Renata, Leandrod, Edward, Bob frasier, RSM, HollyAm, Paul Barlow, Fred Bauder, Liftarn, Jketola, SGBailey, ZenoGantner, Sannse, Delirium, Zulu~enwiki, Paul A, MichaelJanich, Pcb21, Stw, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Williamv1138, Mac, Ronz,Elano, Snoyes, Bueller 007, Darkwind, Александър, Amcaja, Error, Bogdangiusca, Stefan-S, Netsnipe, Glueball, Jonik, Wnissen, Ehn,Dwo, Hashar, Mulad, Emperorbma, Alex S, Mkrose, Nohat, Fuzheado, Bjh21, Alpdpedia, Selket, Clattuc, Tpbradbury, Munford, Fur-rykef, Ozuma~enwiki, Nv8200pa, Fred 1~enwiki, Leus, Shizhao, Lord Emsworth, JensMueller, Geraki, Fvw, Wetman, David.Monniaux,Rossumcapek, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, RichiH, Hankwang, Pigsonthewing, ChrisO~enwiki, Moriori, Xoe26, Cogibyte, Altenmann, Jm-cnally, Seglea, Naddy, Sam Spade, Mirv, PedroPVZ, Auric, Smb1001, Catbar, Hadal, Vikreykja, Cgeorges, Casito, Randyoo, Dina,Carnildo, Mfc, Adam78, Giftlite, Alan W, M schnei, Wonder al, Tprosser, Yak, Bradeos Graphon, Muke, Everyking, Subsolar, No Guru,H-2-O, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Remy B, Dlamming, Macrakis, Nathan Hamblen, Darrien, Chameleon, Bobblewik, John Abbe, ALargeElk,RivGuySC, Neilc, Gadfium, Manuel Anastácio, Ultra sonic generator, 159753, Andycjp, Toytoy, Knutux, Zeimusu, Sonjaaa, Antandrus,Lockeownzj00, Robert Brockway, Jossi, Aequo, Andyabides, Rdsmith4, The Land, Woochi, Dmaftei, Bodnotbod, Satori, Sam Hocevar,Arcturus, Creidieki, Neutrality, Marcus2, Burschik, Joyous!, Oknazevad, Ukexpat, Robin klein, Rakista, Jutta, Canterbury Tail, Nlnnet,Flex, Mike Rosoft, Dr.frog, D6, Mormegil, N328KF, Pmadrid, Stepp-Wulf, Haiduc, DanielCD, Jiy, Hayford Peirce, Noisy, Chaipau,Discospinster, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Tere, Pak21, DavidBarak, ArnoldReinhold, Andrew1718, Xezbeth, D-Notice, Dbach-mann, Mani1, Martpol, Bender235, Dewet, Plugwash, Petersam, Violetriga, Zeidenbe, Mirage5000, Dpotter, *drew, Zscout370, Sfa-hey, El C, Bletch, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Mlindstr, Carltonh, RoyBoy, Mentatus, Winelover, Bill Thayer, Causa sui, Bobo192,Iamunknown, Circeus, Fir0002, BrokenSegue, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Wisdom89, Nborders1972, Oop, Ziggurat, Scott Moore, Neg,Scott Ritchie, SpeedyGonsales, Man vyi, Sasquatch, Jojit fb, Kjkolb, Rajah, John Fader, Pearle, Justinc, Nsaa, Erri4a, Mdd, Geschichte,Vanished user lkjsdkf34ij48fjhk4, Tavdy79, Alansohn, PaulHanson, QVanillaQ, MatthewEHarbowy, Nereocystis, Eric Kvaalen, Joolz,Carbon Caryatid, Babajobu, Bathrobe, Nwinther, Wouterstomp, Pouya, Adkins, Cdc, Mysdaao, Yanick2k, Bart133, EmmetCaulfield,Wtmitchell, AndreasPraefcke, Hadlock, Crazymonk, Vcelloho, Evil Monkey, Omphaloscope, Oghmoir, Tony Sidaway, Kober, DrGael-lon, Coolmallu, Dave.Dunford, Zoohouse, EventHorizon, Reaverdrop, Versageek, Macgruder, Gene Nygaard, Zereshk, GringoInChile,Iustinus, LittleSocrates, TShilo12, DenisYurkin, Itinerant, Nichlemn, Bobrayner, Velho, Kelly Martin, Pekinensis, Firsfron, Woohookitty,Timo Laine, Camw, LOL, Ernst.schnell, Robert K S, Fbv65edel, Pixeltoo, Eleassar777, Tabletop, Dmol, Al E., Contele de Grozavesti,NormanEinstein, HowardB, Steinbach, Male1979, Waldir, Laurel Bush, Cottonmather0, Nick1nildram, Palica, Allen3, Kesla, Graham87,BD2412, Chun-hian, Amir85, Mucky Duck, Bunchofgrapes, Haikupoet, Quantum bird, Dpr, Josh Parris, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus,Ecume, Alex Coiro~enwiki, Crazyvas, Amire80, Quiddity, Bruce1ee, MZMcBride, Vegaswikian, Nneonneo, Ligulem, Salanth, Sean-Mack, Yug, Unfocused, The wub, FlavrSavr, Aapo Laitinen, Sango123, Trwier, Renaissance Man, Molybdenumblue, Yamamoto Ichiro,Modi, Lionelbrits, FayssalF, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, RJP, RexNL, Gurch, KFP, Codex Sinaiticus, Alphachimp, Common Man, Ronebofh,Physchim62, Gareth E. 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18 22 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

azs.varadi, Pikazilla, WineDrinkerMe, Jolenine, Marcopogo, Gun Powder Ma, Rickard Vogelberg, FisherQueen, ClubOranje, MartinBot,Moggie2002, John Doe or Jane Doe, Chromega, Motley Crue Rocks, Anaxial, Mladewig, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Brothejr, Nono64,Fellwalker57, Wiki Raja, Tgeairn, Tckrtckr, J.delanoy, Saraalan, TimBuck2, Edgeweyes, Wikisarah, Rlsheehan, Bogey97, Trackstar1013,Numbo3, Galbash, Angela C, Passion4purple1995, Gem-fanat, VAcharon, Public Menace, Thelegend85, Eliz81, Ian.thomson, Guidale,Hisagi, Rod57, Johnbod, DarkFalls, Rammstein Viking, Wlwesq, Jeffruth, Bewareofdog, Islamomt, AntiSpamBot, Belovedfreak, Feetof-fancy, NewEnglandYankee, Knulclunk, SJP, Marktuson, Jamesluko, 2help, AbdulRahman14, Cometstyles, Aminullah, Bojan Petkovski,Atama, Vagr7, Bonadea, Ddkoch, Andy Marchbanks, JavierMC, Aandrawes, Olegmeister, Tkgd2007, Dragance, Xiahou, Idioma-bot, Fu-nandtrvl, Aestuum, Adiguburke, Black Kite, Sam Blacketer, Deor, VolkovBot, Radjewwj, Part Deux, Thomas.W, ABF, 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22.2 Images 19

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