Wine (the only way to drink grape juice)
Transcript of Wine (the only way to drink grape juice)
VITIS viniferaGRAPE COMPOSITION
Milena Lambri
Enology Area - DiSTAS Department for Sustainable Food ProcessUniversità Cattolica del Sacro Cuore - Piacenza
GRAPE (and WINE) COMPOSITION
Chemical composition of grape juice:1. water2. sugars3. organic acids4. inorganic compounds 5. phenolic compounds 6. nitrogenous materials7. vitamins8. pectic substances9. enzymes 10. volatile flavor compounds
The Composition of the “Grape” is based on several factors including: CULTIVAR SOIL ROOTSTOCK CLIMATIC CONDITIONSMATURITY CROP YIELD POST-HARVEST HANDLING
GRAPE (and WINE) COMPOSITION
COMPOSITION (W/W) OF GRAPE BUNCH
STEM 2,5 ÷ 8 %
GRAPE
Berry 92 ÷ 97 % of which
skin 6 ÷ 10%
seeds 2 ÷ 15 %
must 60 ÷ 80 %
WATER 65 - 85% weight of grapes
SUGARS fructose and glucose (15 – 25 %).
“Technological or pulp maturity” is based on measure of sugar (Babo or Brix degree) of acidity (g/l expressed as tartaric acid) and of pH.
Ethanol concentration in wine is a function of sugar. A theoretical maximum 51.1% (w/w) of the sugar can be converted to alcohol.Usually “g/l of sugar x 0.06” gives potential ethanol in wine as % v/v.
WATER and SUGARS
ALCOHOLIC
FERMENTATION
C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + heat
1 g sugar (glucose or fructose) 0,6 ml ethanol
100 ml must 100 ml wine
Saccharomyces cerevisiae INDIGENOUS OR SELECTED STRAINS
=
Sugar % (g/100 ml) x 0.6 = Potential alcohol degree of wine
Sugar (g/1 litre) x 0.06 = Potential alcohol degree of wine
56 l of CO2 /l of must at 20 °C
Increasing temperature:
0.65 °C / 1 % w/v of sugar
0.25 °C / 1 % w/v of sugar
ALCOHOLIC
FERMENTATION
C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + heat
ALCOHOLIC
FERMENTATION
OCM 1493/1999 E.C. Regulation- Effective alcohol degree (% v/v)
It is the ethanol present in wine
- Potential alcohol degree (% v/v)
It is the ethanol developping from residue sugars
- Total alcohol degree (% v/v)
The sum effective ethanol + potential ethanol
Corrective actions of must composition
Sugars- Increasing concentration by means of concentrated and rectified
must
- Increasing concentration by under vacuum concentration or inverted osmosis of the must to correct
Acids- Increasing concentration by addition of tartaric acid
- Decreasing concentration by addition of salts (potassium hydrogen carbonate, calcium carbonate or potassium tartrate)
OCM 1493/1999 E.C. Regulation - Italian Legislation
SUGARS
Immature grape: glucose > fructoseMature fruit: glucose ~ fructose Overly mature: glucose < fructose (ratio as low as ~0.85)
Glucose: 5.6 to 8.5 g/100 mL (5.6-8.5%) Fructose: 6.4 to 10.6 g/100 mL (6.4-10.6%) Sucrose: 0.02 to 0.18% Raffinose: 0.015% to 0.34%
Sugar content directly affects wine sweetness Ethanol enhances sweetness and softness of wine
PECTIC SUBSTANCES
Pectic substances present in grape include protopectin, a water insoluble material and soluble pectin.
Pectin is the component in jams and jellies that makes the product thick and is a polymer of galacturonic acid.
An average pectin content < 1 g/l was reported for grapes.
ORIGIN OF METHANOLHydrolysis by natural pectinmethylesterase and
polymethylgalacturonase enzymes
O-methyl groups form methanol in alcoholic solution
METHANOL (30-35 mg/l)
Major: tartaric acid (H2T) and malic (H2M)
Immature grape: the H2M/H2T is just below 1 to over 2 Mature grape
malic acid 1 - 10 g/l tartaric acid 2 - 10 g/l total acidity 4 – 18 g/l
Other acids include citric, ascorbic, oxalic, succinic, “lactic”, glutaric, alpha-ketoglutaric, pyruvic, oxalacetic, galacturonic and phenolics.
ORGANIC ACIDS
Organic acids and their salts affect:
Wine acidity (4-8 g/l expressed as tartaric acid) pH 2.9 – 3.4 Freshness perception Sapidity perception Hardness perception (together with tannins)
ORGANIC ACIDS and their SALTS
At grape maturity: Potassium: 1000 - 1500 mg/l Calcium: 20 - 100 mg/l Sodium: 20 - 80 mg/l Phosphate content: 0.02 to 0.05%.
Problems – cloudiness
1) Tartrate solubility: super-saturated potassium bitartrate. It can be removed via chilling then filtering or by ion exchange chromatography, to obtain clarity.
2) Iron and Copper: complex with tannins and/or proteins
Minerals and metals
Metals and legal limits
Copper 1 mg/l Zinc 5 mg/l Lead 0.2 mg/l Arsenic 0.2 mg/l Mercury 5 µg/l Cadmium 5 µg/l
The Malo-Lactic Fermentation
After alcoholic fermentation, the enzymatic conversion ofmalic to lactic acid and CO2 in the wine by lactic acidbacteria can occur.
Initially, malic acid is decarboxylated, via malatedehydrogenase, to pyruvic acid. Immediately afterdecarboxylation, pyruvic acid is rapidly converted to lacticacid by lactate dehydrogenase.
Since malic acid has 2 carboxyl groups and lactic acid hasa single carboxyl group, conversion of malic to lactic acidreduces the titratable acidity and increases the pH.
MALOLACTICFERMENTATION
COOH COOHMalolactic Enzyme (NAD+ Mn2+)
HO C H HO C H + CO2
CH2 NADH + H+ CH3
COOH
L (-) malic acid L (+) lactic acid
LACTIC ACID BACTERIA (Lactobacillus spp., Oenococcus oeni)
INDIGENOUS OR SELECTED STRAINS
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDSFLAVONOIDS
Flavonols (aglycons and glycosidated derivatives)
Anthocyanins
Flavan-3-ols
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
Anthocyani(di)ns
Anthocyanins - red and blue pigments widelydistributed in plants.
The base structure consists of 2 aromatic rings (A andB) connected by a pyran ring.
The anthocyanins are polar, flavonoid derived,pigments. There are five anthocyanidins in grapes:delphinidin, petunidin, malvidin, cyanidin andpeonidin.
HO
OH
R
OH
R’O
O-Gluc
O-Acyl
+
Pelargonidin: R=H; R’=H Cyanidin: R=OH; R’=H Delphinidin: R=OH; R’=OH
Malvidin: R=OCH3; R’=OCH3 Peonidin: R=OCH3; R’=H Petunidin: R=OCH3; R’=OH
Anthocyani(di)ns
STABILITY
Anthocyanidins
The non-glycosylated (no sugar attached) form isthe aglycone.
The anthocyanidins can be glycosylated oracylated. Primarily with glucose, at one or twoselected hydroxyls or with the addition of someother compound, such as p-coumaric acid.
The concentration range for young red wines is ingeneral of 0.2 to 0.7 g/l.
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
Anthocyani(di)ns
Color dependence on pH
Weakly acidic conditions - the red oxonium form is in reversible equilibrium with the colorless pseudo-base.
The position of the equilibrium depends upon the pH. For example, the color intensity of mixture of anthocyanidins is 6 fold greater at pH 2.9 than at 3.9.
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
O
O
Anthocyanin Structures and Equilibrium
O
ROH
R
OH
HO
OHOH
O
R
R
O-Gluc
+
O-Gluc
H+
Quinoidal base Flavylium cation
HO
OH
OHR
R
O-Gluc
OHOH O
O-Gluc
HO
OH
R
R
OH
Chalcone Carbonyl pseudo-base
H2 O H+
Anthocyani(di)ns
Bisulfite ions can condense with anthocyanidins to form a colorless compound (which is why some decolorization occurs in red wine after sulfite treatment).
The condensation is reversible and as the free SO2disappears, the sulfite addition product is dissociated and the red color intensity returns.
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
O
O
SO2: Bleaching of Anthocyanins
OH
HO
OH
R
R+
O-Gluc
Flavylium cation
O-Gluc
HO
OH
R
R
OH
H SO3 H
SO2
Flavene Sulfonate
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDSTannins Tannins affect an important flavor characteristic of red wine
termed “astringency” that creates a mouth feel characterizedas a “puckering” sensation.
Tannins can either be of the:
“Condensed” type, which is a polymer of the flavan-3-ols(epicatechin, catechin and gallocatechin) and of the flavan-3,4-diols. Condensed type are coming from grape.
“Hydrolizable” type derived from phenolic acids, such asgallic acid or ellagic acid. They are coming from wood or theyare added.
Condensed TanninPolymers of the flavan-3-ols (epicatechin, catechin and gallocatechin) and of the flavan-3,4-diols. GRAPE
Hydrolizable TanninDerived from phenolic acids (gallic and ellagic acids). WOOD
Tannins
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDSTannins
The flavan-3,4-diols (procyanidins) differ fromcatechin due to an additional hydroxyl group atposition 4. Flavan-3,4-diols are important precursorsto polymeric tannins in wine.
The tannins present in grapes and wine areprimarily of the condensed tannin type.
The total tannin concentration for red wines is in~2-4 g/l range.
Taste/Body are affected by tannins which, if toomuch, can cause astringency.
0.01 to 0.04% w/v - white wines 0.1 to 0.2% w/v - red wines
Tannins can cause oxidative browning in white wine,its rate is dependent upon amount of catechin,proanthocyanidins, sulfur dioxide content, iron,copper, citric acid and oxygen.
Some phenolics have anti-bacterial properties, othersare anti-oxidative (not flavonoids type).
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
OXIDATIVE ENZYMES
Several different enzymes have been found in grapes, but the enzyme with the greatest deleterious effect is polyphenoloxidase.
In grape attached from Botrytis cinerea laccase can appear.
These enzymes accelerate oxidative browning and discoloration.
Ammonia and ammonium salts are very important for yeast development and reproduction; certain amino acids are a good sources of nitrogen for the yeast
Ammonia in grape juice: 10 – 15 %
Total nitrogen content is 100 – 1000 mg/l
Concentration range: some amino acids <0.3 mg/100 ml of grape juice, others >400 mg/100 ml.
Some amino acids are a substrate for higher alcohols, called fusel alcohols, which affect flavor.
NITROGENOUS MATERIALS
Ascorbic acid: 1.1 to 11.7 mg/100 ml of juice Riboflavin: 6.3 to 25 µg/100 ml Pantothenic acid: 50 to 100 µg/100 ml Pyridoxine: 16 to 53 µg/100 ml Nicotinic acid: 80 to 375 µg/100 ml Other vitamins: one to several µg/liter juice
VITAMINS
VOLATILE COMPOUNDS
Certain volatile compounds are directly associated with the flavor and aroma of many fruits.
Major volatiles in grapes (max 1000 µg/l) are:
Terpens, free and glycosidated forms Norisoprenoids Thiols C6 alcohols and aldehydes originating from enzyme and
oxygen action on precursors (herbaceous flavor)
Aromatic maturity (accumulation of varietal volatiles)