Wilsonian Progressivism in Peace and War,...

Chapter29

WilsonianProgressivisminPeace

andWar,1913–1920

I.Wilson:TheIdealistinPolitics

• (Thomas)WoodrowWilson:– SecondDemocraticpresidentsince1861• FirstpresidentfromoneofsecededsouthernstatessinceZacharyTaylor,64yearsearlier• Wilson'sadmirationforConfederateattemptatindependenceinspiredhisidealofself-determination• Hisidealoffaithinmasses—iftheywereproperlyinformed—camefromJeffersoniandemocracy• HisinspirationalpoliticalsermonsreflectedinfluenceofhisPresbyterianminster-father

I.Wilson:TheIdealistinPolitics(cont.)

• WilsonconvincedthatCongresscouldnotfunctionproperlyunlesspresidentprovidedleadership• Repeatedreliedonhiseloquencetoappealoverheadsoflegislatorstothesovereignpeople

–Wilsonsufferedfromseriousdefectsofpersonality:• IncapableofshowmanshiplikeRoosevelt,helackedcommontouch

II.WilsonTacklestheTariff

• Wilson'sprograms:– Calledforassaulton“thetriplewallofprivilege”:thetariff,thebanks,andthetrusts

– Hetackledtarifffirst:– SummonedCongressintospecialsessioninearly1913– Inprecedent-shatteringmove,hedidnotsendhismessageovertoCapitoltoberead

– HeappearedinpersonbeforeajointsessionofCongressandpresentedhisappealwithstunningclarityandforce

– HousesoonpassedmajorreductionsinUnderwoodTariff

II.WilsonTacklestheTariff(cont.)

–WhenbillchallengedinSenatebylobbyists:• Wilsonissuedmessagetopublicurgingthemtoholdtheirelectedrepresentativesinline• Publicopinionworked;in1913SenateapprovedbillWilsonwanted• Providedforasubstantialreductionofimportfees• Landmarkintaxlegislation:

– Usingrecent16thAmendment,Congressenactedgraduatedincometaxbeginningwithmoderatelevyonincomesover$3,000(averagewageearner'sannualincomeonly$740)

– By1917,revenuefromincometaxshotaheadofrevenuefromtariffs

III.WilsonBattlestheBankers

• Antiquatedandinadequatebankingandcurrencysystem

• Nation'sfinancialstructurecreakedalongunderCivilWarNationalBankingAct– Mostglaringdefectwasinelasticityofcurrency(1907panic)– SincemostbankslocatedinNewYork,hardtomobilizebankreserveselsewhereintimesofpanic

• CallsforreformsupportedbyLouisD.Brandeisinbook:OtherPeople'sMoneyandHowtheBankersUseIt(1914)

III.WilsonBattlestheBankers(cont.)

• WilsoninJune1913appearedpersonallybeforeCongressagainandcalledforsweepingbankreform:– EndorsedDemocraticproposalfordecentralizedbankingovernmenthands

– OpposedRepublicandemandsforhugeprivatebankwithfifteenbranches

• FederalReserveAct(1913):• Wilsonappealedtothesovereignpeople• MostimportanteconomiclegislationbetweenCivilWarandNewDeal

III.WilsonBattlestheBankers(cont.)

• FederalReserveBoard:AppointedbyPresident•Wouldoverseenationwidesystemoftwelveregionalreservedistricts•Eachwithitsowncentralbank•FinalauthorityofFederalReserveBoardguaranteedasubstantialmeasureofpubliccontrol•Boardwouldbeempoweredtoissuepapermoney

– “FederalReserveNotes”—backedbycommercialpaper– Thusamountofmoneyincirculationcouldbeswiftlyincreasedasneededforlegitimaterequirementsofbusiness

IV.ThePresidentTamestheTrusts

• Wilson'sthirdappearancebeforeCongressledtoFederalTradeCommissionAct(1914):– Presidentiallyappointedcommissioncouldresearchindustriesengagedininterstatecommerce

– Commissioncouldcrushmonopolyatsourcebyrootingoutunfairtradepractices:• Includingunlawfulcompetition,falseadvertising,mislabeling,adulteration,andbribery

IV.ThePresidentTamestheTrusts(cont.)

– ClaytonAnti-Trust(1914):• Increasedlistofpracticesdeemedobjectionable:

– Pricediscriminationandinterlockingdirectorates(wheresameindividualservedasdirectorofsupposedlycompetingfirms)

– Achievedthroughholdingcompanies(seeFigure29.1)• Conferredlong-overduebenefitsonlabor:

– Exemptedlaborandagriculturalorganizationfromanti-trustprosecution,whileexplicitlylegalizingstrikesandpeacefulpicketing

– SamuelGompers,Unionleader,hailedactasMagnaCartaoflabor

Figure 29-1 p665

V.WilsonatthePeak

• Otherprogressivelegislation:– FederalFarmLoanAct(1916):• Madecreditavailabletofarmersatlowratesofinterest—longdemandedbyPopulists

–WarehouseAct(1916):• Authorizedloansonsecurityofstaplecrops—anotherPopulistidea

– Otherlawsbenefitedruralareasbyprovidingforhighwayconstructionandestablishmentofagriculturalextensionworkinstatecolleges

V.WilsonatthePeak(cont.)

– LaFolletteSeaman'sAct(1915):• RequireddecenttreatmentandlivingwageonAmericanmerchantships

–Workingmen'sCompensationAct(1916):• Grantedassistancetofederalcivil-serviceemployeesduringperiodsofdisability

– 1916:Wilsonsignedlawrestrictingchildlaboronproductsflowingintointerstatecommerce(butSupremeCourtlatervoidedit)

V.WilsonatthePeak(cont.)• AdamsonAct(1916):– Establishedeighthourdayforallemployeesontrainsininterstatecommerce,withextrapayforovertime

• SupremeCourt:–WilsonendearedhimselftoprogressiveswhenhenominatedprominentreformerLouisD.Brandeis—firstJewtohighcourt

• LimitonWilson'sprogressivism:– Stoppedwellshortofbettertreatmentforblacks

VI.NewDirectionsinForeignPolicy

–Wilson'sreactiontoearlierforeignpolicies:• IncontrasttoRooseveltandTaft,herecoiledatfirstfromaggressiveforeignpolicy• Hatingimperialism,hewasrepelledbyTR'sbig-stickism• SuspiciousofWallStreet,hedetestedTaft'sdollardiplomacy• Inofficeonlyaweek,hedeclaredwarondollardiplomacy:– ProclaimedgovernmentwouldnotsupportAmericaninvestorsinLatinAmericaandChina

VI.NewDirectionsinForeignPolicy(cont.)

• PersuadedCongresstorepealPanamaCanalTollsActof1912–– IthadexemptedAmericancoastwideshippingfromtolls– TherebyprovokedsharpprotestsfrominjuredBritain

• JonesAct(1916):– GrantedPhilippinesterritorialstatusandpromisedindependenceassoonasa“stablegovernment”couldbeestablished

– Wilson'sracialprejudicesdidnotexpectthistohappenforalongtime

– OnJuly4,1946—30yearslater—UnitedStatesacceptedPhilippineindependence


• Haiti'schaoticpoliticalsituationcausedWilsontoassumemoreactivestanceabroad• Politicalturmoilclimaxedin1914-1915whenoutragedpopulaceliterallytoretopiecesbrutalHaitianpresident• WilsondispatchedmarinestoprotectAmericanlivesandproperty• MarinesremainedinHaitifornineteenyearsmakingHaitianAmericanprotectorate


– In1916,WilsonusedRoosevelt'scorollarytoMonroeDoctrineandconcludedtreatywithHaiti:» ProvidedforU.S.supervisionoffinancesandpolice

– In1916,hesentmarinestodebt-cursedDominicanRepublic» CameunderAmericancontrolforeightyears

– In1917,UnitedStatespurchasedtheVirginIslandsfromDenmark

– UncleSamtighteningitsgripinCaribbeanSea,withitsvitalapproachestoPanamaCanal(seeMap29.1)

VII.MoralisticDiplomacyinMexico

• Mexicanrevolution(1913):– Mexicansresentedexploitationbyforeigninvestors– In1913newrevolutionarypresidentmurderedandreplacedbyGeneralVictorianoHuerta:

– CausedmassivemigrationofMexicanstoUnitedStates– MorethanamillionSpanish-speakingnewcomerscameandsettledinTexas,NewMexico,Arizona,California

– Builthighwaysandrailroads,followedfruitharvestsaspickers

– SegregatedinSpanish-speakingenclaves:» HelpedcreateuniqueborderlandculturethatblendedMexicanandAmericanfolkways

Map 29-1 p667

VII.MoralisticDiplomacyinMexico(cont.)

• RevolutionarybloodshedmenacedAmericanlivesandpropertyinMexico:– HearstcalledforinterventioninMexico– Wilsonagainrefusedtopracticediplomacyofhispredecessors:» Deemedit“perilous”todetermineforeignpolicy“intermsofmaterialinterest”

– WilsontriedtosteeramoralcourseinMexico– RefusedtorecognizeHuerta'sbloody-handedregime– In1914heallowedAmericanarmstoflowtoHuerta'sprincipalrivals,VenustianoCarranzaandfirebrandFrancisco(“Pancho”)Villa


• TampicoIncident:–MexicovolcanoeruptedatAtlanticseaportofTampicoinApril,1914:• SmallpartyofAmericansailorsarrested• Mexicansreleasedcaptivesandapologized• RefuseddemandbyU.S.admiralfor21-gunsalute• DeterminedtoeliminateHuerta,WilsonaskedCongressforauthoritytouseforceagainstMexico• BeforeCongresscouldact,WilsonhadnavyseizeportofVeracruztoblockarrivalofGermanweapons


• ShootingconflictavoidedbyofferofmediationfromABCpowers—Argentina,Brazil,andChile• HuertacollapsedinJuly1914underpressurefromwithinandwithout• Succeededbyhisarchival,VenustianoCarranzawhoresentedWilson'smilitarymeddling• “Pancho”Villa,chiefrivaltoPresidentCarranza,

– Killed16AmericanminingengineerstravelingthroughnorthernMexicoinJanuary1916

– Onemonthlater,VillaandhisfollowerscrossedborderintoColumbus,NewMexicoandmurderedanother19Americans


– GeneralJohnJ.(“BlackJack”)Pershingorderedtobreakupbanditband• HishastilyorganizedforceofseveralthousandmountedtroopspenetrateddeepintoMexico• ClashedwithCarranza'sforces• MauledVillistasbutmissedcapturingVilla• AstensionswithGermanymounted,WilsonwithdrewPershingfromMexicoinJanuary1917

VIII.ThunderAcrosstheSea

• InEurope,SerbpatriotkilledheirtothroneofAustria-Hungaryinsummer1914:

• Vienna,backedbyGermany,presentedultimatumtoSerbia• Explosivechainreactionfollowed:

– Serbia,backedbyRussia,refusedtobackdown– Russianczarbegantomobilizemilitary,menacingGermanyoneast

– FranceconfrontedGermanyonwest– GermansstrucksuddenlyatFrancethroughunoffendingBelgium

VIII.ThunderAcrosstheSea(cont.)

• GreatBritain,itscoastlinejeopardizedbyassaultonBelgium,pulledintoconflagrationonsideofFrance• NowEuropelockedinfighttothedeath• CentralPowers:Germany,Austria-Hungary,laterTurkeyandBulgaria• Allies:France,Britain,andRussia,laterJapanandItaly• AmericansthankedGodforoceanandcongratulatedthemselvesonhavingancestorswiseenoughtohaveabandonedhellpitsofEurope• Americafeltstrong,snug,smug,andsecure—butnotforlong


–WilsonissuedneutralityproclamationandcalledonAmericanstobeneutralinthoughtanddeed

– BothsideswooedU.S.A.,greatneutralinWest• Britishenjoyed:

– Cultural,linguistic,andeconomictieswithAmerica– Advantageofcontrollingtransatlanticcables– TheircensorsshearedawaywarstoriesharmfultoAlliesanddrenchedUnitedStateswithtalesofGermanbestiality

• GermansandAustro-Hungarians:– CountedonsympathiesoftransplantedcountrymeninAmerica(some11millionin1914)


– Someoftheserecentimmigrantsexpressednoisysympathyforfatherland

– Mostsimplygratefultobedistantfromfray(seeTable29.1)• MostAmericans:

– Anti-Germanfromoutset– KaiserWilhelmIIseemedembodimentofarrogantautocracy– ImpressionstrengthenedbyGerman'sruthlessstrikeatneutralBelgium

Table 29-1 p669


– GermanandAustrianagentsfurthertarnishedimageofCentralPowerswhentheyresortedtoviolenceinAmericanfactoriesandports

– Germanoperativein1915absentmindedlylefthisbriefcaseonNewYorkelevatedcar:» Documentsdetailingplansforindustrialsabotagediscoveredandquicklypublicized

– FurtherinflamedAmericanopinionagainstKaiser– YetgreatmajorityofAmericansearnestlyhopedtostayoutofhorriblewar

IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney–WhenwarbrokeoutinEurope,U.S.A.inmidstofrecession:• BritishandFrenchwarorderspulledU.S.industryontopeakofwar-bornprosperity(seeTable29.2)• PartofboonfinancedbyAmericanbankers• NotablyWallStreetfirmofJ.P.MorganandCompanyadvancedtoAlliesenormoussumof$2.3millionduringperiodofAmericanneutrality

Table 29-2 p670

IX.AmericaEarnsBloodMoney(cont.)

» GermanylegallycouldhavehadsameleveloftradewithUnitedStates

» WaspreventedfromdoingsobyBritishnavy» BritishimposedblockadewithminesandshipsacrossNorthSeagatewaytoGermanports

» OverprotestsfromvariousAmericans,BritishforcedAmericanvesselsoffhighseas

» HarassmentofAmericanshippershighlyeffectiveastradebetweenGermanyandUnitedStatesvirtuallyceased


– Germanydidnotwanttobestarvedout:• BerlinannouncedsubmarinewarareaaroundBritishIsles(seeMap29.2)• Newsubmarinesnotfitexistinginternationallaws• PosedthreattoUnitedStates—solongasWilsoninsistedonmaintainingAmerica'sneutralrights– Berlinofficialsdeclaredtheywouldtrynottosinkneutralshipping,butwarnedmistakeswouldprobablyoccur

• Wilsondecidedoncalculatedrisk:– Claimedprofitableneutraltradingrightswhilehopingnoincidentswouldcausewar

Map 29-2 p670


– Germansubmarines(U-boats“underseaboat”)begandeadlywork

– Infirstmonthsof1915,sank90shipsinwarzone– BritishpassengerlinerLusitaniatorpedoedandsankoffcoastofIreland,May7,1915:» Withlossof1,198lives,including128Americans

• Lusitaniawascarryingforty-twohundredcasesofsmall-armsammunition– AfactGermanyusedtojustifysinking– Americansshockedandangeredatactof“massmurder”and“piracy”


– TalkofwarfromeasternUnitedStates,butnotfromrestofnation• Wilsondidnotwanttoleaddisunitednationintowar

– Byseriesofstrongnotes,WilsonattemptedtotakeGermanwarlordssharplytotask

– PolicytooriskyforSecretaryofStateBryanwhoresigned– T.RooseveltharshlycriticizedWilson'smeasuredapproach

• Britishliner,Arabic,sunkinAugust,1915:– WithlossoftwoAmericanlives– Berlinreluctantlyagreednottosinkunarmedandunresistingpassengershipswithoutwarning


– PledgeappearedtobeviolatedinMarch,1916whenGermanstorpedoedFrenchpassengersteamer,Sussex

– Infuriated,WilsoninformedGermans:» Thatunlesstheyrenouncedinhumanpracticeofsinkingmerchantshipswithoutwarning,hewouldbreakdiplomaticrelations—almostcertainpreludetowar

• GermanyreluctantlyknuckledunderWilson'sSussexultimatum:– Germanyagreedtonotsinkpassengerandmerchantshipswithoutwarning» AttachedlongstringtotheirSussexpledge


• GermanSussexpledge:– UnitedStateswouldhavetopersuadeAlliestomodifywhatBerlinregardedasillegalblockade

– Thisobviously,wassomethingthatWashingtoncouldnotdo– Wilsonpromptlyacceptedpledge,withoutaccepting“string”– Wilsonwontemporarybutprecariousdiplomaticvictory–precariousbecause:» Germanycouldpullstringwheneveritchose» Andpresidentmightsuddenlyfindhimselftuggedovercliffofwar

X.WilsonWinsReelectionin1916

• Presidentialcampaignof1916– BullmooseProgressivesandRepublicansmetinChicago:• ProgressivesnominatedTheodoreRoosevelt:

– TR,wholoathedWilson,hadnointentionofsplittingRepublicansagain

– Withhisrefusal,TRsoundeddeathknellofProgressiveparty• RepublicansdraftedSupremeCourtjusticeCharlesEvansHughes,whohadbeengovernorofNewYork

X.WilsonWinsReelectionin1916(cont.)

• RepublicanplatformcondemnedWilson's:– Tariff– Assaultontrusts– Wishy-washinessindealingwithMexicoandGermany

• Wilsonrealizedhis1912wincausedbyTaft-TRsplit– UsedhisfirsttermtoidentifyhimselfascandidateofprogressivismandtowoobullmoosevotersintoDemocraticfold

–Wilson,nominatedbyacclamationatDemocraticconventioninSt.Louis

– Hiscampaignslogan,“HeKeptUsOutofWar”


– Onelectionday:• HughessweptEast• Wilsonwenttobedpreparedtoacceptdefeatbutrestofnationturnedtide:– Midwesternandwesterners,attractedbyWilson'sprogressivereformsandantiwarpolicies,flockedtohim

– Finalresult,indoubtforseveraldays,hingedonCaliforniawhichWilsoncarriedwith3,800votesoutofaboutamillion


– Finalcount:• Wilson:277to254inElectoralCollege• 9,127,695to8,533,507inpopularcolumn(seeMap29.3)• ProlaborWilsonreceivedstrongsupportfromworkingclassandfromrenegadebullmoosers• Wilsondidnotspecificallypromisetokeepcountryoutofwar

XI.WarbyActofGermany

• Wilsontriedtomediatebetweentwowarringsides:– January22,1917:restatedU.S.commitmenttoneutralrightsandcalledfor“peacewithoutvictory”

• Germanyrespondedwithmailedfist:– AnnouncedunrestrictedsubwarfareonJan.31– HopedtodefeatAlliesbeforeU.S.A.enteredwar

• Wilsonbrokediplomaticrelations,butmovednoclosertowarunless“overt”byGermans

Map 29-3 p673

XI.WarbyActofGermany (cont.)

– PresidentaskedCongressforauthoritytoarmmerchantships,butblockedbySenatefilibuster

– Zimmermannnote:• InterceptedandpublishedonMarch1,1917• GermanforeignsecretaryArthurZimmermansecretlyproposedGerman-Mexicanalliance• Temptedanti-YankeeMexicowithpromisesofrecoveringTexas,NewMexico,Arizona

– Long-dreaded“overt”actinAtlantic:• GermanU-boatssankfourunarmedAmericanmerchantvesselsinfirsttwoweeksofMarch,1917

XI.WarbyActofGermany(cont.)

• RevolutioninRussiatoppledcruelregimeoftsars:– AmericacouldnowfightfordemocracyonAllies'side,withoutRussiandespotisminAlliedfold

• Wilson,beforejointsessionofCongressonApril2,1917,askedfordeclarationofwar:– BritishharassmentofU.S.commercehadbeengallingbutendurable

– Germanyhadresortedtomasskillingofcivilians– Wilsonhaddrawnclearlineagainstdepredationsofsubmarine

• Infigurativesense,wardeclarationonApril6,1917boreunambiguoustrademark“MadeinGermany”

XII.WilsonianIdealismEnthroned

• Formorethanacentury,AmericanspridedthemselvesonisolationfromOldWorld

• Since1914thatpridereinforcedbybountifulprofitsgainedthroughneutrality– Sixsenatorsand50representatives(includingfirstcongresswomanJeannetteRankin,ofMontana)votedagainstwarresolution

–Wilsoncouldincitenoenthusiasmbycallingonnationtofighttomakeworldsafefromsubmarineattacks

XII.WilsonianIdealismEnthroned (cont.)

–Wilsonneededtoproclaimmoreglorifiedaims:• Supremelyambitiousgoalofcrusade“tomaketheworldsafefordemocracy”• Wilsonvirtuallyhypnotizednationwithloftyideals:

– ContrastedselfishwaraimsofotherbelligerentswithAmerica'sshiningaltruism

– PreachedAmericadidnotfightforsakeofrichesorterritorialconquest

– Republicsoughttoshapeinternationalorderinwhichdemocracycouldflourishwithoutfearofpower-crazedautocratsandmilitarists


• Wilsonianidealism:– Personalityofpresidentandnecessitiesofhistoryperfectlymatched

– Hebelievedmodernworldcouldnotaffordhyper-destructivewarusedbyindustrialstates

– ProbablynootherargumentcouldhaveworkedtoarouseAmericanstounprecedentedburden:• Americanscouldbeeitherisolationistsorcrusaders,nothinginbetween


• Wilson'sappealworked—perhapstoowell• Holdingtorchofidealism,presidentfireduppublicmindtofeverpitch• LostwasWilson'searlierpleafor“peacewithoutvictory”

XIII.Wilson'sFourteenPotentPoints

• WilsonsoonrecognizedasmoralleaderofAlliedcause– OnJanuary8,1918,hedeliveredtoCongressfamedFourteenPoints:• (1)proposaltoabolishsecrettreatiespleasedliberalsofallcountries• (2)freedomofseasappealedtoGermansandAmericanswhodistrustedBritishseapower• (3)removalofeconomicbarriersamongnationshadbeengoalofliberalinternationalistseverywhere

XIII.Wilson'sFourteenPotentPoints(cont.)

• (4)reductionofarmamentburdensgratifyingtotaxpayersinallcountries• (5)adjustmentofcolonialclaimsininterestsofbothnativepeoplesandcolonizersreassuredanti-imperialists

–Wilson'spronouncementaboutcoloniespotentiallyrevolutionary:• Helpedtodelegitimizeoldempires• Openedroadtoeventualindependenceformillionsof“subjectpeople”

XIII.Wilson'sFourteenPotentPoints(cont.)

– Otherpointsprovedtobenolessseductive:• Hopeofindependence(“self-determination”)tooppressedminoritygroups(e.g.,Poles)

– Capstonepoint(numberfourteen):• ForeshadowedLeagueofNations:

– Internationalorganizationthatwouldprovidesystemofcollectivesecurity

–Wilson'spointsnotapplaudedeverywhere:• SomeAlliedleaderswantedterritorialgains• RepublicansmockedfourteenPoints

XIV.ManipulatingMindsandStiflingDissent

– CommitteeonPublicInformation:• Purpose—mobilizepeople'smindforwar• Headedbyyoungjournalist,GeorgeCreel• HisjobtosellAmericaonwarandsellworldonWilsonianwaraims• Employed150,000workersathomeandabroad

– Sentout75,000“four-minutemen”whodeliveredcountlessspeechescontainingmuch“patrioticpep”

• Creel'spropagandatookvariedforms:– Posterssplashedonbillboards:

» “BattleoftheFences”

XIV.ManipulatingMindsandStiflingDissent(cont.)

– MillionsofleafletsandpamphletscontainedmostpungentWilson-isms

– Hang-the-Kaisermovies– Songspouredscornonenemyandglorified“boys”inuniform

– Extensiveuseofsongs,esp.GeorgeCohan's“OverThere”– CreeltypifiedAmericanwarmobilization:

» Reliedmoreonarousedpassionandvoluntarycompliancethanonformallaws

» OversoldidealsofWilsonandledworldtoexpecttoomuch» Resultwaseventualdisillusionmentathomeandabroad


– GermanAmericans—overeightmillion:• MostprovedtobedependablyloyaltoUnitedStates• Afewtarred,feathered,andbeaten• HystericalhatredofGermansandthingsGermanicsweptnation:– OrchestrasfounditunsafetopresentGerman-composedmusic

– Germanbooksremovedfromlibraryshelves– Germanclassescanceled– Sauerkrautbecame“libertycabbage”– Hamburger,“libertysteak”


• EspionageActof1917andSeditionActof1918:– ReflectedfearsaboutGermansandantiwarAmericans– 1,900prosecutionsofantiwarSocialistsandmembersofradicalIndustrialWorkersoftheWorld(IWW):• SocialistEugeneDebssentencedtotenyearsinfederalpenitentiary• IWWleaderWilliamD.(“BigBill”)Haywoodand99associatesalsoconvicted

– Virtuallyanycriticismofgovernmentcouldbecensoredandpunished


• InSchenkv.UnitedStates(1919):– SupremeCourtaffirmedlegalityofrestrictions• Freedomofspeechcouldberevokedwhensuchspeechposed“clearandpresentdanger”tonation

– ProsecutionsformeduglychapterinhistoryofAmericancivilliberty:• Withpeace—presidentialpardonsgranted,includingPresidentHarding'stoDebsin1921• Afewvictimsremainedinjailinto1930s

XV.ForgingaWarEconomy

–Wilsonbelatedlybackedpreparednessmeasures– Bigobstaclesconfrontedeconomicmobilizers:• Sheerignoranceamongbiggestroadblocks

– Nooneknewpreciselyhowmuchsteelorexplosivepowdercountrycapableofproducing

• Oldideasprovedtobeliabilities:– TraditionalfearofbiggovernmenthamstrungefforttoorchestrateeconomyfromWashington

– Largelyvoluntarycharacterofeconomicwarorganization

–Wilsoneventuallysucceededinimposingsomeorderoneconomicconfusion:

XV.ForgingaWarEconomy(cont.)–WarIndustriesBoard:• March1918;BernardBaruchthehead• Setprecedentforfederalgovernmenttotakecentralroleineconomicplanninginacrisis

• HerbertHooverheadedFoodAdministration:– Reliedonvoluntarycompliancewithpropaganda,notcompulsoryedicts(i.e.,rationcards)

– Thankstowartimespirit,Hoover'svoluntaryapproachworkedasfarmproductionincreased

XV.ForgingaWarEconomy(cont.)

• Wartimerestrictionsonfoodstuffsforalcoholacceleratedwaveofprohibition

• 1919:EighteenAmendmentbannedalcohol• Wilsonexpandedfederalgovernmentinsizeandpowertomeetneedsofwar:–WIBsetproductionquotas– Allocatedrawmaterials– Setpricesforgovernmentpurchases

XVI.WorkersinWartime

• “LaborWillWintheWar:”– Americanworkerssweatedwaytovictory:• DrivenbyWarDepartment's“workorfight”rule:

– Threatenedanyunemployedmalewithimmediatedraft;powerfuldiscouragementtostrike

– Governmenttriedtotreatlaborfairly

– SamuelGompersandAmericanFederationofLabor(AFofL)loyallysupportedwar:• Loyaltyrewardedasmembershipdoubledandrealwagesformanyunionizedworkersrosemorethan20%

XVI.WorkersinWartime(cont.)

• Recognitionofrighttoorganizenotwonandworkershitbywartimeinflation:– 6,000strikesbrokeoutinwaryears– IndustrialWorkersoftheWorld(“Wobblies”)engineereddamagingindustrialsabotagebecause• Victimsofshabbiestworkingconditions

– 1919greateststrikeinU.S.historyrockedsteelindustryasmorethan250,000struck:• Wantedrighttobargaincollectively,butmanagementrefusedtonegotiate

XVI.WorkersinWartime(cont.)

– Eventuallysteelstrikecollapsedaftermorethanadozenstrikerskilled

– Setbackcrippledunionmovementformorethanadecade• Blackworkersenteredsteelmillsin1919• TensofthousandsofsouthernblacksdrawntoNorthtowar-industryemployment• Interracialviolenceresulted,esp.inChicagoinJuly1919

– 15whitesand23blackskilledduringtwoweeksofterror

XVII.SufferingUntilSuffrage

• Womenheededcallofpatriotismandopportunity:– Thousandsenteredfactoriesandfieldsleftbymengoingtofrontline

–Warsplitwomen'smovementdeeply:• Manyprogressive-erafeministswerepacifists

– FoundavoiceinNationalWoman'sparty– LedbyQuakeractivistAlicePaul– Demonstratedagainst“KaiserWilson”withmarchesandhungerstrikes

XVII.SufferingUntilSuffrage(cont.)

• Largerpartofsuffragemovement:– RepresentedbyNationalAmericanWomanSuffrageAssociation– SupportedWilson'swar– Arguedwomenmusttakepartinwarefforttoearnroleinshapingpeace

– Fightfordemocracyabroadwaswomen'sbesthopeforwinningtruedemocracyathome

• Warmobilizationgavenewmomentumtosuffragefight:– Wilsonendorsedsuffrageas“vitallynecessarywarmeasure”– In1917NewYorkvotedforsuffrageatstatelevel– FollowedbyMichigan,Oklahoma,andSouthDakota– WholeU.S.A.followedwithNineteenthAmendment(1920)


• Ratified70yearsafterfirstcallforsuffrageatSenecaFalls• GaveallAmericanwomenrighttovote(seeAppendixandTable29.3)

–Women'swartimeeconomicgainsfleeting:• PermanentWomen'sBureauinDepartmentofLaborcreatedtoprotectwomeninworkplace• Mostwomenworkersgaveupwartimejobs


• Congresssupportedtraditionalroleasmothers:– PassedSheppard-TownerMaternityAct1921:

» Providedfederallyfinancedinstructioninmaternalandinfanthealthcare

» Expandedresponsibilityoffederalgovernmentforfamilywelfare

• WWIforeshadowedfuturewhenwomen'swage-laborandpoliticalpowerwouldreshapeAmericanwayoflife

Table 29-3 p680

XVIII.MakingPlowboysintoDoughboys

• America'searlyroleinwar:– DidnotdreamofsendinglargeforcetoFrance– Assumednavalpowerandmaterialsupportwouldsuffice

– ByApril/May1917,Europeansrunningoutofmoneyandmanpower

• HugeAmericanarmyneededtoberaised,trained,andtransportedquicklyorwholewesternfrontwouldcollapse

XVIII.MakingPlowboysintoDoughboys(cont.)

– Conscriptiononlyanswertourgentneed:• Wilsondislikeddraft,buteventuallyacceptedconscriptionasdisagreeableandtemporarynecessity• ImmediatelyranintoproblemswithCongress

– Latergrudginglypassedconscription• Draftworkedeffectivelyoverall• Armygrewtooverfourmillionmen• Womenforfirsttimeadmittedtoarmedforces:

– 11,000tonavyand269tomarines– Armyrefusedtoenlistwomen

XVIII.MakingPlowboysintoDoughboys(cont.)

• AfricansAmericansservedinstrictlysegregatedunits,usuallyunderwhiteofficers• Militaryauthoritieshesitatedtotrainblacksforcombat:– Thusmajorityassignedto“constructionbattalions”orputtoworkunloadingships

• RecruitssupposetoreceivesixmonthsoftraininginAmericaandtwomoreoverseas• becauseofurgency,manydoughboysputmoreswiftlyintobattle

XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”

• Russia:• Bolsheviksseizedpowerin1917• Withdrewfrom“capitalisticwar”1918• ThisreleasedmanyGermansfromeasternfrontinRussiaforwesternfrontinFrance

• France:– GraduallybegantobustlewithU.S.doughboys(seeMap29.4):• Firstonesusedforreplacementsordeployedinquietsectors

XIX.AmericaHelpsHammerthe“Hun”(cont.)

• Americansoldierssufferedhighratesofvenerealdisease

Map 29-4 p682


–MassiveGermandriveofspring1918:• AlliesunitedunderFrenchmarshalFoch

– Germanssmashedtowithin40milesofParis,May1918– ThreatenedtoknockFranceoutofwar– 30,000AmericanssenttoChateau-Thierry,rightinteethofGermanadvance

– FirstsignificantengagementofAmericantroopsinaEuropeanwar

– Americaputdecisiveweightonscales(seeFigure29.2)tobluntGermandrive

– AmericansjoinedinSecondBattleoftheMarine(July)– MarkedbeginningofGermanwithdrawal


• Americansnowdemandedandgotseparatearmy• GeneralJohnJ.Pershingassignedafrontof85milesnorthwestwardfromSwissbordertoFrenchline:– Pershing'sarmyundertookMeuse-Argonneoffensive:

» FromSeptember26toNovember11,1918» Battlelasted47days» Engaged1.2millionAmericantroops» 120,000Americanskilledorwounded» Victoryinsight


• Berlinreadytohoistwhiteflag:– LookedtoWilsoninOctober1918forpeacebasedonFourteenPoints:• WilsondemandedKaiserberemovedbeforeanyarmisticecouldbenegotiated– War-wearyGermanstookhint– KaiserfledtoHolland,livedforhisremaining23years“unwept,unhonored,andunhung”

– ExhaustedGermanslaiddownarmsat11:00on11thdayof11thmonth,1918


• Costsexceededcomprehension:– 9millionsoldiersdied– 20millionsufferedgrievouswounds– 30millionpeoplediedininfluenzapandemicof1918-1919– morethan550,000Americans—morethantentimesnumberofU.S.combatcasualties—diedfromflu

• U.S.'smaincontributionstovictory:– Foodstuffs,munitions,credits– Oilforfirstmechanizedwar– Andmanpower,butnotbattlefieldvictories– Yanksfoughtonlytwomajorbattles—St.MihielandMeuse-Argonne,bothinlasttwomonthsoffour-yearwar,andwerestillfightinginlatterwhenwarended

Figure 29-2 p684


• ItwasprospectofendlessU.S.troopreserves,ratherthanAmerica'sactualmilitaryperformances,thateventuallydemoralizedGermans

• GeneralPershing'sarmy:– PurchasedmoresuppliesinEuropethanitshippedfrom

UnitedStates– Mostofitsartilleryandvirtuallyallitsaircraftprovidedby

BritainandFrance– UnitedStatesnoarsenalofdemocracyinthiswar

XX.WilsonStepsDownfromOlympus• Wilson'sroleinshapingpeace?

• Presidenttoweredatsummitofpopularityandpower:– Noothermanhadeveroccupiedsodizzyapinnacleasmoralleaderofworld

– Atthismoment,hissurenessoftouchdesertedhim,andhebegantomakeseriesoftragicfumbles

– HecalledforDemocraticcongressionalvictoryinelectionofNovember,1918:» Backfired,votersreturnednarrowRepublicanmajoritytoCongress

» WilsonwenttoParisasdiminishedleader

XX.WilsonStepsDownfromOlympus(cont.)

–Wilson'stripinfuriatedRepublicans:• Tothattime,nopresidenthadtraveledtoEurope

– Lookedtocriticslikegrandstanding• SnubbedSenateinassemblingpeacedelegation

– NeglectedtoincludeasingleRepublicansenatorindelegation

• LogicalchoicewouldhavebeennewchairmanofSenateCommitteeonForeignRelations:– HenryCabotLodgeofMassachusetts– WilsonloathedLodge,andfeelingwasreciprocated

XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists

• Wilsonreceivedtumultuouswelcomes:– FrommassesofFrance,England,Italy– ParisConference(January18,1919):• BigFour:Wilson,PremierOrlando(Italy),PrimeMinisterGeorge(Britain),PremierClemenceau(France)• Wilsonwantedtopreventvengefulparcelingofcoloniesandprotectoratesofvanquishedpowers• LessattentivetofateofcoloniesbelongingtovictoriousFrenchandEnglish

XXI.AnIdealistAmidtheImperialists(cont.)

• Victorsreceivedconqueredterritory(SyriatoFrance,IraqtoEngland)astrusteesofLeagueofNations– Basicallyprewarcolonialism– Infuture,anticolonialnationalistswouldwieldWilsonianidealofself-determinationagainstimperialoccupiers

• WilsonenvisionedLeagueasaworldparliament:– Anassemblyseatforallnations– Councilcontrolledbygreatpowers

• Signalvictory—whendiplomatsmadeLeagueintegralpartoffinalpeacetreaty


– ClemenceaupressedWilsonwithFrenchdemandsforrichcoalareaofSaarValley• Francefinallysettledforcompromise:• SaarValleywouldremainunderLeaguefor15years• Thenpopularvotewoulddetermineitsfate

–Wilson'snextbattlewithItalyoverFiume,avaluableseaporttoItalyandYugoslavia:• WilsonwantedFiumetogotoYugoslaviaandappealedoverheadsofItalianleaders• Maneuverfellflat


• Wilson'snextbattlewithJapan:– Duringwar,JapanseizedChina'sShandong(Shantung)PeninsulaandGermanislandsinPacific

– JapanreceivedPacificIslandsunderLeaguemandate– WilsonstronglyopposedJapanesecontrolofShandongasviolationofself-determinationforits30millionChinese

– Wilsonreluctantlyacceptedcompromise:» JapankeptGermany'seconomicholdingsinShandong» PledgedtoreturnpeninsulatoChinaatlaterdate» Chineseoutragedbyimperialisticsolution


• TreatyofVersailleshandedtoGermansinJune1919:

• HadbeenexcludedfromnegotiationsinParis• HopedforpeacebasedonFourteenPoints• Vengeance,notreconciliation,wastreaty'sdominanttone• LoudandbittercriesofbetrayalburstfromGermans

– ChargesAdolfHitlerwouldlateruse


• Wilsonguiltyofnoconsciousbetrayal:– Alliestornbyconflictingaims–WilsonhadtocompromisetogetanyagreementandespeciallytosalvageLeagueofNations

– Treatyhadmuchtocommendit:• Liberationofmillionsofminoritypeoples,e.g.Poles

XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification

• ReturningtoAmerica,Wilsonsailedstraightintopoliticaltyphoon– Isolationistsprotestedtreaty:• EspeciallyWilson'scommitmenttousherU.S.intonewLeagueofNations• SenatorsWilliamsBorah(Idaho),HiramJohnson(California)andotherswereirreconcilables– Rejectedany“entangling”alliance

XXII.Wilson'sBattleforRatification(cont.)

– CriticsshoweredTreatyofVersailleswithabuse• ForHun-haters,pactnotharshenough• Liberalsthoughtittooharsh—agrossbetrayal• “HyphenatedAmericans”arousedbecausepeacesettlementnotsufficientlyfavorabletonativelands– IrishAmericansfearedLeaguewouldempowerEnglandtocrushanymoveforIrishindependence


• StrongmajorityofpeoplefavoredTreaty– July1919,Lodgehadnorealhopeofdefeatingit• Hewantedonlytoamendit• To“Americanize,”“Republicanize,”or“senatorialize”it• Todividepublicopinion,Lodgereadentire264-pagetreatyaloudinSenateForeignRelationsCommitteeandheldprotractedhearingstoairgrievances


• Facedwithsuchdelayingtactics,Wilsondecidedtotakecasetonation:

• Spectacularspeechmakingtourundertakendespiteprotestsofphysiciansandfriends• Wilson'sfrailbodybegantosagunderstrainsof:

– Deathoffirstwifein1914– Partisanstrife– Globalwar– Stressfulpeaceconference


– TourbeganSeptember1919withlamestartinisolationiststrongholdsofMidwest

– RockyMountainregionandPacificCoastwelcomedhim:• Highpoint—andbreakingpoint—ofreturntripatPueblo,Colorado,Sept.25,1919• Withtearscoursingdown,WilsonpleadedforLeagueasonlyhopeofpreventingfuturewars• Thatnighthecollapsedfromphysicalandnervousexhaustion


• WhiskedbacktoWashington,whereseveraldayslaterhesufferedstroke– LaidindarkenedroominWhiteHouseforseveralweeks– Formorethan7months,hedidnotmeetcabinet

• SenatorLodgenowathelm:– Cameupwithfourteenformalreservations:• ReservedrightsofUnitedStatesunderMonroeDoctrineandConstitutiontoprotectU.S.sovereignty


–Wilsonstillstrongenoughtoobstruct:• SentwordtoalltrueDemocratstovoteagainsttreatywithLodgereservationsattached• Wilsonhopedthatwhenthesewereclearedaway,pathwouldbeopenedforratification• LoyalDemocratsinSenateonNovember19,1919didWilson'sbidding• Combiningwith“irreconcilables”,theyrejectedtreaty55to39

– Nationdeeplyshockedbyverdict


• InMarch1920treatybroughtupagainwithLodgereservationstackedon• WilsonagainsentwordtoloyalDemocratstovotedowntreatywithobnoxiousreservations• HethussigneddeathwarrantoftreatyasfarasAmericanswereconcerned• OnMarch19,1920,treatynettedsimplemajoritybutfailedtogetnecessarytwo-thirdsmajoritybycountof49yeasto35nays


• Whodefeatedtreaty?:– Lodge-Wilsonpersonalfeud,traditionalism,isolationism,disillusionment,andpartisanshipallcontributed

–Wilsonmustbearsubstantialshareofresponsibility• Heaskedforallornothing—andgotnothing

XXIII.The“SolemnReferendum”of1920

• “SolemnReferendum”—Wilson'ssolutiontodeadlockTreatywastodecideissueinpresidentialcampaignof1920

• RepublicansgatheredinChicago,June:– SenatebossesdecidedonSenatorWarrenG.Harding,Ohioascandidate

– Forvice-presidentnominatedCalvin(“SilentCal”)CoolidgeofMassachusetts

XXIII.The“SolemnReferendum”of1920(cont.)

– DemocratsmeetinSanFrancisco:• NominatedGovernorJamesM.CoxofOhio:

– StrongsupporterofLeague– RunningmateAssistantNavySecretaryFranklinD.Roosevelt

• DemocratsattemptedtomakeelectionareferendumonLeague• EffortmuddledbycontradictorystatementsbyHarding


– Electionreturns:• Newlyenfranchisedwomenswelledvotetotals• Hardinghadprodigiouspluralityofoversevenmillionvotes—16,143,407to9,130,328forCox• Largestvictorymargintodateinpresidentialelection• Electoralcountwas404to127• Debs,federalprisoner#9653atAtlantaPenitentiaryrolleduplargestSocialistvoteeverwith919,799


• Publicdesireforchangeresultedinrepudiationof“high-and-mighty”Wilsonism– Peopleeagertogobackto“normalcy”:• Willingtoacceptsecond-ratepresident—

– Gotthird-rateone• Harding'svictorydeathsentenceforLeague• PoliticiansincreasinglyshunnedLeagueasaleper

–WhenWilsondiedin1924—his“greatvision”ofleagueforpeacehadperishedlongbefore

XXIV.TheBetrayalofGreatExpectations

– America'sspurningofLeagueshort-sighted:• Republichadhelpedtowinwar,butfoolishlykickedfruitsofvictoryundertable• Leagueundercutbyrefusalofmightiestpoweronglobetojoinit• UltimatefailurelayatAmerica'sdoor-step• Leaguedesigned,alongwithfourotherpeacetreaties,torestuponUnitedStates

XXIV.TheBetrayalofGreatExpectations(cont.)

– SenatespurnedSecurityTreatywithFrance:• Francethenundertooktobuildpowerfulmilitary• ThusGermanybegantorearmillegally

– UnitedStateshurtitsowncausewhenitburieditsheadinsand• U.S.shouldhaveassumedwar-bornresponsibilitiesandembracedroleofgloballeader• Shouldhaveuseditsstrengthtoshapeworldevents

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