William D. Hyder and Dorothy Bohntinsky · William D. Hyder and Dorothy Bohntinsky Thirty-one years...
Transcript of William D. Hyder and Dorothy Bohntinsky · William D. Hyder and Dorothy Bohntinsky Thirty-one years...
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RitualandRockArtinBasketmakerCeremonies:ButlerWashRevisitedWilliamD.HyderandDorothyBohntinsky
Thirty-oneyearsago,WilliamStrangeintroducedpoetryintorockartstudiesat
theAmericanRockArtResearchAssociationconferenceinSantaBarbara,California.Strangecontendedthatinterpretationrequiredalayered,textured,andcomplementaryblendofvoicesalignedtotellacoherentstory.InspiredbyStrange’sabilitytoseeanewwithoutblindersimposedbycurrentcanon,WilliamD.Hyder(2002)exploredselectedBasketmakersitesinUtah’sGrandGulchthroughthelensofRappaport’s(1999)theoryofritualandhumanity.
AccordingtoHustonSmith,renownauthorityonworldreligions,Rappaport’s
“breakthroughbookontheacademicstudyofreligion”arguesthat“religion[andritual]hasbeencentraltoevolutionsincethehumanspeciesappearedandwillcontinuetobecentraltoanyculturaladvancewemayachievefromthistimeforward”(Smith2001:157).Interpretativeapproachestorockarthaveevolvedoverthepast200years,sometimesinsynchwithandoftenincontrasttoevolutionaryadvancesinanthropologicalandarchaeologicaltheory.Popularthemes—huntingmagic,artforart’ssake,animism,semioticanalysis,landscapetheory,archaeoastronomy,andshamanismtonameafew—oscillatebetweenscientificrigorandthecreativityofpostmodernhumanism.
DorothyBohntinskyexpressesmanyofherperceptionsandinterpretive
explorationsofrockartthroughthecreativecadenceofpoetry.“Herpoeticofferingstorockartblendtogetherherworkasaspeechlanguagepathologist,doctoraltrainingandordinationininterfaithdivinity,herroleasawifeandparent,andherexperiencesasahealeraroundloss”(HyderandBohntinsky2016:4).
Mostoftenweseeasiteinpieces;rarelyasawholebecauseweknowsolittleabouttheartistsandtheirinspirations.Andwewouldaddthatweoftenknowsolittleaboutourownselvesandwhatigniteshunches.
In2002,Hyderproposedthat“[t]akingamoregeneralapproachbasedonthe
natureandfunctionofritualallowsonetoexplorehowrockartassumesitsrolewithinceremony,howitacquiresandcommunicatessymbolicinformation,andwhyitevolveswithsocialchange.Thefocusonritualalsoemphasizestheimportanceofthearchaeologicalcontextwhenethnographicinformationislacking.Rockarttakesitsmeaningfromtheritualsorothersocialcontextsassociatedwithitscreation;meaningisnotinherentinthesymbolsthemselves”(2002:44).
Schødt(1986)contendsthatitisimpossibletoexploremeaningwith
meaningfulness(speakingspecificallytoreligiousmeaning)intheabsenceof
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appropriateculturalethnographyorculturalanalogs.Lewis-Williams(2001),ontheotherhand,concludesthatfocusedpolysemyandmultivocalitycanmoveusforwardinourquestformeaning.Sohowcanweavoidthepessimismoftheimpossibilityofknowingandembracethepromiseoffindingrelevantvoicestoexploremeaning?
Whatmighthappenifanarchaeologistwithexpertiseinrockartandaspeech
languagepathologistwithexpertiseinimprovingcognitionandcommunicationandadoctorateofministryandordinationinmulti-denominationaldivinitycombinedtheirexperiencestoexploremeaning?Whilewritingandproducingabookaboutbeingengagedwithrockartthroughessay,poetry,andphotography(HyderandBohntinsky2016),wediscoveredthatsuchlayeringofexpertiseoffersaformofevidence-basedpracticethattakesintoaccount1)bestevidencefromresearch2)expertise3)resourcesand4)theneedsandperceptionsofthesubject.
Ourapproachenhancesobservationandexpandsinsightinordertogenerate
themostoptimalquestionsandaggregateevidenceregardlessofthefieldofpractice.WethenengagedinwhatIndologistscallrationalinquiry,andJohannesBronkhorstdefinesasincludinga"systemofrationaldebate,linkedtoasystematicattempttomakesenseoftheworldandourplaceit.Thisprimarilyinvolvesfreeanduninhibiteddiscussionofallissues,evenintheareasthatmightencroachuponothersourcesofauthority,suchastradition,revelation,orinsight"(Wallace2007:83).
Wecametounderstandthismethodofinvestigationasaformofalignment.This
inspiredustoexplorethepossibilitythatsuchanalignmentcouldbuildonourcombinedexperiencesofbeingengagedwithrockart.Weexploredselectedsitesinafocusedattempttoalignscientificobservationsandclinicalknowledgewiththepoeticvoiceofmulti-denominationaldivinity.Mightthisbeoneformofmultivocality?
ButlerWash
Weselected2sitestotestourprocess:theBigKachinaPanelandtheProcessionPanellocatedalongButlerWashnearBluff,Utah.Botharewellknowntorockartenthusiasts.TheformerisconsideredapremierexampleoftheSanJuanBasketmakerIIstyledatingtoapproximately500B.C.toA.D.500,whilethelatterisgenerallyconsideredtobeBasketmakerIII/PuebloIaroundA.D.700orlater(Robins1997).TheBigKachinaPanelisrecognizedasanexampleofshamanisticthemesinBasketmakerrockart(Schaafsma1980,1994),ethnicsignalingatresidentialfarminglocations(Robins1997),orceremonialiconography(Hyder2002).TheProcessionPanelisanoutstandingexampleofprocessionfiguresrecognizedascommontotheChinleRepresentationalStyleoftheBMIII/PIperiod(RobinsandHays-Gilpin2000).
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Schaafsma(1980:114)citestheBigKachinaandassociatedpetroglyphpanelslocatedalongthebanksoftheSanJuanRiverateithersideofthemouthofButlerWashas“spectaculardisplays”oftheSanJuanAnthropomorphic(SJA)style.Thedramaticappearance,sharpcontrastcreatedbythedesertpatina,andriverlocationaddtothesite’smystique.Yet,asFramer(1992)notes,about80percentormoreoftheSJArockartsitesarepainted.FewotherexamplesofSJApetroglyphpanelsareknownbesidesthosefoundalongthisstretchoftheSanJuanRiver.Visitorstodayarestruckbythepowerofthefiguresastheygazeupwardfromtheirvantagepointsatthebaseofthecliff.Yet,thatisnothowtheyweremeanttobeseen.
Ihadonceimaginedlisteningforanswerswhilesittingcross-leggedfarbeneaththesefigures.Thenyouexplainedhowthelandscapechanged,oncealluvialfieldsthatplacedthemateyelevel.So,dreamingaboutflyingIroseaboveinordertocometotheseimagesface-to-face. Indigenousritualisoftenactiveparticipationwhilemodernritualinvolvesapassiveaudienceforchoirs,sermons,sacredtext,andprayer.WhatwouldhappenifIalignedmymindtoinvitethevisualperceptionofaction?ThatishowIcametoseeitdifferently.Thebigonesinfrontwiththesmallonesbehindbroughtforthanewdimensionofperception.Suddenly,Inolongersawtheminstaticposeeachdecoratedimageseparateanddistinct.Aligneduponanimaginarywavyplanetheysuddenlymovedintoanewformation.Theretheyare,activefiguresmovingforwardinaprocessioncomingoutofthefaceofrock.ItriedtoreturntoseeingthispanelasifIwastheaudienceobservingancientartfrozenintime.ButnowIcouldonlyseetheeternalmovementofthesepeopleproceedingforward.Ishowedanotherwhothenexperiencedthesame.AndnowIwonderifIwilleverseeinertiaagain.Orwillrockartnowbringtomindritualinaction?
Visitorstypicallyapproachthepanelstodayfromtheriverorbyfour-wheel
drivealongthenarrownorthernbankoftheSanJuan.Approachingonfoot,theriverstilllimitsone’sabilitytoviewthepanel.Theriver,however,haschangeditscourseoverthepast2,000years,creatinganderodingalluvialfansasitflows
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throughitswidechannelbeforereachingthemeanderingconfinesoftheMonumentUpwarp(AtonandMcPherson2000).Farupstream,theNavajoDamlimitsandcontrolstheriverbehaviorthatweexperiencetoday.Attheendofthe1800s,wewouldhavestoodonabroadalluvialfloodplainclosertoeyelevelwiththeButlerWashpanels.
Robins(1997)proposesthealluvialflansupportedextensivesubirrigatedfields
thatanchoredBasketmakersubsistencestrategiesintheregion.ANavajofarmer,JimJoe,isreportedtohavebeengrowing10to12tonsofcornatthemouthofButlerWashin1904(AtonandMcPherson2000:85).WedoubttheBasketmakerwereeverthatproductive,butrecenthistorydemonstratesthepotentialofthesiteasasignificantplaceforBasketmakeragriculturalefforts.WhetherothersiteattributestypicallyfoundassociatedwithSJArocksuchashabitationevidence,storagecysts,andburialswerepresentcannotbeknownbecausethefloodingthatcreatedaggradinganddegradingeventswouldhavewashedawaymostofthearchaeologicalevidence.
TheProcessionPanelsiteisdifferent.Itbecamepopularwiththeintroductionof
hikingguidesandthegeneralgrowthinthereputationofCedarMesaandButlerWashasarockartdestination.Thepanel,firstdescribedinprintbyManning(1992),appearstodaymuchasitdidatthetimeofitscreationapproximately1,300yearsago.LocatednearthecrestofCombRidge,about10milesabovethemouthofButlerWash,theariddrawinwhichitisfoundofferslittletoattractattentionorhabitation.
SmallcliffdwellingsandotherPueblositesarehiddeninotherfoldsanderoded
channelsinthesandstonespinethatseparatesCedarMesafromtheNorthernSanJuanlandstotheeast.HandandtoeholdsextendingdownthewesternfaceofCombRidgeindicatethattheProcessionravinewasonepointofcrossing.Seeminglyrandomplacementsofpetroglyphsnearbyinassociationwithwhatmighthavebeenrectangular,low-walleddefinedspacesalonganopenclifffaceleadingtothesitearesuggestiveofprayerseatsorherradurassometimesfoundinassociationwithritualroads(McPherson2009:52).ShrineshiddenonandamongdistinctiveoutcropsalongtheCombsuggestthatsomesitesmightwellberitualdestinationsmuchastoday’shikersmaketheirownpilgrimagestothesesites.
Doesthelandholdtheentirestorywithineachgrain?Ifwearemadeofthedustoftheearth,isthecommondenominatorwhatweingest?Doeswatercombinedwithsoilandseednurtureourspiritalongwithourbodythroughnutrientsandunspokenmemories?Iamgladthat,eventhoughjustforamoment,IwasbarefootattheProcessionPanel.
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TheKachinaPanelsThestarkcontrastofthelightlypatinatedexposedsandstonesubstratewiththe
blue-blackdesertvarnishcommandsourattention.Thereare,however,otherequallydramaticpanelsthatlackorhavelostthedarkervarnishrindandthereforeattractlessattention.Insomeinstances,distinguishingonepanelfromanotherisanarbitraryexerciseofthepresentdayrecorder.Inotherinstances,naturalfeaturescreategapsthatwouldseemtoindicateactuallociofdifferentartisticefforts.Wasthereonepointoffocusinthepastordodifferentpanelsrepresentshiftinglociofceremonialinterestoractivitiesovertime?
Figure 1: Panel 1 at the Lower Butler Wash rock art panel.
Panel1atthepopularraftlandingalongtheSanJuanRiveratButlerWash
measuresapproximately12meterslongby2metershigh.ImagerystretchesfromtheArchaictoPuebloperiods,butthevisuallydominateelementsareprimarilyBasketmaker,thelargestalmosttwometershigh.WesingledouttheBasketmakerimageryinourdrawingincluding18anthropomorphsofvaryingsizeswithinterspersedceremonialobjects.Althoughshownasasingleimage,variouselementsmaypredateorpostdateourfocusonthedistinctiveanthropomorphs.Sixfiguresaredefinitelymaleasindicatedbythepresenceofgenitalia.Allbuttwofigureshavesomeformofheaddressandallarefacingtheviewer.
Figure 2: Panel 2 at the Lower Butler Wash rock art panel.
Panel2includes31anthropomorphs,afewobviouslymale,butthedeterioratedsurfaceanddenseroccurrenceofoverlappingimagesmakeitmoredifficulttocleanlyseparatetherelevantBasketmakerimages.Thepanelmeasuresapproximately9meterlongby1.5metershigh.Athoroughrecordingoftheareawouldincludemorepanelsofvaryingsizes,butthesetwopanelsaresufficienttoillustratetheSJAstylepetroglyphsfoundaroundthemouthofButlerWash.
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Robbins(1997)identifiedthemouthofButlerWashasthesiteofregional
ceremoniesbasedontheassociationoflargeSJApanelswithproductiveagriculturalsitesaswellasthedifferentialdistributionofdistinctiveheaddressesonthelargeanthropomorphicfigures.Afterfurtherconsideration,herefinedhisinterpretativeschemebyinvokingHayden’s(1998)frameworkofcompetitivefeasting,aggrandizingheadmen,andprestigetechnologies.Towit,dynamicindividualsusedexcessagriculturalproductiontoenhancetheirwealthandpowerovertheirownandnearbycommunities.
WhilesomeBasketmakerburialsexhibitdifferencesingravegoodsthatindicate
adegreeofwealthorelitestatus(GumermanandDean1989:113),wearguethatthereislittleevidenceofsufficientquantitiesoftradeitemsthatwouldberecognizeddefinitivelyasprestigegoods.Indeed,GumermanandDean(1989:112)findlittleevidencefor“higherlevelsofceremonialorganizationthatdevelopedlateron.”
Prestigegoodsallowagriculturalsurplusthatwouldotherwiserequiredefensiblestoragetobetransformedintomoremobileformsofwealth.Robinsasksiftherockartpanelsmightclassifyasprestigeitems,butHayden(1998:16)mostlyviewsrockartassomethingusedinritualcontextsmeanttobindmembersofalliancescoveringlargeareas.“[T]heyarelowinfrequencyand/orcostandcertainlydidnotinvolvemajoramountsofgroupsurplusesandwerenotpredicatedonsurplus-basedcompetition.”
Robins(2002:392)revisedhisproposalthatdistinctiveheadgearisanemblematicindicatorofsocialboundariesandinsteadproposesthattheyarerelatedtoritualwarfareandscalping(sensuFarmer1997).Evidenceofscalping,full-headscalps,andapparenttrophyheadsinrockartsupporttheproposition.Hyder(2002),however,proposesanalternativeinterpretation:themountedhumanscalpsandsimilarlymountedbirdskinsareindicatorsofasocietyorcult(cf.HowardandJanetski1992:131).Theevidencecansupporteitherinterpretation.
Wetherill’sCave7,locatedinWhiskersDrawnotfarnorthofButlerWash(Hurst
andTurner1993),isoftencitedasevidenceforBasketmakerwarfareandscalping.HurstandTurner(1993:171)concludethattheburialsweretheresultofamassacre:“Thefirststratigraphically-identifiedBasketmakershadbeenmassivelybeaten,mutilated,scalped,andprobablytortured.”RobinsrightfullydrawsonthelocalevidencetobuildhisproposedcompetitiveheadmanmodelandtheprevalenceofviolentexpressionsofpowerinBasketmakersociety.TheimportanceoftherediscoveredCave7moveditfromobscuritytoprominenceinachangingviewofBasketmakersocialrelationsandthepredominanceofviolentconflict.
Are-assessmentofCave7burialsbasedonstableisotopeanalysisand
acceleratorradiocarbondatingdemonstratestheburialswerenottheresultofamassacre.Instead,theywereinterredoveraperiodof500years(Coltrain,etal.
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2012).“Parsimonydictatesthatratherthanasingle,anomalousmassacre,violentdeathsamongCave7burialsaremorereasonablyattributedtoepisodicactsofviolencebetweenalliedmales…(ibid.2229).”RatherthanchangingourassumptionsaboutthenatureofBasketmakersocialorganization,Cave7appearstobeconsistentwithGumermanandDean’s(1989)propositionthatsocialrelationsweremarkedbyepisodesofcooperationandconflictinresponsetolocalizedenvironmentalextremes.
Evidenceforproposedcompetitivefeastingsites,asnotedaboveforthemouthofButlerWash,wouldhavelongsincedisappearedowingtotherepeatedepisodesoferosionandaggradationatthemostlikelyproductiveagriculturallocations.EvidencefromCave7isweakerthanhasbeenassumed,butitdoessupport“competitivesocialdifferentiationlikelyheightenedduringperiodsofresourceshortfallleadingtointra-groupconflict,raiding,andperhapsritualizedactsofviolence(Coltrain,etal.2012:2220).”WhilenotrejectingRobins’proposed“bigman”competitionmodeloutofhand,wecanresolvethelackofevidenceandambiguousdatabyturningtothemoregeneralmodelofritualactivityasproposedbyHyder(2002).
DevelopingBasketmakerfamily-basedsocialgroupsreliedonadaptingamaize
agriculturesubsistencestrategyastheymovedintomarginalenvironmentsintheSanJuanregionoftheSouthwest.Whileweknowlittleoftheiractualroots,wecanassumetheyconfrontedtheproblemsofenvironmentalstress,resourceconflicts,andepisodicintra-groupviolencewithritualsdesignedtoreducetheimpactsofconflictandtoenhanceethnicsimilaritiesthatboundthemasanemergingculturalidentity."AccordingtoHarveyWhitehouse,theesteemedOxfordanthropologist,ritualsarethe‘gluethatholdsocialgroupstogether.’Evenmicrocosmsappeartoexhibitritualbehaviorsasawaytotransmitinformationandknowledge....Ritualscreateaprimitiveformofunityconsciousness,whereallofthebrainsinagroupbegintofireinsimilarways.Theyallowustolosethedistinctionbetweenselfandotherandfeelanintenseonenessorconnectionstoeverything”(NewbergandWaldman2016:227).
Ignitedbysensationswithintheabsenceofjudgment,Ithinkofthatstateofbeingwhereconcernsdisappearintosomedelicateflameofintimatecontentment.CanIreturntherebytakinginartfromthisperspectiveofintimacy?So,Itrieditwhilegazinguponmyownpaintingshanginguponmyownwalls;one'sowncreationsoftenthemostdifficultnottojudge.Suddenly,Inolongersawindividualdetailsbutenteredintooneandthenanothermuchdifferently.ThisishowIbegantounderstandritualmoredeeply;whensomethingisengagedintheabsenceofthevocabularyofjudgmentandcriticism.
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Suddenly,theordinarythathassurroundedmefordecadesbecameextraordinaryassomethingnewclickedin.Itisbeyondmerelyengagingsomeelement,beitorganicorinorganic,butasifsomethinginmebecamealignedwithit.Thatiswhenanewthoughtcametome:alliance.
RobinsidentifiesimportantelementsintheButlerWashpanels.Thedistinctive
anthropomorphsandtheirheadgearlikelyrepresenthistoricallysignificantindividualsrepresentingalliedfamilygroups.Weacceptthattheytravelledrelativelygreatdistancesforthetimetogatherataplaceofextraordinaryresourceproductivityforceremonialactivities.Whatroledoestherockartplay?Indocumentingrituals,rockartservestodistinguishordinaryspacefromextraordinaryspace(Rappaport1999:210).
TheevolutionofRobins’thinkingdemonstratesthedifficultywithrockart
interpretation.Seeminglypowerfulanthropologicalmodelsoftensuccumbtoproblemswithfuzzyevidence.Canweevaluatethevalidityofoneinterpretationoveranotherwhenrelyingonweakandambiguousdata?Amoregeneralizedmodel—inourcaseonebasedonritual—intheabsenceofspecificethnographicorotherreliablephysicalevidencehelpsusunderstandthemultitudeofwaysrockartmightfunctionwithinasocietyregardlessofwhichinterpretativestoryoneprefers.
StartingwithRobins’suppositionthatthemouthofButlerWashwasaproductiveagriculturalareasupportingperiodicfeastsbringingtogetherwidelyspreadgroups,howmightwere-conceptualizetherockart?Ifritualdistinguishesordinaryspacefromextraordinaryspace,thenwecanviewthepanelswiththelarge,distinctiveanthropomorphsasrecordsofritualsperformedduringfeasts.Ritualplaysaroleinsocietytoreduceconflictandsupportinter-andintra-groupcohesion.Whenviewedanew,thepanelsrepresentritualparticipantsmarchingtowardstheviewer,closeractorslarger,moredistantactorssmaller.Inourconception,thepanelsatfirstdocumentactionandintimecommemorateactionbeforeevolvingintoanactive,mythicbackdropforfutureceremonies.
Seeingthefiguresinactionandmovingforwardmaybesimilartovisual
interpretationbasedonfigure/groundsegregationexplainedbyBruceBridgeman(2003).Hediscussesartistic"tricks"wheredoubleinterpretationsexistand“[t]heperceptionisbistable,witheachalternativesuppressingtheother;onlyonesolutionisallowedatatime."Nottogointohowthishappens,itmaybeimportanttonotethatwhenitdoeshappen"theimagepropertiesreactwithinternalcuesofvisualanalysistoyieldtheperception."Inorderforthiskindofvisualinterpretationtooccur,thevisualimages"mustallworksimultaneouslyinparallel"(Bridgeman2003:258-261).While,wecanneverknowifthisbistableperceptionoftheBigKachinapanelwascreatedpurposely,figure/groundsegregationdoesexist.
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Thelinesweresomuchdeeperwhenpeckedoutamillenniumago.Thelanguageandritualpracticesoftheartistsocleartotheaudiencethenhavefewabsolutesnow.Yet,theremustbesomethingveryuniversalbecauseIlongtotouchthisevenmorenowthatyouhaveraisedsuchquestions.Thistakesmetoanotherquestion.Doesthisarttransportmetoaplaceofartisticthoughtwherereasonbowstocreativeimaginationthroughthesenses?AmIsuddenlywithinavirtualrealitywheremysterysilencesvocabulary,makinginsightandanalysisneedless?Whatdoesitmeantoexplorerockartthisway?AmIencouragingmymindtobecomecreative?
TheProcessionPanel
TheProcessionPanelissituatedonapatinatedverticalsurfacenearthetopend
ofanimpressivesheercliffthatdefinesthenorthernflankofthedrawleadingtothepanel.Thepanel’slocationaffordsaviewtoboththeeasternandwesternexpansesdemarcatedbyCombRidge.TheactualpathcrossingtheCombsitswellbelowthepanelinthedrawandissymbolicallydefinedbyhandandtoeholdsleadingupthewesternfaceoftheCombandalineofhandandtoeholdsrunningalongahorizontalstretchofslickrocknearthemouthofthedrawleadingtothesitefromtheeast.OthersymbolicpathshavebeenrecordedelsewhereinButlerWash(McPherson2009:51).Thesenon-rockartfeaturesemphasizetheapparentimportanceofprocessionimageryandceremonialpathsor(later)roads.
TheProcessionPanelextendsapproximately7metersateye-levelacrossthe
northernwalloftheravine.Standingatthepanel,onelooksdownintothefloorofthedrawwheretravelerswouldhaveactuallywalked.Thepanelwouldnothavebeenvisibleunlessthevisitorsmadetheefforttoclimbuptoseethepanel.Approximately200figuresapproachalargecirclefromtheeast,west,andsouth.Otheranthropomorphsandzoomorphsapproachfromthelowersoutheasternquadrant.Howthelaterfiguresrelatetotheprocessionthemeandwhethertheyarecontemporaneousisworthyoffurtherdiscussion.Groundpitsatdistinctivepointsonthesefigurescanbefoundonselectedpanelsthroughouttheregionandlikelyindicatealaterceremonialre-useoftherockart.
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Figure 3: Procession Panel.
EnvironmentalchangesinthecenturiesthatfellbetweentheBigKachinaandProcessionPanelforcedtheBasketmakerstofurtherrefinetheirrelianceonagriculture.Theproductivealluvialfanserodedandfarmersmovedawayfromtheriverastheyselectedseedcornbetteradaptedtodryframingandincreasedtheirrelianceonhunting,bolsteredbythemoreefficientbowandarrowtechnology.Beansandpotteryintroducedanothersourceofproteinintotheirdiet.Familiesgatheredintorudimentaryhamletsthatrequiredthemtodevelopnewleadershiphierarchiesaslocalpopulationdensitiesincreased.Inadditiontotechnologicaladvances,somelargerhamletsorlocalcommunitiesbuiltlargecommunalstructuressuchasdancecirclesandproto-greatkivas.
Currentthoughtsupposesthecreationofnewritualschangingthefocusfrom
geo-centrismtosocio-centrism(Wilshulsen,Ortman,andPhillips2012:209).Rappaport(1999:32)wouldarguethatnewritualsaregroundedinexistingritualortheywilllikelyfail.Wilshulsen,etal.buildonRobinsandHays-Gilpin(2000)tosuggestthechangesinrockart“impliesashiftintheaspectsofsociallifedeemedmostsalient,fromanearlyfocusonshamanismandritesofpassagetoalaterfocusongroupritual.”
WetakeadifferentapproachandproposethatthelocationofBasketmakerII
feastingceremoniesmovedtomoreproductivedry-farminglocalitiesasalluvialfanseroded.Bythetimeclimatechangesagainfavoredtheformationofalluvialfans,thelocationsofritualshadchanged,buttheunderlyingbasisforcommunityritualfeastingandceremonieshadnot.Withrenewedagriculturalproductivityhelpingfuelpopulationgrowthinspiredbyaggregatingpopulations,oldritualsevolvednewcharacteristics.Perhapsephemeraldancecircleshadalwaysexistedandwerenowdefinedwithslab-linedwallsthatarevisibleinthearchaeologicalrecord.Dance
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circlesmayhaveeventuallybeenreplacedwithsubterraneankivasmodeledafterpithouses.Danceandceremonymovedunderground.
SisterMaryJoséHobday,aSenecaelderandworldlecturerconsideredbymany
tohavebeenanexpertonNativeTribalNationsritual,contendstherearethreegreattraditionswithvariationsamongtribes.Thesearethevisionquest,sweating,anddancing.“Thehighestformofritualisthedance.”In2004,BohntinskyspentfivedaysunderhertutelageandlearnedthatwhenwearethinkingNativeAmericanritual,wemustthinkcircular.AccordingtoHobday,itismoreembracingandharmonizing(Bohntinsky2016:101-102.).
Thedirections(north,east,south,west,up,down,andwithin)areintegrated
intothecircle.Inthisway“allhaveanequalviewandequalpowerwiththeintentionofrecreatingamindfulconsciousness.”Thedanceisawayofhonoringaccomplishmentsanddoingsomethingextraforthestrengthandthepower.Thebodyisconsideredtobean“amazingmusicalinstrumentthatmovesinmelody,harmony,andrhythm.”Thedanceisconsideredtobethe“highestwaythatbody,mind,spirit,psyche,andallartistictalentsmovetogetherinwaysthatcanhealandrebuildtheindividualandcommunity…Eventheanimalswereinvitedintothedancebymakingtheanimal’ssound”(Bohntinsky2016:102).
TheProcessionPanelcommemoratesonesuchceremonialgatheringthatmusthavebecomearegulareventowingtoitslocationatadistinctivesitepermanentlymarkedbyapathgroundintobedrock,somethingrepeatedatotherlocationsintheregion.Whilethefiguresarenolongerheraldicnormarchingtowardstheviewer,theprocessionlinesarearitualformofdanceandtheanimalsaremovinginunisonaswell.
ThelocationofthepanelonthesummitoftheCombisunusualasevidenceof
BMIIIsitestothewestoftheridgeissparsewhilevibrant,largecommunitiesarefoundtotheeast.Nevertheless,evidenceformultipleclansorlineagesbeingpresentinthepanelcanbefoundintherockartofthewesternregion.PossiblythearchaeologicalsignaturesoftheBMIII/PItransitionwerelesswelldefinedtothewestorpopulationsweremuchsmaller.Oneanalysisofthepanelsuggeststheceremonialparticipantscomingfromtheeastrepresentmuchlargerhouseholdsthanthosefromthewest(Throgmorton2016).Theparticipationofgroupsfromthewestinthegreaterregionalceremonialcyclesremainedacriticalcomponenttogeographicalandsocialwellbeing.
WebelieveRobinswascorrectinhisinitialinterpretationoflineageidentities
beingrepresentedindistinctiveattributesofanthropomorphicfigures.Distinctiveattributesincludeonearmupandonearmdown,astylisticattributefoundtotheeastinHovenweepandtothewestinGrandGulch(Hyder2004:96-97).ExamplesofthedistinctivepostureextendintothePuebloperiod.Bird-headedfiguresareubiquitousthroughouttheregion,andfigurescarryingstaffsaremorerestrictedintheirappearance.
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Figure 4: Examples of the one arm/one arm down figures on the west and east sides of the Procession Panel and representative examples from Grand Gulch (west) and Hovenweep (east).
TheProcessionPanelreflectsthechangingnatureofthecommunalceremonies.
WheretheBigKachinaPanelmarks,commemorates,andplaysanimportantroleintheceremonialactivities,theProcessionPanelmarksandcommemoratesonesignificantwaypointonthepathtotheceremoniallocationorCenterPlace.Van-Dyke(2008:63-70)proposestheBasketmakerpast“figuredprominentlyintheconstructionofChacoanideologyandworldview.”Furtherexplorationofthisideaisthetopicforanotherpaper,butweargueherethattherootsoftheprocessionalceremoniescanbefoundintheemergenceofBasketmakerIIritual.Conclusion
In2006,Bohntinsky’sdissertationexplainedherdevelopmentandvalidationofamulti-denominationalprocessofproblemsolvingthatenhancescreativethinkingbyintegratingcognitionwithemotionalawareness(layeringreasonwithinspiration).“Eachperson’scurrentsituationisalwayschangingbecausealllivingbeingsareonewithnature.Lifeisnature,andnatureischange.Changehappensonalllevelsfromthemicroscopicquarksandphotonstomacroscopicplanetsandgalaxies.However,mankindisresistanttochange.Thisresistancecanresultinadeepsorrowthatcanleadtoanaggressiveholdingontopastperceptionsregardinghowlifeoughttobe.Thisholdingoniscounterproductivetonatureandcanresultindestruction;destructionofself-esteem,relationships,thelandandwater,andevenEarthherself”(Bohntinsky2016:83).Individualandcommunityritualprovidesastabilizingspace,innerandouter,thatcanpromotesuccessfuladaptation
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tochangebyhelpingtomanagetheaccompanyingstressinthemostoptimallycreativeways.
Bohntinskyconcludesthatwhenpeoplelearntouseallthatlifebringsandview
changeasanopportunitytogrowinunderstandingandcompassion,humanitycanlearntocommunicateinwaysthatarebenevolenttoall.ThisalignswithHobday’steachingsthat“thespaceofritualisthatplacewherethewaytoproceedisneveroffereddirectlyinverbalteachings.Thewayofritualprovidesuswithopportunitiestoembodytheessenceofeverythingaspartofourspiritandsoul.”Bohntinskywrites,“ItismyexperiencethatritualistheembodimentoflifeandtheexpressionofwhatIam,andthisritualizedembodimentconnectsmetotheEarth”(Bohntinsky2016:122).
Thisisnotastaticprocessthatdemandsstrictadherencetotradition,butas
Parson’snotedinPuebloIndianReligion:“Andsoritescombineandrecombine,theriteitselffixedorconventionalbutthecombinationlessrigid;indeedtheelasticityofPuebloritualiseversomarvelous”(Parsons1996:478).Suchcouldbeconsideredalayeringapproachthatintegratespresentconditionswithancientpractices.
"Life is a journey, not a destination." Imagine my surprise in discovering that a quote attributed to modern sages is credited to Ralph Waldo Emerson. Yet not getting caught up in authorship, I want to stay with some emerging question. The design of The Big Kachina and Procession Panel, so different in how lines portray humans, can still suggest something consistent when viewed as action. What might these designs be communicating that is so important to have carved the message into stone? Do such images offer layers of possibility when ritual can be sifted for broader interpretations that might set one upon a new journey towards historical truth and authentic tradition? When the sieve becomes the concept of movement ritual can be perceived as voluntary repetitive action within this never-ending journey. And if such behaviors coincide often enough with some Force of nature revealing Its pleasant side, the mind might just journey into the imagination where actions become sacred and symbolized through word and image. Then when group participation heightens natural prosperity, continuing repetitive actions along with conscious intent
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evolves neural pathways for engaging this force. Is this how new levels of intention might evolve through intellection in order to align the mind and body with this Force? When continued success is experienced through complexity, the mind's quest turns to simplifying approaches and methods. It makes sense that the creation of a simpler process of ritual that still successfully merges conscious intention with action frees individuals to use their time for movement differently. Maybe this is the transformation of very involved rituals into meditation where gazing upon the images of the acts of ritual combined with silent words of intent becomes sufficient. The sacred remains in everyday life even though greater time can be spent on comforts; maybe, even for building grander dwellings and kivas like at Chaco Canyon. Yet, the beginnings of such a progression of a people's evolution in merging their movements with this mysterious Force remain upon these stone faces for any to ponder and then consider remnants existing in actions within modern societies on the perpetual journey of life. Yet, such an exploration can only begin by entertaining a new idea – that images such as these might portray rituals of a people engaged in unified complex movements. The intent is not to come to a conclusion or destination; it is to continue on the journey of discovery.
Inthispaper,wehaveattemptedtoexploreanddemonstratehowlayeringour
knowledgeandunderstandingcanhelpustosee“anewwithoutblindersimposedbycurrentcanon.”Thisishowwehavecometoconsidercertainpiecesofrockart,liketheProcessionPanelandBigKachinaPanel,asdocumentingritualpracticesthatbroughtpeopletogetherforbenevolentpurposesandhadalastingimpactonthedevelopmentofPueblosocieties.Together,usingthisprocessofmultivocality,wewillcontinuetoexplorethemesofritualinotherrockartimages.ReferencesCited:Aton,JamesM.andRobertS.McPherson2000RiverFlowingfromtheSunrise:AnEnvironmentalHistoryoftheLowerSanJuan,UtahStateUniversityPress,Logan,UT.
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Acknowledgements:WewanttothankthedepartedSisterMaryJoséHobdayforherteachings.ShewastheinstructorofNativeTribalRitualfortheDoctorateofMinistryprogramattheWisdomSchoolofGraduateStudiesatUbiquityUniversity,SanFrancisco.BohntinskyattendedthiscourseSeptember20–24,2004inWashingtonD.C.,whichincludedtheclass’sparticipationintheceremoniesandgrandNativeNationsProcessionduringtheopeningoftheSmithsonian’sNationalMuseumoftheAmericanIndian.