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2018Vol.2 No.1:3

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Research Article

Journal of Food Science and Toxicology

© Under License of Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License | This article is available in: http://www.imedpub.com/journal-food-science-toxicology/

IS Bisht1*, PS Mehta1, KS Negi1, Rajni Rawat1, Ranjana Singh1 and SC Garkoti2

1 ICAR-NationalBureauofPlantGeneticResources,RegionalStation,Bhowali(Nainital)-263132,Uttarakhand,India

2 SchoolofEnvironmentalSciences,JawaharlalNehruUniversity,NewMehrauliRoad,NewDelhi-110067,India

*Corresponding author: ISBisht

bishtis@rediffmail.com

ICAR-NationalBureauofPlantGeneticResources,RegionalStation,Bhowali(Nainital)-263132,Uttarakhand,India.

Tel:+91-9873425491

Citation:BishtIS,MehtaPS,NegiKS,RawatR,SinghR,etal.(2017)WildPlantFoodResourcesinAgriculturalSystemsofUttarakhandHillsinIndiaandItsPotentialRoleinCombatingMalnutritionandEnhancingHumanHealth. JFoodSciToxicolVol.2No.1:3

Wild Plant Food Resources in Agricultural Systems of Uttarakhand Hills in India and Its

Potential Role in Combating Malnutrition and Enhancing Human Health

Received: October27, 2017; Accepted: January31, 2018;Published: February07,2018

Abstract Foodsecurity todaydependsonahandfulofwidelycultivatedspecies.On theotherhand,wildfoodresources,worldover,provideagreaterdietarydiversitytomanynativecommunitieswhodependonthem.InUttarakhandhillsofIndia,the rural communities under different farming agro-ecologies still gather andconsume many edible wild harvested plant resources. Consumption of theseplantsisoftenessentialwhenthereisfoodshortageduringleanperiod.Thewildplant resources are helpful in enhancing livelihoods and supporting householdeconomiesofruralfarmingcommunities.Thewildplantresourcesareconsideredespeciallyrichsourceofvitaminsandminerals.Thepresentcasestudydocumentsa total of about 335 plant species, wild harvested as leaves, fruits, flowers,tubers,seeds,twigs,etc.underdifferentfarmingagro-ecologiesthatformminorbut important food components of the rural communities. The access to andavailabilityofthesefoodresourcesarenowdecliningduetodegradationoftheirnatural habitats from various developmental activities, poor management ofCPRs,thechangingclimateandrecurrentdroughts,nutritiontransitionandinflowof purchased foods, forces of globalization, loss of LEK, etc. The present casestudy revealed that the contributionofwildharvested foods to total foodandnutritionalsecurityofnativecommunitieshasbeenundervalued.Ithasnowbeenwellrecognizedthatwildfoodresourcesarevitalfornutritionandhealthofhillcommunitiesbesidejustsourceoffoodandincome.Thesustainableharvestingofwildeconomicspeciesthereforerequiresastrongpolicysupportbyensuringitscontinuedavailabilitytolocalcommunities.Assubstantialnutritiontransitionhasbeenobservedintraditionalhillcommunitiesduringrecentyears,traditionalfood revitalization projects including enhanced consumption of wild foods isconsideredanecessityforbetterhealthandculturalbenefits.Thestudyclearlydemonstratedthatweneedtocombineandenhancetheefforts toconservingbiodiversityandpreservingtraditionalfoodsystemsandfarmingpractices.

Keywords: Wild plant resources in agricultural systems; Native food culture;Communitynutritionandhealth;Traditional farmingpractices; Localecologicalknowledge

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IntroductionGlobal food security now depends on a fewwidely cultivatedspecies,thethreecrops,wheat,maizeandriceprovidingover50percentoftheworld'sdailyrequirementofproteinsandcalories[1]and12speciescontributingabout80percentoftotaldietaryintake.Bycontrast,wildfoodsprovideagreaterdietarydiversitytothosewhorelyonthem.Morethan7000specieshavebeenreported to be used at some stage in human history, in past,basedonethnobotanicalsurveysofwildplants[2].InIndia,600plantspeciesareknowntohavefoodvalue[3].Manyagriculturalcommunities have been reported to rely on wild plants andanimalseventoday.

Ithasbeenreportedthattheagriculturalandforagercommunitiesat36locationsin22countriesofAsiaandAfricauseanaverageof 90-100 wild species [4]. The access and availability of wildfood resources is now declining due to habitat degradation,developmental activities, agricultural expansion, and othersocial and ecological drivers reducingwild food use.However,withincreasingpressureonenhancedagriculturalproductivity,theimportanceofwildfoodusehasbeenreportedtobesettogrow[4].

Wildplantsinparticulararereportedtohavediverseuses[5-7].Wildplantfoodshavebeenanintegralpartofhumandietsinceancienttimesandnearly75,000speciesofplantsbelievedtobeedible[8-11].About200plantspecieshavebeendomesticatedasfoodcropsofwhichonlyabout30%arereportedtocontribute95%oftheworld’splantfoodintake[12,13].However,despitethe reliance of agricultural communities on conventional cropplants,theruralcommunitiesworldoverstillconsumewildplantfoods[13-17],initsstateoffoodinsecurityintheworldreport,estimatedthataroundonebillionpeopleusewildplantsintheirdiet.

Wildvegetablesplayanimportantroleinthedietofinhabitantsofdifferentpartsoftheworld.AfolayanandJimoh[18]reportedthat the nutrients available inwild vegetables of SouthAfrica,Chenopodium album,Sonchus asper,Solanum nigrumandUrtica urensarecomparablewithorhigherthanthoseofcommonlyusedvegetablessuchasspinach,lettuceandcabbage.Intermsofanti-nutritionalprinciples,allthevegetableshadcomparativelylowerconcentrationsofphytate,alkaloidsandsaponins.Misraetal.[19]documented21wildharvestedleafyvegetablesfromsixvillagesof Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve buffer zone in Uttarakhandstate,India.Irrespectiveofsocialoreconomicstatusinthestudyvillages, the farmer households had enough knowledge aboutavailabilityanduseofthesewildleafyvegetables.Thetraditionalknowledge, however, is eroding fast due to changing socialvaluesandnon-participationofyoungergenerationincollectionandprocessingofsuchwildfoodresources.Inanethnobotanicalinvestigation carried out in Kendrapara district, Odisha, India,Panda[20]reportedthatwithintheedibleplantparts,leavesandfruitscontributedmaximum(about75%),theremaindersbeingedibletubers,flowersandseeds.Theutilizationofwildvegetablesinthedietaryintakeofthehouseholdswasemphasized.

In Uttarakhand hills, rural farming communities still gatherand consume many edible wild plant resources [21]. Rural

communities use these food plants to supplement their diets.Consumptionof theseplants is particularly vitalwhen there isfood shortage besides contributing to livelihood security andhouseholdeconomiesofnativecommunities.Their importanceis exemplified by free and easy accessibility and nutritionalrichnessespeciallyvitaminsandmicronutrients.Therefore,theyplayasignificantroleinthelivelihoodsofruralcommunitiesinUttarakhandhills.

Research onwild harvested foods in traditional agro-ecologiesfrom forestry/agroforestry systems has so far received limitedattention but it is a matter of great concern from variousresearchers now. Inventorying, in situ conservation and theirpromotion and commercialization are some important actionsrequiredforconservationandsustainableutilizationofwildandneglected foodplants.Asmostof thewildplant resourcesareused locally, theirmanyvalues remainundocumentedwithoutbeing reflected in local, national or international markets.Systematic documentation of indigenous knowledge regardingtheidentityanduseofwildharvestedfoodsbyruralcommunitiesis therefore a necessity as a growing disinterest among theyoungergenerationinthecommunityisoftenobserved.

Theproposedstudytitled“IndigenouslandandfoodsystemsinUttarakhand:Acasestudyontraditionalknowledgeanduseofwildfoodsinagriculturalsystems”thereforesoughtto:

- Inventoryingwildediblefoodplantsfromtraditionalfarmingareas of Uttarakhand hills with particular emphasis onindigenous community knowledge regarding their identityanduse,an integral componentof subsistencehill farming.Areas of Uttarakhand hills with particular emphasis onindigenous community knowledge regarding their identityanduse,anintegralcomponentofsubsistencehillfarming.

- Determining the food preparations, marketability andconservationofwildharvestedfoods.

- Determiningimpactofthelossoftraditionalknowledgeandlackofuseofwildfoodresourcesoncommunityhealthandnutrition.

- Prioritizing wild food plants for research and marketinginterventionsinspecificagro-ecologiesofUttarakhandhills.

Farmers’work in the foodsystem isbasedontheirknowledgeand skills.Documenting complex farmers’ knowledge for food;documenting experiential knowledge based on communityculture; bio-diversity knowledge based on nature; genderdivisionof labour,etc.withmajoremphasisonwildharvestedfoodresourceswillalsobeaddressedinthepresentcasestudyusingparticipatoryapproaches.

Description about the Study Area Of the total geographical area of Uttarakhand state about13.5% (766730 ha) is the net sown cropped area. About 86%geographicalareaofUttarakhandishillsbutthecroplandsaremainlyinplains,popularlyknownastheTeraiandBhabarregion,wheremodernfarmingispracticedunderassuredirrigation.Onthe other hand, in hills, traditionalmix cropping practices are

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2018Vol.2 No.1:3Journal of Food Science and Toxicology

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normallypracticed,andfarmingismainlyrainfed.InUttarakhandmorethan75percentofthepopulationdependonagriculturefor their livelihood. The three important representative agro-ecologies/farming situations in Uttarakhand hills: i) small-scalecrop-livestockmixed-farmingsystemsrepresentingabout70%ofthenetsownrainfedfarmingarea;ii)highelevationmountainousvalleysadjoiningTibetmainlyinhabitedbynomadicpastoralists,theBhotiaorShokatribesandcomprisingabout10%ofthenetsownarea,andiii)afewinterspersedrivervalleyswithimprovedagricultureunderassuredirrigation,comprisingabout10%ofthecroppedareaoftheUttarakhandhills.

In an exploratory survey more, household production anddietarydiversitywasrevealedfortraditionalrainfedsmall-scalecrop-livestockmixed-farmingsystemsfollowedbymountainousvalleys with nomadic pastoralists, and least in river valleyswith improved agriculture. In hill agriculture, only farmer-ledtraditional innovations are predominantly practiced except inrivervalleyswhereuseofimprovedvarieties,inorganicfertilizers,pesticides,isnowcommonlyseen.However,inthemixedcrop-livestockfarmingsystemofthehills,adynamicrelationshipamongCPRs,native cropsand livestock, still exist toa greaterextent.The livestockpredominantlycontributestothehouseholdcashincomewhereasthesurpluscropproduce,ifany,issoldlocallyandcontributesverylittletothehouseholdagricultureeconomy.The nomadic pastoralists of highmountainous valleys all havesomearablelandbesideforagingandtradingofmedicinalherbs.Sheep and goat are the herded livestock. Tending of livestock

andforagingofmedicinalherbforexportpurposesiscommon.Livestockgrazing ispracticedthroughoutthemountainvalleys,althoughatratessignificantlylowersincetheIndo-Chinaconflictof1962.LargelybecausethelossoftradewithTibet,thedemandforlivestockandagricultureproductshasdroppedconsiderably.

A nutrition transition is clearly evident in farming situationsparticularly of river valleys with the emergence of cash cropeconomies and impact of globalization in recent years. Evenin traditional farming areas nutrition transition in evident ina limited way. With the nutrition transition resulting fromincreasingsocio-economicchange,theproblemsofunderweightandoverweightisfrequentlyco-existing.Besides,undernutrition,thesocio-economicdisparitiesand increasedaccess toenergy-dense foods are also creatingan "obesogenic" environment insomesections,moreparticularlyinrivervalleyareas.

Thenichetargetsites(20nos.)fordocumentinginformationonwild harvested plant resources in different agroecologies arepresentedin(Figure 1 and Table 1).

Research MethodologyDataonwildharvestedplantfoodresourcesweredocumentedfromall20representativenichesites(Figure 1 and Table 1)ofthreemain farming agro-ecologies of Uttarakhand hills duringJanuary toMay 2017.Dataweremainly documented for localecologicalknowledge/indigenousknowledge(LEK/IK)onidentityand use of wild plant food resources using semi-structured

Uttarakhand state

Mapofthestudyarea.Figure 1

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questionnaires. For interviewing the farmer households, achecklistofopenendedquestionswasused.Freelistingtechniquewasusedforgatheringdataonindigenousknowledgepertainingtowildedibleplants.Eachrespondentwasaskedtomentionanyplantthatcomestotheirminduntiltheycouldnotmentionanymore species. Itwas presumed that people in any communitydorememberplantswhichareimportanttothem.Respondentswere also requested for field guidedwalks to all nearby areasin the community including nearby forestry areas to identify/collecttheplants listedduringthe interview.OneFocusGroupDiscussion (FGD)meetingeachwasheld in all agrobiodiversityrichnichetargetsitestoauthenticatethedatainquestionnairesand capture additional responses on value ofwild plant foodsfor household food and nutrition, contribution to householdeconomy,driversofchangeinavailabilityanduseofwildplantfoodresources,unsustainableharvestingandchangingdynamics,loss of LEK, socio-economic change, etc. Potential of a fewprioritizedwildplantfoodresourcesformarketinginterventionswasalsoexplored.

TheparticipatoryinterviewsweredoneseparatelyformenandwomenfarmersofdifferentagegroupsforLEKonwildharvestedfoods. Children (<15 years) were also interviewed for LEK.Average10-15farmerhouseholdswereinterviewedpernichesite.

Thenutritionalvalueofafewwildplantfoodresourceswasalsocompiledfromsecondarysources.

ResultsDocumenting wild plant food resources of Uttarakhand hills A complete list of wild plant food resources from differentrepresentative niche sites of three distinct agro-ecologieswas documented. A total of 335 plant species was recordedin different plant families of Angiosperms, Gymnosperms andPteridophytes. A total of 97 families of dicotyledons and 12families ofmonocotyledons, in Angiosperms; three families ofGymnosperms and one family of Pteridophytes (Ferns) wererepresented (Table 2). Rosaceae (25), Polygonaceae (15),Fabaceae (12), Asteraceae (11), Lamiaceae (10), Liliaceae (10),Urticaceae (10), Amaryllidaceae (Alliaceae 8), Amaranthaceae(8),Caesalpinaceae(7),Rutaceae(7),etc.weretheplantfamilieswith greater species representation among angiosperms.Importantplant species indifferent agroecologies and farmingsituationsarelistedinTable 3.

Domestication programmes are also being initiated byUttarakhandstate tobringmanywild species,mainly the localherbsinfarmingsystems.Examplesofimportantplantspeciesfordomesticationinterventionsinclude,Allium stracheyi, A. humile, A. wallichi, Asendra butyracea, Malus baccata var. himalaica, Sorbus lanata, S. cuspidata, Fragaria nubicola, Rubus macilentus, R. ellipticus/R. biflorus, R. nutans, Hippophae rhamnoides spp. salicifolia, Rosa sericea/R. macrophylla, Cleome viscosa and afewothers(Table 4).Thesespeciescanhelpprovidelivelihood

support,healthandnutritionalbenefitstolocalcommunities.

The economic and nutritional value of wild foods Table 5 summarizes the findings from economic valuations ofdirectusevaluesforwildfoodsinselectedfarmingagro-ecologiesofUttarakhandhills.TheexploratorysurveysforsomeimportantspeciesrevealthatwildplantscanprovideINR5000-500000perhouseholdsinspecificagro-ecologies/nicheareasofUttarakhandhills.

It was found that poorer households are normally involved inwildharvestingandmarketingofwildplantfoodresources.Table 6 presents information on trends inmarket sale of somewildharvestedfoods,mainlyasvegetablesandfruits intheNainitaldistrictofUttarakhand.Asubstantialincomehasbeenreportedbyfarmerhouseholds,thoseengagedinwildharvestingandtheirtradeinlocalmarkets.

Nutritionalprofileof somewild foodplant resources compiledfromsecondarysources ispresented inTable 7 [22]. It isclearfromTable 7thatmanyofthewildharvestedfoodresourcesareoftenconsideredsuperior inenergyandmicronutrientcontentcomparedwiththosefrommanycultivatedspecies.

Representative agro-ecology/

farming situations

No. of sites

Niche locations (districts in parenthesis)

Traditionalrain-fedfarmingareas(crop-livestockmix-

farming)

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Berinag(Pithoragarh),Lohaghat(Champawat),Devidhura(Champawat),Tarikhet(Almora),Sama(Bageshwar),

Ramgarh(Nainital),Okhalkanda(Nainital),Ranichauri(Tehri),Gwaldam

(Chamoli),Bharsar(Pauri)Mountainousregions-alpinemeadows/

bugyals(nomadicpastoralists)

5

Johar(Pithoragarh)andDarma(Pithoragarh)valleyinKumaonregion;NitiandMana(Chamolidistrict)andHar-ki-doon(Uttarkashi),inGarhwal

region

Rivervalleys(improvedfarming) 5

Bhilangana(Tehri),Someshwar(Almora),Garur(Bageshwar),Ramganga

(Almora)andSaryu(Pithoragarh)

Table 1Nichesites indifferentagro-ecologiesofUttarakhandhills fordocumentingwildharvestedfoodresources.

Plant taxa groups No. of species Plant families with major species representations

Angiosperms

-Dicotyledons 286

Rosaceae(25),Polygonaceae(15),Fabaceae(12),Asteraceae(11),Lamiaceae(10),Urticaceae(10),

Amaramthaceae(8)

-Monocotyledons 44 Liliaceae(10),Amaryllidaceae(8),Araceae(5),Dioscoreaceae(5)

Gymnosperms 4 Pinaceae(2),Ephedraceae(1),Taxaceae(1)

Pteridophytes 1 Dryopteridaceae(1)

Table 2PlantspeciesusedaswildharvestedfoodsinUttarakhandhills.

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S. No. Plant species Frequency

of occurrence Food and medicinal uses

Plant species used in communities of lower and mid hills

1Aegel marmelos

(Bael,Bengalquince, goldenapple)

Rare(wildpopulations)

Baelfruitsareusedintraditionalmedicineandasafoodthroughoutitsrange.Thefruitpulpisusedtopreparedelicaciesandisalsousedinthetreatmentofchronicdiarrhoea,dysentery,andpeptic

ulcers,asalaxativeandtorecuperatefromrespiratoryinfectionsinvariousfolkmedicines.

2Asparagus adscendens(Satavar,shatavari,or

safedmusli)Common A. adscendensisusedasarejuvenativeherbandisalsoverypowerfulaphrodisiac.Safedmusliis

alsousedaseffectiveanti-diabeticagent,besidesseveralothermedicinaluses.

3 Bauhinia variegata(MountainEbony;Kuiral) Common Thebudsandflowersarecookedasadeliciousvegetableormadeintopickles.Leavesprovidegood

qualityfodder.Ashofdriedleavestakenincough.

4Cleome viscosa(Jakhia;Asian

spiderflower,Tickweed)Common

Leavesandyoungshoots-cookedasavegetable.Thepungentseedcanbepickledorusedasamustardorcuminsubstituteincurries,picklingspices,vegetablesandpulses.Theleavesare

diaphoretic,rubefacientandvesicant.Theseedsareanthelmintic,carminative,rubefacient,stimulantandvesicant.Adecoctionisusedtotreatrheumatism,gonorrhoea,diarrhoeaanddysentery.

5 Dioscorea bulbifera(airyam,potatoyam) Common Usedasvegetable.Airpotatohasbeenusedasafolkremedytotreatconjunctivitis,diarrhoea,and

dysentery,amongotherailments.

6 D. deltoidea(Yam) Common

Tuberscookedandeaten.Therootswidelyusedinmodernmedicineinordertomanufactureprogesteroneandothersteroiddrugs.Theseareusedascontraceptivesandinthetreatmentofvariousdisordersofthegenitoryorgansaswellasotherdiseasessuchasasthmaandarthritis.

7Diplazium esculentum

(avegetablefern,LinguraorLungru)

CommonTheyoungfrondsarethestarsonthisplant,asthetenderyounggrowthisadeliciousadditiontostirfriesandotherveggierichdishes.ItisfamiliarfoodavailableinlocalmarketsofUttarakhandhills.ThefernishighinbetacaroteneandcontainsapercentageofVitaminEandriboflavin.

8 Ficus palmata(Bedu,Punjabfig) Common

F. palmataisoneofthetastiestfruitsfoundgrowingwildinthemid-Himalayanregion.Therawfruitsareusedasavegetable.Theyareprincipallyusedasanitemofdietincasesofconstipation

andinthediseasesofthelungsandthebladder.Theyarealsousedasapoultice.

9Ficus racemosa(Syn.F.

glomerata;Indianfigtreeorgularfig,Timil)

CommonThefruitsareafavouritestapleofthecommonIndianmacaque.InancienttimesbothHinduand

BuddhistasceticsontheirwaytoTaxila(Taxsila),travellingthroughvastareasofIndianforestsusedtoconsumethefruitduringtheirtravels.

10 Myrica esculenta(Kaphal) Common

M. esculentacommonlyisamongsthighlyvaluedwildediblefruitsofUttarakhandhills.Thefruitsareanimportantsourceofnaturalantioxidantswhichcanplayvitalroleinreducingtheoxidative

stressandpreventingfromcertaindegenerativediseases.

11 Perilla frutescens(Bhanjeera) Common

Perillaisaminoroilseedcrop,alsowidelyusedinUttarakhandcuisinesasflavouringsubstance.Itisindicatedtoeasethesymptomsofthecommoncold,alsoshowntostimulateinterferonactivity

andthus,thebody'simmunesystem.

12Rubus ellipticus

(GoldenHimalayanraspberry,Hisalu)

Common R. ellipticusfruitsaresweetintaste.Thebarkisusedformedicinalpurposes,mainlyasarenaltonicandanantidiuretic.Itsjuicecanalsobeusedtotreatcough,fever,colicandsorethroat.

13 Syzizium cumini(Blackplum,Jamun) Common

TheseedofthefruitisusedinvariousalternativehealingsystemslikeAyurveda,UnaniandChinesemedicinefordigestiveailments.Wineandvinegararealsomadefromthefruit.Itisahighsourceof

vitaminAandvitaminC.

14Ziziphus mauritiana(Chinesedate,ber,jujube,Indianplum)

CommonThefruitiseatenraw,pickledorusedinbeverages.ItisquitenutritiousandrichinvitaminC.Theflowersareratedasaminorsourceofnectarforhoneybees.Thehoneyislightandoffairflavour.

Fruits,leavesandbarkhaveseveralmedicinaluses.Plant species used by nomadic pastoralists during March to November (for 6-8 months) from alpine meadows/bugyals

15 Allium humile (Highaltitudealpineonion)

Common DriedleavesofA. humileareusedasJambuorFaranforflavouring.ItisalsousedforAsthma,stomachdiseases,jaundice,coldandcough.

16 A. stracheyi(JambuorFaran) Common

FlowersarepickedanddriedtobeusedasaspiceknownasJambuorFaran.Leavescontainsulphurcompoundsandwhenaddedtothedietonaregularbasistheyhelpreduceblood

cholesterollevels,actasatonictothedigestivesystemandalsotonifythecirculatorysystem.

17 A. tuberosum (Garlicchives,Chinesechives)

Rare Useshaveincludeditasornamentalplants,includingcutanddriedflowers,culinaryherbandtraditionalmedicine.

18 A. victorialis(AlpineLeek)

Rare Flowersareeatenraworcooked.Thejuiceoftheplantisusedasamothrepellent.Thewholeplantissaidtorepelinsectsandmoles.Therootisantiscorbutic,carminative,diureticandvermifuge.

Usedinthetreatmentofprofusemenstruation.

19A. wallichii

(Himalayanonion,Jambu)

Common Youngleaves-cookedasavegetable.Thedriedleavesareusedasacondimentincurriesandpickles.Thebulbsareeateninthetreatmentofcholeraanddysentery.Therawbulbischewedto

treatcoughsandcolds,eatingthebulbscaneasethesymptomsofaltitudesickness.

20Carun carvi

(KalajeeraorBhotiajeera)

Common

Fruitsusedasflavouringoraromaticagent;fruitpowdergivenindysuriaandhematuria;youngplantscookedasvegetables.Seedsarerichsourcesofdiversegroupofphytochemicals.Ithasa

broadspectrumpharmacologicaleffectintreatmentoftraditionalhealingsystemsindifferentpartsoftheworld.

21Hippophae rhamnoides

ssp.salicifolia (Sea-buck-thorn,Chuk)

Common Fruitseatenrawormadeintoseveralpreparations,alsousedinlocalbeverages;syrupofimmaturefruitsusedtoremovedandruff;flowersusefulsourceofbee-forage.

Table 3AfewimportantwildplantspeciescommonlyusedbyfarmingcommunitiesofUttarakhandhills.

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S. No. Plant Species Distribution, diversity and specific adaptations Domestication and genetic enhancementAlpine meadows

1. Allium stracheyiA. stracheyigrowswildinthemontanetouppersub-alpinezone;EastAsia-HimalayasfromKashmirtowesternNepalataltitudesof2500-3000m.

Widediversityinwildpopulationsisavailableforhumanselection.

2. A. wallichiA.wallichiiisaplantspeciesnativetoIndia,Nepal,Sikkim,Bhutan,Myanmar(Burma),TibetandpartsofChina.Itgrowsatelevationsof2300-4800m.

EnoughdiversityinwildandcultivatedpopulationssuggestsforitsgeneticimprovementandcommercialcultivationinUttarakhandhills.

3. A. humileA. humileisanAsianspeciesofwildonionwithwidespreaddistribution,south-centralChinaandTibet,andIndianSubcontinent, Pakistan,andWesternHimalaya.

Widespreadoccurrenceanddiversityinwildpopulationsforhumanselectionrevealsitspotentialforcommercialcultivationandmarketing.

4. Malus baccata var. himalaica

M. baccataisnativetoRussia,Mongolia,China,Korea,Bhutan,IndiaandNepal,whereitiscommontomixedforestsonhillyslopesatelevationsupto1500m.

Mostresistanttocoldandpests,M. baccataisusedforexperimentalbreedingandgraftingofothercrabapplesanddomesticatedapplesaswell.

5. Sorbus lanataS. lanataiscommonthroughouttheUttarakhandhillsfrom2400-3200m.Tolerateslightshade,thoughitfruitsbetterinasunnyposition

CloselyrelatedtoS. cuspidataandtoS. aria,thepotentialofS. lanataneedstobeexploredforgeneticimprovementandcommercialcultivation.

6.Hippophae rhamnoidesspp.salicifolia

Itisnativetothecold-temperateregionsofEuropeandAsia.InAsia,H. rhamnoidescanbefoundinthenorthernregionsofChina,throughoutmostoftheHimalayanregion,includingIndia,NepalandBhutan,aswellasinthenorthernregionsofPakistanandAfghanistan.

TheH. rhamnoidesplantisparticularlydroughtandsalttolerantandcanthusbesuccessfullyusedforlandreclamation,againstfurthersoilerosion,asshelterbeltorinagroforestry.

Traditional farming areas across mid-hills

7. Cleome viscosaAplantofthemoisttropics,whereitisfoundatelevationsupto1,000minareaswithadistinctdryseasonaswellasinareaswithnodryseason.

Astheplanthasdiverseusesandwidespreaddistribution,besidefoodandmedicinalvalueithasagroforestryusesaswell.

8. Perilla frutescens

P. frutescensisthesolespeciesofthemonotypicgenusPerillainthemintfamily,Lamiaceae.ThisspeciesencompassesseveraldistinctvarietiesofAsianherb,seed,andvegetablecrop.

Perillavarietiesarecross-fertileandintra-specifichybridizationoccursnaturally.GeneticenhancementandcommercialcultivationispossibleinPerillaasenoughdiversityisavailableforhumanselection.

9. Rosa sericea/R. macrophylla

Rosa sericea,thesilkyrose,isaspeciesofRosanativetosouth-westernChina,Bhutan,northernIndia(Uttarakhand,Sikkim),NepalandMyanmar,ataltitudesof2000-4400m.

Hybridizesfreelywithothermembersofthisgenus.Widespreaddistributionanddiversitypresentinthespeciesrevealsitspotentialtobedomesticatedandcommerciallycultivated.

10. Rubus spp.

R. ellipticus,R. biflorus,R. macilentus,R. niveus, etc.commonlyoccurinUttarakhandhills.R. ellipticusandR. biflorushavegreaterdiversityrepresentedinnaturalpopulations.

BreedingpotentialofdifferentRubus speciesoccurringintheUttarakhandhillsneedstobeexploredfortheirdomesticationandcommercialcultivationparticularlyinwastelandsandagro-forestrysystems(CPRs).

River valleys

11.

Asendra butyracea(Syn.Diploknema butyracea,Chiura;theIndianbuttertree)

A. butyraceaisamultipurposetree.Themainproductofthetreeisghee(butteroil),extractedfromtheseeds.A. butyraceasuitstodifferentedapho-climaticconditionsandthusdoesnotcompetewiththetraditionalcrops.RecentlybathsoapusingbutterofA. butyraceagettingpopular.

AsthespeciesiswidelydistributedinlowerelevationsareasacrossrivervalleysinUttarakhand,itisanimportanttreespeciesforsocialforestry/agro-forestrytobegrowncommerciallyforlivelihoodsecurityofnativecommunities.

Table 4:Wildplantswithpotentialfordomesticationandgeneticimprovementsindifferentagro-ecologies.

Leading factors for change in wild food availability and use The leading factors affecting wild food availability and useare listed inTable 8.Table 8 reveals that resilience to climatechangeismorebywildspeciescomparedtocropspeciesundercultivationandcultivatedspeciesofexoticoriginthathavebeennaturalized in local farming situations. Land use change anddegradationincludingpoormanagementofCPRs;unsustainableharvestingandchangingdynamics; lossofLEK;socio-economicchangeandthemarketexpansionduetoglobalization,etc.,havebeenother drivers impacting availability and use ofwild plantfoodresources.

DiscussionWildfoodshavelongbeenusedbyfarmers,as‘hiddenharvests’,and have supplemented their dietary diversity and householdincome[2,23,24].IntraditionalfarmingsystemsofUttarakhandhills, the agroforestry and forestry basedwild plant resourcessupplement household food choices and ensures dietarydiversityandbetternutrition.Wildgatheredtubers,fruits,seeds,twigs, leavesandflowersof severalplants still formminorbutimportantfoodcomponentsoftheruralcommunities(Table 3).However, availability and access to these foods is declining asnaturalhabitatsareunderconstantpressurefromdevelopmentalactivities, poor management and conservation-exclusions. The

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climate change and recurrent droughts are adversely affectingavailability of the wild food resources. Further, the ‘nutritiontransition’ and inflow of purchased foods are also negativelyimpactingthevalueofwildharvestedfoods.

It has been observed thatmostwild harvested plant productsareconsumeddirectlywithinthefarmerhouseholds,henceitisoftendifficulttocapturethequantityanddiversityoftheharvestatlocalornationallevel[24].Tables 5 and 6 confirmsthatsomewildedibleplantfoodscontributesubstantiallytothehouseholddietary diversity and economy aswell,whereas they have thepotential to enhance household incomes once fully tapped(Table 6).

Itmaybeemphasizedthat‘malnutritionisamajorhealthburdenindevelopingcountriesanduseofwildplantfoodscanbeenlistedaspolicysupporttosecurewildfooduseandpreservehabitats

forwildediblespecies’[4].Comprehensivefoodcompositionisthereforecriticalespeciallyforcommunitiesmostvulnerabletomalnutrition[18,19].We,however,havelimitedunderstandingof micro- and macro-nutritional properties of wild foods ascomparedtocultivatedspecies.

Severalwildedibleplantsaresourcesofimportantmicronutrients,Fe,Ca,P,Na,K,Zn,etc.Table 7liststhatmanywildfoodresourcesofUttarakhandhills are rich inmicronutrients [22].Manywildbackyardplantsandplants inagroforestrysystems(CPRs)haveedible parts that are commonly consumed and are criticalsuppliers of vitamins A, B2, C, antioxidants, especially duringseasonal lean periods. Many are important as famine foods,ensuringyear-roundnutritional security in the faceofpossiblefoodshortages.

The food and medicinal uses of wild plant food resources as

Farm household respondents from niche sites of different farming

situations

Decline in dietary diversity of cultivated plant species during past 2-3 decades (%)

Average wild plant species contributing to household dietary

diversity

Contribution of wild harvested

food resources to household cash

income (%)*

A few important wild plant resources for household cash income from their market sale

Crop-livestocksmallscalemix-farmingsystems(10

nichesites;150households)40 78 14

Myrica esculenta (Kaphal),Diplazium esculentum(Lingura,avegetablefern),Bauhinia variegata(Kuiral,MountainEbony),Dioscorea

spp.(Yams)Mountainvalleys,alpinemeadows/bugyals(5niche

sites;70households)35 35 34** Alliumspp.(JambuorFaran),Angelica glauca

(Gandhrain),Carum carvi(KalaJeera)

Rivervalleys(5nichesites;50households) 70 14 2 Diplazium esculentum(Lingura,avegetablefern)

Table 5Directusevaluesofwildplantfoodsforhouseholdconsumptionorincomefromsaleinnichetargetareasofthreerepresentativefarmingsituations.

*Onlythosehouseholdsthatareinvolvedinharvestingandtradingofwildplantresources**Also includeswildharvestingandsale(often illegal)of“KeedaJadi”, thecaterpillar fungusOphiocordyceps sinensis (syn.Cordyceps sinensis).Thefungus,consideredas ‘herbalviagra’, isoneof theentomogenousAscomycetesandparasitizesthe larvaeofLepidopterato formthewell-knowntraditionalTibetanmedicine“yartsagunbu”or,intraditionalChinesemedicine,“DongChongXiaCao”(“winterworm-summergrass”)inalpinemeadows

S. No. Plant species and market availability Local Market (s)

Increase in market sale

during past one decade (%)

Average cash income per household per annum for those involved in market

sale (in INR)1. Asparagus adscendens(July-August) Garampani,Nainital, 266.7 19502. Bauhinia variegata(April-May) Bhimtal,Bhowali,Garampani,Nainital 200.0 35003. Berbaris asiatica(April-June) Nainital 300.0 6004. Chenopodium album(March-November) Bhowali,Garampani 471.4 17505. Cleome viscosa(October) Garampani 133.3 5006. Dioscorea glabra(February-March) Bhimtal,Garampani,Nainital 222.2 2607. Diplazium esculentum(March-October) Bhimtal,Bhowali,Garampani,Nainital 560.0 90008. Ficus glomerata(May-June) Nainital 200.0 7509. Ficus palmata(April-June) Nainital 250.0 40010. Girardinia diversifolia(September-January) Bhimtal 171.4 150011. Indigofera heterantha(March-April) Nainital 300.0 60012. Myrica esculenta(April-June) Bhimtal,Bhowali,Garampani,Nainital 371.1 272513. Phyllanthus emblica(September-November) Bhimtal,Garampani,Nainital 185.7 65014. Punica granatum(September-October) Nainital 150.0 30015. Rubus ellipticus(April-June) Bhimtal,Nainital 250.0 1300

Table 6SaleofafewimportantwildharvestedplantfoodresourcesinlocalmarketsofdistrictNainital.

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fruitsandvegetablesisknowntolowerriskofseveraloxidativestresses, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer and strokeandsuchhealthbenefitsaremainlyascribedtophytochemicalssuch as polyphenols, carotenoids and vitamins. Of thesephytochemicals, polyphenols are largely recognized as anti-inflammatory,antiviral,antimicrobialandantioxidantagents.

Thewildfruitsaregainingincreasedattentionnowaspotentialfood supplement or cheaper alternative of commercial fruitsacrosstheworld.Evidencesofthehealthbenefitsofwildediblefruits, in addition toestablished role innutritionareavailable.In general, enough information is available on the antioxidantpotentialof fruitsofdifferentspecies.Someexamples include:

Actinidia eriantha, A. deliciosa, Ficus carica, F. microcarpa, F. racemosa, Juglans regia, Kadsura coccinea, Myrciaria dubia,Phyllanthus emblica, Punica granatum, Randia echinocarpa,Ziziphus mauritiana andso forth.Beside the fruits,antioxidantpropertiesarealsoknownforotherplantparts.

There is no comprehensive estimate of the economic valueof wild foods [4]. Quantitative analyses face methodologicaldifficulties.Further,thetradeofwildfoodsisofteninformaloroccursatlocalmarketsandis,therefore,missedbyconventionalaccountingmechanisms[25].

AfewprioritizedspeciesofpotentialimportanceinUttarakhandhills contributing to livelihood and nutritional security of local

Name of the plant

Nutritional constituentsg/100 g g/100 g

Moisture in fresh parts Moisture Ash Crude

proteinCrude

fatCrude fibre

Water soluble carbohy-

dratesStarch Na K Ca P Fe

Nutritive composition of some wild edible leaves Alliumspp. 86.4 7.8 11.4 15.8 4.8 17.8 - 14.9 100 - 800 184 272A. victorialis - 9.3 13.8 10.1 5.3 18.3 18.1 10.9 120 4700 800 116 -

Chenopodium album 77.2 7.8 16 25.4 4.1 6.8 - 10.6 219 1800 377 94

Cleome viscosa 80.4 - 37.5 5.6 1.9 4.1 - - - - 0.88 0.07 24.4Epilobium roylianum - 9.8 9.3 13.1 2.7 10.9 12.5 - 65 1250 800 100 97

Impatiens glandulifera

(stem)- 7.6 14 10.9 2.3 12.8 5.6 - 85 4200 950 366 116

Origanum vulgare 71.4 7.4 13.7 22.8 4.5 11 - 15.1 40 650 531 77

Phytolacca acinosa - 7 16.1 22.4 3.6 11.3 15.2 8.2 130 6100 850 250 8

Rumex acetosa - 6.2 17.7 23.9 2.2 10.2 2.1 10.5 155 4500 700 233 250Stellaria media - 4.8 20.8 18.4 2.5 14.6 - 11.09 58 2250 1780 271 10

Bauhinia variegata - 6.4 7.3 20.4 2.8 13.9 7.9 - 73 1280 376 284 22

Bombax ceiba - 7 8.4 7.6 2.3 25.9 - - 1330 1610 2520 271 12Rosa brunonii - 8 8.7 10.6 7.3 15.7 14 - 65 1500 400 183 16

Berberis chitria - 5.1 5 7.7 6.1 10.9 17.3 - 40 800 200 83 66Ephedera

gerardiana - - - 8.3 3 17.5 40.4 - 219 - 1800 377 94

Hipophae rhamnoides ssp.

salicifolia- 5 4.2 12.1 12.3 5.5 9.4 - 45 500 150 50 116

Rosa brunonii - 8.1 2.7 4.4 5.3 38.1 15.9 - 25 600 600 82 80Allium rubellum - 6.2 5.2 7.18 1.96 35.91 12.6 - 105 1350 600 133 383

Codonopsis ovata - 7.7 9.6 7.43 4.18 18.6 9.5 17.29 165 900 542 16 30

Dioscorea bellophylla - 5.4 2.55 7.85 0.84 4.02 3.52 61.74 31 - 63 165 565

D. bulbifera - 5.6 3.05 3.75 0.54 2.52 7.93 61.47 25 - 187 17 31Polygonatum verticillatum - 8.9 2.3 4.75 0.56 10 57.6 8.13 30 440 150 130 38

Table 7Nutritivecompositionofsomewildedibleplantresources.

Source:NegiandGaur[22]

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communities require science and marketing related policyinterventions. Myrica esculenta, Diplazium esculentum (a vegetablefern),Phyllanthus emblica,Oreganum vulgare,Cleome viscosa,etc. inmid-hillareasunderrainfedfarming landscapesandAlliumspp.,Carum carvi,Angelica glauca,etc.frommountainousmeadowscanbediscussedhereingreaterdetails(Table 9).

Anumberofimportantdriversofchangeforwildfoodavailabilityanduse havebeen reported [4]. Food insecurity, for instance,is a particular problem among local communities with crop-livestocksmall-scalemixfarmingsituationsfollowedbynomadicpastoralistsandleastinhouseholdsofrivervalleysinUttarakhandhills. Cultural identity and agrobiodiversity are stronglyassociated, culture and ecosystems are known to co-evolve.Thus,abiophysicaldriver(e.g.climatechange)couldhaveknock-oneffectsonaculturalparameter(e.g.localknowledge),andtheeffectof thetwocombinedcould leadtoeitheran increaseordecreaseinwildfooduse[4].

A comparison of farming communities of three distinct agro-ecologiesofUttarakhandhills revealed insufficientevidence topredicttheimpactsthatclimatechangeonbothhumanforagingand the interlinked processes of LEK transmission, culturalcontinuity and land-based subsistence livelihood. Forecastingtheprecise impacts of the changing climateon the availabilityofwildfoodsisdifficultbutthesupposedlyinherentresilienceofwildspeciestorapidclimatechangeascomparedtocultivatedor exotic species means that they could play an increasinglyimportant role during periods of low agricultural productivityassociatedwithclimateevents[4].

DeclineinmanagementofCPRsincludingexpansionofintensiveagricultureandurbanizationhavesignificantimplicationsfortheavailabilityofwildfoods,thecommercializationofagriculture—an important driver of land use change-potentially impliesdecreased reliance on wild foods [26]. Agricultural and landuse policy, infrastructure development andwidened access to

marketsalldrivelandusechangeandareimplicatedindeclinesofwildspecies[27-29].

MostofthewildfoodspeciesusedbylocalcommunitiescomefromwellmanagedCPRsandagroforestrysystemsratherthanmature forests. The 20 niche habitats surveyed in the presentexploratorystudy,poormanagementofCPRsanddeforestationhad led to a decline in wild food species. Lack of sustainableintensification calls for a biodiversity-focused strategy in food,publichealthandpoverty-alleviationpolicies[4].

TheIndianHimalayasincludingtheUttarakhandhillsisoneoftheglobalhot-spotsofbiodiversitywithareasofgreatermalnutritionand hunger, also placing pressure on biodiversity for foodprovision.Incertainnichehabitats,unsustainableharvestshaveledtodeclinesinwildfoodspecies.Unsustainableharvestingisa concern in the caseofwild food resourcesof highelevationareas inUttarakhand hills,more particularly “Jambu or Faran”(Allium stracheyi and A. wallichii) and “Gandhrain” (Angelica glauca),twoimportantwildharvestedcommoditiesfromalpinemeadows/bugyalsofUttarakhandhills.Thetreasurenaturehasgivenusformedicalpurposes,butthatdoesnotjustifytheuseofunevenmeansforanyselfishmotives.

Loss of LEK has been observed in Uttarakhand hills. A stronginverse correlation has been reported by Pilgrim et al. [30]betweenecologicalknowledgeandincomelevels.Understandingecological knowledge loss is important to understanding thedeclining capacities of communities undergoing economicdevelopmenttomanagetheirnaturalresourcesandthefutureofecosystemdiversityinthelightofcurrentpatternsofeconomicgrowth [30]. It was interesting to note that in low incomecommunitiesofsmall-holdercroplivestockfarmingsystemsandthatofresource-dependent low-incomecommunitiesofhigherHimalayan mountainous regions, LEK was found to be higherandrateofknowledgeacquisitionrapidfromayoungage.Thissuggests that as communities become wealthier, knowledge

Drivers of change Impact on wild food availability and use

A ClimatechangeWildfoodspeciesofferapotentiallycriticalroleforbufferingagainstfoodstresscausedbyachangingclimate.Theinnateresilienceofwildspeciestorapidclimatechangecould,however,playanincreasinglyimportantroleduring

periodsoflowagriculturalproductivityassociatedwithclimateeventswhichoftenislackinginexoticspecies.

B

Landusechangeanddegradationincludingpoormanagementof

CPRs

Changesinlanduseandagricultureexpansion/urbanizationhavesignificantimplicationsfortheavailabilityofwildfoods.PoormanagementofCPRsanddeforestationhasledtoadeclineinwildfoodspecies.Effortsbythelocal

communitiestostemthislossbydomesticatingimportantspecieswereoftenunsuccessful,asmanyspeciesdonotsurviveoutsidetheirnaturalforestedhabitat.

C

Unsustainableharvestingand

changingdynamics/priorities

IncertainnichehabitatsofUttarakhandhills,unsustainableharvestshaveledtodeclinesinwildfoodspecies.UnsustainableharvestingisaconcerninthecaseofwildfoodresourcesofhighelevationareasinUttarakhand

hills,moreparticularly“JambuorFaran”(Alliumspp.)and“Gandhrain”(Angelica glauca),thetwo-importantwildharvestedcommoditiesfromalpinemeadows/bugyalsofUttarakhandhills.

DLossofindigenousorlocalecologicalknowledge(LEK)

AsignificantdeclinewasrecordedinLEKwherecommunitiesrelyincreasinglyonmarket-boughtfoodsandmoveawayfromland-basedlivelihoods.Inlowincomecommunitiesfromallagro-ecologiesofUttarakhandhills,LEKwasfoundtobehigher,andrateofknowledgeacquisitionrapidfromayoungage.Thissuggeststhatascommunities

becomewealthier,knowledgebecomesconcentratedinfewerpeoplewithasustainedpersonalinterest.

E

Socio-economicchangeincludingtheexpansionofmarketsduetoglobalization

Thenutritiontransitionassociatedwithmodernizationofdietsposeschallengestopublichealthinhillcommunities.Thereplacementofwildfoodsbymarket-boughtproductsislinkedtoreduceddietarydiversity,risingratesofchroniclifestyle-relatedconditions.Nichehabitatswherechildrenusewildplantresources,levelofmalnutritionwaslow.

Table 8Driversofchangeinwildfoodavailabilityanduse.

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becomesconcentratedinfewerpeoplewithasustainedpersonalinterest.

ThedistributionofLEKbetweenindividualsinacommunityhasbeenreportedtobedifferentiatedbygender,ageorsocialrole[4].Datafromthe20nichesites,womenabove40yearsofagewereabletodescribetheusesofabout70percentofallediblespecies,while youngmen could only describe 15-20 per cent.Similar findings have been reported from a study from Nepal[5].MenandwomenmightalsoholdspecializedLEK.LEKisalsodifferentiatedbyage[5].

A significant decline was recorded in LEK where communitiesrely increasinglyonmarket-boughtfoodsandmoveawayfromland-basedlivelihoods[30].Incertainfarminglandscapes,itwasobserved that the grown-ups usually succumb to the cultureof the society where consumption of wild fruits is regarded

asan inferioract.Further, theLEKdecline (in termsof speciesnamesanduses)isassociatedwithincreasingdisconnectionandlivelihoodindependencefromagriculturalandwildsystemsasaconsequenceofmoderneconomicgrowth.

LEK is likely to be substituted by modern environmentalknowledgeaboutglobalwarming,energysavingtechniquesandorganicfoodsforexample.Thisglobalknowledge is,ofcourse,essentialbutshouldnotreplacethatofourlocalecosystems[4].

Thenutrition transitionassociatedwithmodernizationofdietsposes challenges to public health in hill communities. Thereplacementofwildfoodsbymarket-boughtproductsislinkedtoreduceddietarydiversity,risingratesofchroniclifestyle-relatedconditions suchasobesityand type II diabetes,poor intakeofmicronutrients and malnutrition. Traditional species becomeundervalued and underused as exotic ones become available.

Wild plant species Discussions on marketing potential

1 Myrica esculenta(Kaphal)Myrica esculenta isamongsthighlyvaluedwildediblefruitsofUttarakhandhills.WildpopulationsofMyrica esculentaarefairlywidespreadinUttarakhandhillsparticularlyKumaonregionbetween900and2100 maslandcontributingsubstantiallytolivelihoodandnutritionalsecurityoflocalcommunities.

2 Diplazium esculentum(Lingura)

Diplazium esculentum, a vegetable fern, is pantropical in distribution and occurs widely and commonlythroughout India, China, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam and Malesia, with no threats and hencecategorizedasLeastConcern.Globally, it isusedasa leafyvegetable. It is familiar foodavailable in localmarketsofUttarakhandhills.D. esculentumcanbeusedasanaturalantioxidant,antimicrobialandcytotoxicagent[31].

3 Phyllanthus emblica(Aonla)

Phyllanthus emblica, fruits eaten raw or pickled are rich source of Vitamin C; one of the ingredients of‘Trifala’,mostwidelyusedforseveraldisorders.TherearemanyhabitatsinUttarakhandhills,thewarmervalleys,whereaonlawildstandsarecontributingtolivelihoodsecurityoflocalcommunities.ThetherapeuticpotentialofP. emblicahasbeendescribedingreaterdetailsbyHerring[32].

4 Bauhinia variegata(Kuiral)

Bauhinia variegata is occurring throughout the Himalayas in low- tomid-elevation areas. The buds andflowers are cooked as a delicious vegetable or alsomade into pickles, but theymust be boiled beforepreparing.Leavesprovidegoodqualityfodder;fibrefrombarkvariouslyused;ashofdriedleavestakenincough,whichmakeitanimportanttreeofsocialforestry.

5 Oreganum vulgare (Bantulsi)

Oreganum vulgare hasbeenusedasaculinaryandmedicinalherbforthousandsofyears.Phyto-chemical'Quercetin'presentinoreganorestrictsgrowthofmalignantcells inthebodyandactslikeadrugagainstcancer-centric diseases.O. vulgare extracts and essential oil are strong candidates to replace syntheticchemicalsusedbytheindustry[33].

6 Cleome viscosa(‘Jakhia’,Asianspiderflower,Tickweed)

Cleome viscosaisgatheredfromthewildandisoccasionallycultivatedinUttarakhand,whereitisgainingin popularity as a low-cost substitute for cumin. Besides, there are severalmedicinal uses ofC. viscosa.Theseedsareanthelmintic,carminative,rubefacient,stimulantandvesicant.Inexcesstheseedscancauseflatulenceanddistensionofthestomach.Adecoctionoftheseedsisusedasawashtotreatpiles.Theseedcontains0.1%viscosicacidand0.04%viscosin.Apasteoftherootisappliedexternallyinthetreatmentofearaches[34].Thejuiceoftheleaveshasbeenusedtorelieveearache.

7 Alliumspp.(‘Jambu’or‘Faran’)

‘Jambu’ or ‘Faran’ (Allium stracheyi, A. wallichii and A. humile) is a cultural and traditional seasoningcommodity of the people of Uttarakhand hills. Almost all families in Tolma, a village in theNandaDeviBiosphereReserve,practiseFaranfarming.Likewise,manyvillages inMalarivalleyofChamoli inGarhwalandJoharandDarmavalleyofPithorgarhdistrictinKumaonregioncultivateJambu.MarketingofJambuorFaranisnotaproblem;itisalwaysinhighdemand.

8 Angelica glauca (Gandhrain)

Angelica glauca is harvested for its roots.During collection, thewholeplant is uprootedand individualsaredisturbedbythisunsustainablecollectionpractice.Thiscollectionpracticehasresultedindeclineofitsareaofoccupancy,extentofoccurrenceandhabitatqualitybasedonobservations,aswellascircumstantialevidence.Thewildpopulationhasdeclinedbyc.70%overthelast10years.ThespeciesisthereforeassessedasEndangered(EN).

9 Carum carvi (KalajeeraorBhotiajeera)

Carum carviseedsareusedasflavouringoraromaticagent.MajorphytochemicalsreportedinC. carviseedsarelimonene,carvacrol,carvone,carvenone,γ-terpinene,α-pinene,linaloolandp-cymene.Newresearcheson caraway proved it as a source of new entities to perform different pharmacodynamic properties,responsiblefortheirpharmacologicaleffects.IthasalsobeenrecommendedthataromatherapycouldbeappliedasacomplementarytherapyforpeoplewithanxietysymptomsusingessentialoilofC. carvi.

Table 9DiscussionsonprioritizedplantfoodresourceswithprovenmarketingpotentialinUttarakhandhills.

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Yet,theimportanceofwildfoodstonutritionalsecuritymeansthat theyarenotnecessarily replacedbymarket-bought foodsproviding the same amount of calories. When more peopledepend solelyonmarket-bought (cultivated foods), consumingwildfoodswillbemarginalized[4].

AsUttarakhandhillshaveastrongfoodculture,traditionalfoodsystems can persist, andwild foods are still prevalent enoughtobeconsideredanimportantpartoflocaldietsparticularlyincrop-livestockmixfarmingsystemsandpastoralistcommunitiesofhigherHimalayanranges.

Thenutritiontransitionisdrivenbyachangingclimateaswellaslarge-scaleculturalchangesandisexpectedtoproducesignificantnegative effects to physical and mental health at communitylevel. Niche habitatswhere children usewild edible fruits andvegetables, level of malnutrition was low and the benefits ofconsuming traditionalwild foodswere clearly evident. Thoughwildfoodshaveplayedacriticalroleseveraltraditionalfarmingarea across the globe including circumpolar communities,public health policy generally operate within amodel of foodsecurity that discounts the traditional food practices of nativecommunities[4,31,32].

Conclusion Wild plant food resources form a significant portion of thedietarydiversityofthefarmerhouseholdsofUttarakhandhills.However,thecontributionofwildharvestedfoodstototalfoodand nutritional security is under-researched. Constant effortsto increase agricultural production and enhance economicdevelopmenthavethreatenedthecontinuedcontributionofwildspeciestofoodandnutritionalsecurity.Further,thesustainableharvesting of wild economic species requires a strong policysupportbyensuringitscontinuedavailabilityfor livelihoodandnutritionalsecurityoflocalcommunities.

UseofwildfoodresourcesispartofcultureandtraditionsofhillcommunitiesofUttarakhandandispartoftheir livinglinkwith

the land. Decline in traditional ways of life is interlinked withdecreasedwild fooduse.Wild foodspecies, therefore,providemorethanjustfoodandincometohillcommunities.Policiesonconservation, food-security andagriculture, therefore,need tobeintegratedtorecognizeandpreservetheimportanceofwildfoods.

Traditional food revitalization projects aimed at increasingtheconsumptionofwild foods, inorder toprovidehealthandcultural benefits to traditional communities otherwise subjectto the nutrition transition is considered a necessity. It is awell-recognized fact now that wild species and intra-speciesbiodiversityhavekeyrolesinglobalnutritionsecurity.Thewildfoods still provide substantialhealthandeconomicbenefits tothose who depend on them globally. The efforts to conservebiodiversityandpreserve traditional foodsystemsand farmingpractices,therefore,needtobecombinedandenhanced.

AcknowledgementThe authors thank the Director, ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi forproviding facilities for the exploratory surveys in parts ofUttarakhand hills. The farmer households from different nichehabitatsofUttarakhandstatedeserveourthanksforinteractingwiththeresearchteamandsharingthevaluableinformationtheypossessontraditionalagriculturalinnovations,nativeresourcesandfoodsystems.

Funding FinancialsupportreceivedfromtheJawaharlalNehruUniversity,New Delhi for a case study titled “Indigenous land and foodsystemsinUttarakhand:Acasestudyontraditionalknowledgeanduseofwildfoodsinagriculturalsystems”underDSTNetworkProgramme on Traditional Knowledge Systems in the IndianHimalayanregionisdulyacknowledged.

Disclosure statementNopotentialconflictofinterestwasreportedbytheauthors.

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