Wikipedia Handbook of Biomedical Informatics

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ContentsArticlesGeneral OverviewHealth information technology Health informatics Clinical Informatics cybermedicine eHealth Health 2.0 Public health informatics 1 1 7 18 29 33 37 41 44 44 46 46 49 51 52 57 58 65 71 82 82 83 83 102 108 121 122 122 123 125 126

Applications in Healthcare ManagementHealth Administration Informatics Medical integration environment Health information exchange Hospital information system Healthcare workflow Computer physician order entry ICU quality and management tools Laboratory information management system Laboratory information system mHealth Practice management software Clinical Quality Management System

Health Electronic RecordsElectronic health record Electronic medical record Personal health record COmputer STored Ambulatory Record ProRec Health record trust Canadian EMR ClearHealth Laika

openEHR OpenEMR OpenMRS Kind Messages for Electronic Healthcare Record Summarized Electronic Health Record VistA VistA imaging VistA Web WorldVistA ZEPRS

128 130 135 137 138 140 153 155 157 160 164 164 171 175 177 177 178 180 181 182 183 185 187 188 192 203 203 206 207 210 211 218 220 225 225 227

Decision Support ApplicationsClinical decision support system Computer-aided diagnosis Medical algorithm Medical logic module Arden syntax Concept Processing Guideline execution engine CADUCEUS DXplain Internist-I Mycin Physicians' Information and Education Resource RetroGuide STD Wizard

Medical Imaging ApplicationsDigital radiography Imaging informatics Patient registration Radiology information system Picture archiving and communication system Analysis of Functional NeuroImages 3DSlicer Analyze CARET CAVEman

FreeSurfer ImageJ InVesalius ITK-SNAP Mango OsiriX

228 230 233 235 238 239 241 241 247 250 252 253 253 255 257 257 259 260 262 264 266 271 276 277 279 282 284 286 287 288 288 293 297 309 311

Medical and biological signal applicationsMedical monitor Holter monitor Automated ECG interpretation MECIF Protocol SCP-ECG European Data Format OpenXDF

Databases, Digital Libraries and Literature RetrievalBiological database Medical literature retrieval MEDLINE Entrez eTBLAST PMID PubMed GoPubMed Pubget PubMed Central UK PubMed Central TRIP Database Twease SciELO

Telehealth and TelemedicineConnected Health Telehealth Telemedicine Telecare Telephone triage

Remote guidance Tele-epidemiology Telenursing Teledermatology Telemental Health Telepsychiatry Teleradiology Telerehabilitation Virtual reality in telerehabilitation Wireless Medical Telemetry Service

313 314 316 318 321 322 324 326 331 333 335 335 339 342 351 352 354 363 372 379 382 384 386 386 396 399 399 403 410 412 414 417 418 422 427

Computer-Aided Surgery, Medical Robotics and Virtual RealityComputer assisted surgery Remote surgery Robotic surgery Surgical Segment Navigator Bone segment navigation Robotic prostatectomy Robot-assisted heart surgery Cyberknife da Vinci Surgical System NeuroArm Laboratory Unit for Computer Assisted Surgery

Legislation and RegulationHealth Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Certification Commission for Healthcare Information Technology

Software SystemsMedical software Dental software List of freeware health software List of open source healthcare software List of neuroimaging software Mirth Mpro Open Dental Personal Health Application

Texas Medication Algorithm Project

428 430 430 446 446 448 450 453 456 457 459 461 463 467 467 468 470 471 474 475 476 480 480 481 482 483 486 489 494 495 497 498 500 501 502

Languages and Development PlatformsMUMPS

Internet ProjectsBing Health Dossia E-Patient Google Health iMedicor Microsoft Amalga Microsoft HealthVault Patient portal Virtual patient

Clinical Research InformaticsTranslational research informatics Clinical data management system Case report form Clinical coder Clinical data acquisition Data clarification form Patient-reported outcome

Standards, Coding and NomenclatureDiagnosis codes Procedure codes Bar Code Medication Administration Bidirectional Health Information Exchange Classification Commune des Actes Mdicaux Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals Clinical Context Object Workgroup Clinical Data Interchange Standards Consortium Clinical Document Architecture Continuity of Care Document Clinical Document Architecture Continuity of Care Record COSTART

Current Procedural Terminology Diagnosis-related group Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine DOCLE Electronic Common Technical Document EUDRANET General Data Format for Biomedical Signals Health Level 7 Healthcare Common Procedure Coding System Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel Health Informatics Service Architecture Healthcare Services Specification Project International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems ICD-10 ICD-10 Procedure Coding System International Classification of Diseases for Oncology International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health International Classification of Health Interventions International Classification of Primary Care International Healthcare Terminology Standards Development Organisation ICPC-2 PLUS ISO 27799 ISO/IEEE 11073 ISO/TC 215 LOINC MEDCIN MedDRA Medical Subject Headings Minimum Data Set Multiscale Electrophysiology Format NANDA Nursing Interventions Classification Nursing Minimum Data Set Nursing Outcomes Classification OpenGALEN SNOMED SNOMED CT Standard for Exchange of Non-clinical Data

503 508 511 518 519 522 522 523 533 534 536 536 539 546 549 555 567 570 571 573 576 577 578 586 589 591 592 593 596 597 598 600 600 601 601 603 606 612

TC 251 WHOART

613 614 615 615 616 617 620 621 623 625 625 626 627 629 630 631 634 637 638 639 640 641 642 645 645 647 651 653 654 655 658 660 663 663 664

Healthcare OntologiesNosology Archetype OBO Foundry Ontology for Biomedical Investigations Open Biomedical Ontologies TIME-ITEM

Associations, Committees and ConferencesAmerican Association for Medical Systems and Informatics American College of Medical Informatics American Health Information Management Association American Telemedicine Association Belgian Health Telematics Commission Brazilian Society of Health Informatics Brazilian Congress on Health Informatics Center for Telehealth and E-Health Law European Federation for Medical Informatics European Health Telematics Association European Health Telematics Observatory European Institute for Health Records Health On the Net Foundation HISA Indian Association for Medical Informatics International Medical Informatics Association Medinfo National Resource Center for Health Information Technology Open Source Health Care Alliance The Continua Health Alliance UNESCO Chair in Telemedicine World Health Imaging, Telemedicine, and Informatics Alliance

PublicationsList of medical and health informatics journals Journal of Information Professionals in Health

Journal of Medical Internet Research

665 667 667 667 669 670 672 673 674 675 676 686 689 699 700 704 705 707 707 708 709 711 711 714 723 728 729 734 736 738 739 746 749 749 753

National ProjectsBeHealth Canada Health Infoway Distance Learning and Telemedicine Grant and Loan Program eHealth Ontario HealthConnect Health Information Systems Programme District Health Information System FLOW Health informatics in China NHS Direct NHS National Programme for IT Ontario Telemedicine Network Public Health Information Network SAPPHIRE SmartCare

International ProjectsBuilding Europe-Africa Collaborative Network for Applying IST in Health Care Sector Global Infectious Disease Epidemiology Network Integrating the Healthcare Enterprise

MiscellaneaGIS and Public Health Neuroinformatics Healthcare Effectiveness Data and Information Set E-epidemiology Epi Info OpenEpi Living Human Project Stereolithography Virtual Physiological Human Visible Human Project

PeopleEdward H. Shortliffe Don E. Detmer

Homer R. Warner Robert Ledley Vimla L. Patel

756 760 773

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 776 789

Article LicensesLicense 792

1

General OverviewHealth information technologyHealth information technology (HIT) provides the umbrella framework to describe the comprehensive management of health information across computerized systems and its secure exchange between consumers, providers, government and quality entities, and insurers. Health information technology (HIT) is in general increasingly viewed as the most promising tool for improving the overall quality, safety and efficiency of the health delivery system (Chaudhry et al., 2006). Broad and consistent utilization of HIT will: Improve health care quality; Prevent medical errors; Reduce health care costs; Increase administrative efficiencies; Decrease paperwork; and

Expand access to affordable care. Interoperable HIT will improve individual patient care, but it will also bring many public health benefits including: Early detection of infectious disease outbreaks around the country; Improved tracking of chronic disease management; and Evaluation of health care based on value enabled by the collection of de-identified price and quality information that can be compared.

Concepts and DefinitionsHealth information technology (HIT) is the application of information processing involving both computer hardware and software that deals with the storage, retrieval, sharing, and use of health care information, data, and knowledge for communication and decision making (Brailer, & Thompson, 2004). Technology is a broad concept that deals with a species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. For HIT, technology represents computers and communications attributes that can be networked to build systems for moving health information. Informatics is yet another integral aspect of HIT. Informatics refers to the science of information, the practice of information processing, and the engineering of information systems. Informatics underlies the academic investigation and practitioner application of computing and communications technology to healthcare, health education, and biomedical research. Health informatics refers to the intersection of information science, computer science, and health care. Health informatics describes the use and sharing of information within the healthcare industry with contributions from computer science, mathematics, and psychology. It deals with the resources, devices, and methods required for optimizing the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information in health and biomedicine. Health informatics tools include not only computers but also clinical guidelines, formal medical terminologies, and information and communication systems. Medical informatics, nursing informatics, public health informatics, and pharmacy informatics are subdisciplines that inform health informatics from different disciplinary perspectives. The processes and people of concern or study are the main variables.

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Implementation of HITThe Institute of Medicines (2001) call for the use of electronic prescribing systems in all healthcare organizations by 2010 heightened the urgency to accelerate United States hospitals adoption of CPOE systems. In 2004, President Bush signed an Executive Order titled the Presidents Health Information Technology Plan, which established a ten-year plan to develop and implement electronic medical record systems across the US to improve the efficiency and safety of care. According to a study by RAND Health, the US healthcare system could save more than $81 billion annually, reduce adverse healthcare events and improve the quality of care if it were to widely adopt health information technology.[1] The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, signed into law in 2009 under the Obama Administration, has provided approximately $19 billion in incentives for hospitals to shift from paper to electronic medical records. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act has set aside $2 billion which will go towards programs developed by the National Coordinator and Secretary to help healthcare providers implement HIT and provide technical assistance through various regional centers. The other $17 billion dollars in incentives comes from Medicare and Medicaid funding for those who adopt HIT before 2015. Healthcare providers who implement electronic records can receive up to $44,000 over four years in Medicare funding and $63,750 over six years in Medicaid funding. The sooner that healthcare providers adopt the system, the more funding they receive. Those who do not adopt electronic health record systems before 2015 do not receive any federal funding. [2] While electronic health records have potentially many advantages in terms of providing efficient and safe care, recent reports have brought to light some challenges with implementing electronic health records. The most immediate barriers for widespread adoption of this technology have been the high initial cost of implementing the new technology and the time required for doctors to train and adapt to the new system. There have also been suspected cases of fraudulent billing, where hospitals inflate their billings to Medicare. Given that healthcare providers have not reached the deadline (2015) for adopting electronic health records, it is unclear what effects this policy will have long term. [3]

Types of technologyIn a recent study about the adoption of technology in the United States, Furukawa, and colleagues (2008) classified applications for prescribing to include electronic medical records (EMR), clinical decision support (CDS), and computerized physician order entry (CPOE). They further defined applications for dispensing to include bar-coding at medication dispensing (BarD), robot for medication dispensing (ROBOT), and automated dispensing machines (ADM). And, they defined applications for administration to include electronic medication administration records (EMAR) and bar-coding at medication administration (BarA).

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Electronic Health Record (EHR)Although frequently cited in the literature the Electronic health record (EHR), previously known as the Electronic medical record (EMR), there is no consensus about the definition (Jha et al., 2008). However, there is consensus that EMRs can reduce several types of errors, including those related to prescription drugs, to preventive care, and to tests and procedures.[4] Recurring alerts remind clinicians of intervals for preventive care and track referrals and test results. Clinical guidelines for disease management have a demonstrated benefit when accessible within the electronic record during the process of treating the patient.[5] Advances in health informatics and widespread adoption of interoperable electronic health US medical groups' adoption of EHR (2005) records promise access to a patient's records at any health care site. A 2005 report noted that medical practices in the United States are encountering barriers to adopting an EHR system, such as training, costs and complexity, but the adoption rate continues to rise (see chart to right).[6] Since 2002, the National Health Service of the United Kingdom has placed emphasis on introducing computers into healthcare. As of 2005, one of the largest projects for a national EHR is by the National Health Service (NHS) in the United Kingdom. The goal of the NHS is to have 60,000,000 patients with a centralized electronic health record by 2010. The plan involves a gradual roll-out commencing May 2006, providing general practices in England access to the National Programme for IT (NPfIT), the NHS component of which is known as the "Connecting for Health Programme".[7] However, recent surveys have shown physicians' deficiencies in understanding the patient safety features of the NPfIT-approved software.[8]

Clinical point of care technologyComputerized Provider (Physician) Order Entry (CPOE) Prescribing errors are the largest identified source of preventable errors in hospitals. A 2006 report by the Institute of Medicine estimated that a hospitalized patient is exposed to a medication error each day of his or her stay.[9] Computerized provider order entry (CPOE), formerly called Computer physician order entry, can reduce total medication error rates by 80%, and adverse (serious with harm to patient) errors by 55%.[10] A 2004 survey by Leapfrog [11] found that 16% of US clinics, hospitals and medical practices are expected to be utilizing CPOE within 2 years.[12] In addition to electronic prescribing, a standardized bar code system for dispensing drugs could prevent a quarter of drug errors.[9] Consumer information about the risks of the drugs and improved drug packaging (clear labels, avoiding similar drug names and dosage reminders) are other error-proofing measures. Despite ample evidence of the potential to reduce medication errors, competing systems of barcoding and electronic prescribing have slowed adoption of this technology by doctors and hospitals in the United States, due to concern with interoperability and compliance with future national standards.[13] Such concerns are not inconsequential; standards for electronic prescribing for Medicare Part D conflict with regulations in many US states.[9] And, aside from regulatory concerns, for the small-practice physician, utilizing CPOE requires a major change in practice work flow and an additional investment of time. Many physicians are not full-time hospital staff; entering orders for their hospitalized patients means taking time away from scheduled patients.[14]

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Technological Innovations, Opportunities, and ChallengesHandwritten reports or notes, manual order entry, non-standard abbreviations and poor legibility lead to substantial errors and injuries, according to the Institute of Medicine (2000) report. The follow-up IOM (2004) report, Crossing the quality chasm: A new health system for the 21st century, advised rapid adoption of electronic patient records, electronic medication ordering, with computer- and internet-based information systems to support clinical decisions.[15] However, many system implementations have experienced costly failures (Ammenwerth et al., 2006). Furthermore, there is evidence that CPOE may actually contribute to some types of adverse events and other medical errors.(Campbell et al., 2007) For example, the period immediately following CPOE implementation resulted in significant increases in reported adverse drug events in at least one study (Bradley, Steltenkamp, & Hite, 2006) and evidence of other errors have been reported.(Bates, 2005a; Bates, Leape, Cullen, & Laird, 1998; Bates; 2005b) Collectively, these reported adverse events describe phenomena related to the disruption of the complex adaptive system resulting from poorly implemented or inadequately planned technological innovation.

Technological IatrogenesisTechnology may introduce new sources of error[16][17] Technologically induced errors are significant and increasingly more evident in care delivery systems. Terms to describe this new area of error production include the label technological iatrogenesis[18] for the process and e-iatrogenic[19] for the individual error. The sources for these errors include: Prescriber and staff inexperience may lead to a false sense of security; that when technology suggests a course of action, errors are avoided. Shortcut or default selections can override non-standard medication regimens for elderly or underweight patients, resulting in toxic doses. CPOE and automated drug dispensing was identified as a cause of error by 84% of over 500 health care facilities participating in a surveillance system by the United States Pharmacopoeia.[20] Irrelevant or frequent warnings can interrupt work flow. Healthcare information technology can also result in iatrogenesis if design and engineering are substandard, as illustrated in a 14-part detailed analysis done at the University of Sydney.[21]

References[1] RAND Healthcare: Health Information Technology: Can HIT Lower Costs and Improve Quality? (http:/ / www. rand. org/ pubs/ research_briefs/ RB9136/ index1. html) Retrieved on July 8, 2006 [2] "Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services" (https:/ / www. cms. gov/ Regulations-and-Guidance/ Legislation/ EHRIncentivePrograms/ index. html?redirect=/ EHRIncentivePrograms/ ). . [3] Freudenheim, Milt (10/8/2012). "The Ups and Downs of Electronic Medical Records" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2012/ 10/ 09/ health/ the-ups-and-downs-of-electronic-medical-records-the-digital-doctor. html?pagewanted=all& _r=0). New York Times. . [4] American College of Physicians Observer: How EMR software can help prevent medical mistakes (http:/ / www. acponline. org/ journals/ news/ sep04/ emr. htm) by Jerome H. Carter (September 2004) [5] Kensaku Kawamoto, fellow1, Caitlin A Houlihan, E Andrew Balas, David F Lobach (2005). "Improving clinical practice using clinical decision support systems: a systematic review of trials to identify features critical to success" (http:/ / bmj. bmjjournals. com/ cgi/ content/ full/ 330/ 7494/ 765). British Medical Journal 330 (7494): 765768. doi:10.1136/bmj.38398.500764.8F. PMC555881. PMID15767266. . Retrieved 2006-06-29. [6] Gans D, Kralewski J, Hammons T, Dowd B (2005). "Medical groups' adoption of electronic health records and information systems" (http:/ / content. healthaffairs. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 24/ 5/ 1323). Health affairs (Project Hope) 24 (5): 13231333. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.24.5.1323. PMID16162580. . Retrieved 2006-07-04. [7] NHS Connecting for Health: Delivering the National Programme for IT (http:/ / www. connectingforhealth. nhs. uk/ delivery/ ) Retrieved August 4, 2006 [8] C J Morris, B S P Savelyich, A J Avery, J A Cantrill and A Sheikh (2005). "Patient safety features of clinical computer systems: questionnaire survey of GP views" (http:/ / qhc. bmjjournals. com/ cgi/ content/ full/ 14/ 3/ 164). Quality and Safety in Health Care 14 (3): 164168. doi:10.1136/qshc.2004.011866. PMC1744017. PMID15933310. . Retrieved 2006-07-08.

Health information technology[9] The Institute of Medicine (2006). "Preventing Medication Errors" (http:/ / www. nap. edu/ catalog/ 11623. html). The National Academies Press. . Retrieved 2006-07-21. [10] David W. Bates, MD et al. (1998). "Effect of Computerized Physician Order Entry and a Team Intervention on Prevention of Serious Medication Errors" (http:/ / jama. ama-assn. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 280/ 15/ 1311). JAMA 280 (15): 13111316. doi:10.1001/jama.280.15.1311. PMID9794308. . Retrieved 2006-06-20. [11] http:/ / leapfroggroup. org/ [12] "Hospital Quality & Safety Survey" (http:/ / www. leapfroggroup. org/ media/ file/ Leapfrog-Survey_Release-11-16-04. pdf) (PDF). The Leapfrog Group. 2004. . Retrieved 2006-07-08. [13] Kaufman, Marc (2005-07-21). "Medication Errors Harming Millions, Report Says. Extensive National Study Finds Widespread, Costly Mistakes in Giving and Taking Medicine" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 07/ 20/ AR2006072000754. html). The Washington Post. pp.A08. . Retrieved 2006-07-21. [14] "Computerized Physician Order Entry: Coming to a Hospital Near You" (http:/ / www. physicianspractice. com/ blog/ content/ article/ 1462168/ 2052940) J. Scott Litton, Physicians Practice, March 2012. [15] Institute of Medicine (2001). "Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century" (http:/ / www. nap. edu/ books/ 0309072808/ html). The National Academies Press. . Retrieved 2006-06-29. [16] Ross Koppel, PhD et al. (2005). "Role of Computerized Physician Order Entry Systems in Facilitating Medication Errors" (http:/ / jama. ama-assn. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 293/ 10/ 1197). JAMA 293 (10): 11971203. doi:10.1001/jama.293.10.1197. PMID15755942. . Retrieved 2006-06-28. [17] Lohr, Steve (2005-03-09). "Doctors' Journal Says Computing Is No Panacea" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 03/ 09/ technology/ 09compute. html?ei=5089& en=402b792e748d99a2& ex=1268110800& adxnnl=1& partner=rssyahoo& adxnnlx=1150474153-xVix1BcYkvTKJpuLyHStrQ). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2006-07-15. [18] Patrick Palmieri et al. (2007). "Technological iatrogenesis: New risks force heightened management awareness" (http:/ / www. hom. ba. ttu. edu/ FordPub/ Palmieri_JHCRM_2008_Technological iatrogenesis. pdf). Journal of Healthcare Risk Management 27 (4): 1924. doi:10.1002/jhrm.5600270405. PMID20200891. . Retrieved 2008-07-02. [19] Weiner et al. (2007). "e-Iatrogenesis: The most critical unintended consequence of CPOE and other HIT" (http:/ / www. jamia. org/ cgi/ reprint/ 14/ 3/ 387. pdf). Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 14 (3): 387388. doi:10.1197/jamia.M2338. PMC2244888. PMID17329719. . Retrieved 2008-08-24. [20] Santell, John P (2004). "Computer Related Errors: What Every Pharmacist Should Know" (http:/ / www. usp. org/ pdf/ EN/ patientSafety/ slideShows2004-12-09. pdf) (PDF). United States Pharmacopia. . Retrieved 2006-06-20. [21] A Study of An Enterprise Health Information System (http:/ / sydney. edu. au/ engineering/ it/ ~hitru/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=91& Itemid=146)

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Further reading Ammenwerth, E., Talmon, J., Ash, J. S., Bates, D. W., Beuscart-Zephir, M. C., Duhamel, A., Elkin, P. L., Gardner, R. M., & Geissbuhler, A. (2006). Impact of CPOE on mortality rates contradictory findings, important messages. Methods Inf Med, 45(6): 586-593. Ash, J. S., Sittig, D. F., Poon, E. G., Guappone, K., Campbell, E., & Dykstra, R. H. (2007). The extent and importance of unintended consequences related to computerized provider order entry. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 14(4): 415-423. Bates, D. (2005a). Computerized Physician Order entry and medication errors: finding a balance. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 38(4): 250-261. Bates, D.W. (2005b). Physicians and ambulatory electronic health records. Health Affairs, 24(5): 1180-1189. Bates, D. W., Leape, L. L., Cullen, D. J., & Laird, N. (1998). Effect of computerized physician order entry and a team intervention on prevention of serious medical errors. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280: 1311-1316. Bradley, V. M., Steltenkamp, C. L., & Hite, K. B. (2006). Evaluation of reported medication errors before and after implementation of computerized practitioner order entry. Journal Healthc Inf Manag, 20(4): 46-53. Brailer, D., & Thompson, T. (2004). Health IT strategic framework. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services. Chaudhry, B. Wang, J., & Wu, S. et al., (2006). Systematic review: Impact of health information technology on quality, efficiency, and costs of medical care, Annals of Internal Medicine, 144(10), 742752. Campbell, E. M., Sittig, D. F., Ash, J. S., Guappone, K. P., & Dykstra, R. H. (2007). In reply to: e-Iatrogenesis: The most critical consequence of CPOE and other HIT. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association.

Health information technology Edmunds M, Peddicord D, Detmer DE, Shortliffe E. Health IT Policy and Politics: A Primer on Moving Policy Into Action. Featured Session, American Medical Informatics Association Annual Symposium (2009). Available as a webinar at https://www.amia.org/amia-policy-101. Furukawa, M. F., Raghu, T. S., Spaulding, T. J., & Vinze, A. (2008). Health Affairs, 27, (3), 865-875. Institute of Medicine (2001). Crossing the quality chasm: A new health system for the 21st century. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press. Jha, A. K., Doolan, D., Grandt, D., Scott, T. & Bates, D. W. (2008). The use of health information technology in seven nations. International Journal of Medical Informatics, corrected proof in-press. Kawamoto, K. H., Caitlin, A., Balas, E. A., & Lobach, D. F. (2005). Improving clinical practice using clinical decision support systems: A systematic review of trials to identify features critical to success. British Journal of Medicine, 330(7494): 765-774. Sidrov, J. (2006). It aint necessarily so: The electronic health record and the unlikely prospect of reducing healthcare costs. Health Affairs, 25(4): 1079-1085.

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External links Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) (http://www.hrsa.gov/healthit/) Health Information Technology (http://www.hhs.gov/healthit/) at US Department of Health & Human Services Healthcare Information Technology (http://www.ansi.org/standards_activities/standards_boards_panels/hisb/ hitsp.aspx?menuid=3) from American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Certification Commission for Healthcare Information Technology (CCHIT) (http://www.cchit.org/) Health Information Technology Videos (http://www.ehrtv.com/) Health IT Discussion Forum (http://www.healthinformaticsforum.com/) Hospital Management Information System (http://www.cdacnoida.in/HIS/index.asp) from Center for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) (http://www.cdacnoida.in/) American Society of Health Informatics Managers (http://www.ashim.org/) Patient Safety Initiatives in India Using Health IT (http://thepatient.in/safety/) Health Information Technology Certification Programs (http://www.chcp.edu/online-programs/ health-information-technology)

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Health informaticsHealth informatics (also called Health Information Systems, health care informatics, healthcare informatics, medical informatics, nursing informatics, clinical informatics, or biomedical informatics) is a discipline at the intersection of information science, computer science, and health care. It deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information in health and biomedicine. Health informatics tools include computers, clinical guidelines, formal medical terminologies, and information and communication systems. It is applied to the areas of nursing, clinical care, dentistry, pharmacy, public health, occupational therapy, and (bio)medical research.

Electronic patient chart from a health information system

The international standards on the subject are covered by ICS 35.240.80[1] in which ISO 27799:2008 is one of the core components.[2] Molecular bioinformatics and clinical informatics have converged into the field of translational bioinformatics.

HistoryWorld wide use of computer technology in medicine began in the early 1950s with the rise of the computers.[3] In 1949, Gustav Wagner established the first professional organization for informatics in Germany.[4] The prehistory, history, and future of medical information and health information technology are discussed in reference.[5] Specialized university departments and Informatics training programs began during the 1960s in France, Germany, Belgium and The Netherlands. Medical informatics research units began to appear during the 1970s in Poland and in the U.S.[4] Since then the development of high-quality health informatics research, education and infrastructure has been a goal of the U.S. and the European Union.[4] Early names for health informatics included medical computing, biomedical computing, medical computer science, computer medicine, medical electronic data processing, medical automatic data processing, medical information processing, medical information science, medical software engineering, and medical computer technology. The health informatics community is still growing, it is by no means a mature profession, but work in the UK by the voluntary registration body, the UK Council of Health Informatics Professions has suggested eight key constituencies within the domain - information management, knowledge management, portfolio/programme/project management, ICT, education and research, clinical informatics, health records(service and business-related), health informatics service management. These constituencies accommodate professionals in and for the NHS, in academia and commercial service and solution providers. Since the 1970s the most prominent international coordinating body has been the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA).[6]

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Medical informatics in the United StatesEven though the idea of using computers in medicine emerged as technology advanced in the early 20th century, it was not until the 1950s that informatics began to make a significant impact in the United States.[3] The earliest use of electronic digital computers for medicine was for dental projects in the 1950s at the United States National Bureau of Standards by Robert Ledley.[7] During the mid-1950s, the United States Air Force (USAF) carried out several medical projects on its computers while also encouraging civilian agencies such as the National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council (NAS-NRC) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to sponsor such work.[8] In 1959, Ledley and Lee B. Lusted published Reasoning Foundations of Medical Diagnosis, a widely-read article in Science, which introduced computing (especially operations research) techniques to medical workers. Ledley and Lusteds article has remained influential for decades, especially within the field of medical decision making.[9] Guided by Ledley's late 1950s survey of computer use in biology and medicine (carried out for the NAS-NRC), and by his and Lusted's articles, the NIH undertook the first major effort to introduce computers to biology and medicine. This effort, carried out initially by the NIH's Advisory Committee on Computers in Research (ACCR), chaired by Lusted, spent over $40 million between 1960 and 1964 in order to establish dozens of large and small biomedical research centers in the US.[8] One early (1960, non-ACCR) use of computers was to help quantify normal human movement, as a precursor to scientifically measuring deviations from normal, and design of prostheses.[10] The use of computers (IBM 650, 1620, and 7040) allowed analysis of a large sample size, and of more measurements and subgroups than had been previously practical with mechanical calculators, thus allowing an objective understanding of how human locomotion varies by age and body characteristics. A study co-author was Dean of the Marquette University College of Engineering; this work led to discrete Biomedical Engineering departments there and elsewhere. The next steps, in the mid-1960s, were the development (sponsored largely by the NIH) of expert systems such as MYCIN and Internist-I. In 1965, the National Library of Medicine started to use MEDLINE and MEDLARS. Around this time, Neil Pappalardo, Curtis Marble, and Robert Greenes developed MUMPS (Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System) in Octo Barnett's Laboratory of Computer Science [11] at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, another center of biomedical computing that received significant support from the NIH.[12] In the 1970s and 1980s it was the most commonly used programming language for clinical applications. The MUMPS operating system was used to support MUMPS language specifications. As of 2004, a descendent of this system is being used in the United States Veterans Affairs hospital system. The VA has the largest enterprise-wide health information system that includes an electronic medical record, known as the Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture (VistA). A graphical user interface known as the Computerized Patient Record System (CPRS) allows health care providers to review and update a patients electronic medical record at any of the VA's over 1,000 health care facilities. During the 1960s, Morris Collen, a physician working for Kaiser Permanente's Division of Research, developed computerized systems to automate many aspects of multiphasic health checkups. These system became the basis the larger medical databases Kaiser Permanente developed during the 1970s and 1980s.[13] The American College of Medical Informatics (ACMI) has since 1993 annually bestowed the Morris F. Collen, MD Medal for Outstanding Contributions to the Field of Medical Informatics.[14] In the 1970s a growing number of commercial vendors began to market practice management and electronic medical records systems. Although many products exist, only a small number of health practitioners use fully featured electronic health care records systems. Homer R. Warner, one of the fathers of medical informatics,[15] founded the Department of Medical Informatics at the University of Utah in 1968. The American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA) has an award named after him on application of informatics to medicine.

Health informatics Informatics Certifications Like other IT training specialties, there are Informatics certifications available to help informatics professionals stand out and be recognized. In Radiology Informatics, the CIIP (Certified Imaging Informatics Professional) certification was created by ABII (The American Board of Imaging Informatics) which is sponsored by SIIM (the Society for Imaging Informatics in Medicine) in 2005. The CIIP certification requires documented experience working in Imaging Informatics, formal testing and is a limited time credential requiring renewal every five years. The exam tests for a combination of IT technical knowledge, clinical understanding, and project management experience thought to represent the typical workload of a PACS administrator or other radiology IT clinical support role. Certifications from PARCA (PACS Administrators Registry and Certifications Association) are also recognized. The five PARCA certifications are tiered from entry level to architect level.

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Medical informatics in the UKThe broad history of health informatics has been captured in the book UK Health Computing : Recollections and reflections, Hayes G, Barnett D (Eds.), BCS (May 2008) by those active in the field, predominantly members of BCS Health and its constituent groups. The book describes the path taken as early development of health informatics was unorganized and idiosyncratic. In the early -1950s it was prompted by those involved in NHS finance and only in the early 1960s did solutions including those in pathology (1960), radiotherapy (1962), immunization (1963), and primary care (1968) emerge. Many of these solutions, even in the early 1970s were developed in-house by pioneers in the field to meet their own requirements. In part this was due to some areas of health services (for example the immunization and vaccination of children) still being provided by Local Authorities. Interesting, this is a situation which the coalition government propose broadly to return to in the 2010 strategy Equity and Excellence: Liberating the NHS (July 2010); stating: "We will put patients at the heart of the NHS, through an information revolution and greater choice and control with shared decision-making becoming the norm: no decision about me without me and patients having access to the information they want, to make choices about their care. They will have increased control over their own care records." These types of statements present a significant opportunity for health informaticians to come out of the back-office and take up a front-line role supporting clinical practice, and the business of care delivery. The UK health informatics community has long played a key role in international activity, joining TC4 of the International Federation of Information Processing (1969) which became IMIA (1979). Under the aegis of BCS Health, Cambridge was the host for the first EFMI Medical Informatics Europe (1974) conference and London was the location for IMIAs tenth global congress (MEDINFO2001).

Current state of health informatics and policy initiativesAmericasArgentina Since 1997, the Buenos Aires Biomedical Informatics Group, a nonprofit group, represents the interests of a broad range of clinical and non-clinical professionals working within the Health Informatics sphere. Its purposes are: Promote the implementation of the computer tool in the healthcare activity, scientific research, health administration and in all areas related to health sciences and biomedical research. Support, promote and disseminate content related activities with the management of health information and tools they used to do under the name of Biomedical informatics. Promote cooperation and exchange of actions generated in the field of biomedical informatics, both in the public and private, national and international level.

Health informatics Interact with all scientists, recognized academic stimulating the creation of new instances that have the same goal and be inspired by the same purpose. To promote, organize, sponsor and participate in events and activities for training in computer and information and disseminating developments in this area that might be useful for team members and health related activities. The Argentinian health system is heterogeneousin its function, and because of that the informatics developments show a heterogeneous stage. Many private Health Care center have developed systems, such as the German Hospital of Buenos Aires, which was one of the first in developing an electronic health records system. Brazil The first applications of computers to medicine and healthcare in Brazil started around 1968, with the installation of the first mainframes in public university hospitals, and the use of programmable calculators in scientific research applications. Minicomputers, such as the IBM 1130 were installed in several universities, and the first applications were developed for them, such as the hospital census in the School of Medicine of Ribeiro Preto and patient master files, in the Hospital das Clnicas da Universidade de So Paulo, respectively at the cities of Ribeiro Preto and So Paulo campi of the University of So Paulo. In the 1970s, several Digital Corporation and Hewlett Packard minicomputers were acquired for public and Armed Forces hospitals, and more intensively used for intensive-care unit, cardiology diagnostics, patient monitoring and other applications. In the early 1980s, with the arrival of cheaper microcomputers, a great upsurge of computer applications in health ensued, and in 1986 the Brazilian Society of Health Informatics was founded, the first Brazilian Congress of Health Informatics was held, and the first Brazilian Journal of Health Informatics was published. In Brazil, two universities are pioneers in teaching and research in Medical Informatics, both the University of Sao Paulo and the Federal University of Sao Paulo offer undergraduate programs highly qualified in the area as well as extensive graduate programs (MSc and PhD) Canada Health Informatics projects in Canada are implemented provincially, with different provinces creating different systems. A national, federally-funded, not-for-profit organization called Canada Health Infoway was created in 2001 to foster the development and adoption of electronic health records across Canada. As of December 31, 2008 there were 276 EHR projects under way in Canadian hospitals, other health-care facilities, pharmacies and laboratories, with an investment value of $1.5-billion from Canada Health Infoway.[16] Provincial and territorial programmes include the following: eHealth Ontario was created as an Ontario provincial government agency in September 2008. It has been plagued by delays and its CEO was fired over a multimillion-dollar contracts scandal in 2009.[17] Alberta Netcare was created in 2003 by the Government of Alberta. Today the netCARE portal is used daily by thousands of clinicians. It provides access to demographic data, prescribed/dispensed drugs, known allergies/intolerances, immunizations, laboratory test results, diagnostic imaging reports, the diabetes registry and other medical reports. netCARE interface capabilities are being included in electronic medical record products which are being funded by the provincial government.

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Health informatics United States In 2004, President George W. Bush signed Executive Order 13335 [18], creating the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONCHIT) as a division of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The mission of this office is widespread adoption of interoperable electronic health records (EHRs) in the US within 10 years. See quality improvement organizations for more information on federal initiatives in this area. The Certification Commission for Healthcare Information Technology (CCHIT), a private nonprofit group, was funded in 2005 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to develop a set of standards for electronic health records (EHR) and supporting networks, and certify vendors who meet them. In July 2006, CCHIT released its first list of 22 certified ambulatory EHR products, in two different announcements.[19]

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EuropeThe European Union's Member States are committed to sharing their best practices and experiences to create a European eHealth Area, thereby improving access to and quality health care at the same time as stimulating growth in a promising new industrial sector. The European eHealth Action Plan plays a fundamental role in the European Union's strategy. Work on this initiative involves a collaborative approach among several parts of the Commission services.[20][21] The European Institute for Health Records is involved in the promotion of high quality electronic health record systems in the European Union.[22] UK There are different models of health informatics delivery in each of the home countries (England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales) but some bodies like UKCHIP [23] (see below ) operate for those 'in and for' all the home countries and beyond. England The NHS in England has contracted out to several vendors for a national health informatics system 'NPFIT' that originally divided the country into five regions and is to be united by a central electronic medical record system nicknamed "the spine".[16] The project, in 2010, is seriously behind schedule and its scope and design are being revised in real time. In 2010 a wide consultation was launched as part of a wider Liberating the NHS plan. Many organisations and bodies (look on their own websites, as most have made their responses public in detail for information) responded to the consultation and a new strategy is expected in the second quarter of 2011. The degree of computerisation in NHS secondary care was quite high before NPfIT and that programme has had the unfortunate effect of largely stalling further development of the installed base. Almost all general practices in England and Wales are computerised and patients have relatively extensive computerised primary care clinical records. Computerisation is the responsibility of individual practices and there is no single, standardised GP system. Interoperation between primary and secondary care systems is rather primitive. A focus on interworking (for interfacing and integration) standards is hoped will stimulate synergy between primary and secondary care in sharing necessary information to support the care of individuals. Scotland has an approach to central connection under way which is more advanced than the English one in some ways. Scotland has the GPASS system whose source code is owned by the State, and controlled and developed by NHS Scotland. GPASS was accepted in 1984. It has been provided free to all GPs in Scotland but has developed poorly. Discussion of open sourcing it as a remedy is occurring.

Health informatics Wales Wales has a dedicated Health Informatics function that supports NHS Wales in leading on the new integrated digital information services and promoting Health Informatics as a career. More information at www.wales.nhs.uk/nwis Emerging Directions (European R&D) The European Commission's preference, as exemplified in the 5th Framework[24] as well as currently pursued pilot projects,[25] is for Free/Libre and Open Source Software (FLOSS) for healthcare. Another stream of research currently focuses on aspects of "big data" in health information systems. For background information on data-related aspects in health informatics see, e.g., the book "Biomedical Informatics" [26] by Andreas Holzinger.

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Asia and OceaniaIn Asia and Australia-New Zealand, the regional group called the Asia Pacific Association for Medical Informatics (APAMI)[27] was established in 1994 and now consists of more than 15 member regions in the Asia Pacific Region. Australia The Australasian College of Health Informatics (ACHI) is the professional association for health informatics in the Asia-Pacific region. It represents the interests of a broad range of clinical and non-clinical professionals working within the health informatics sphere through a commitment to quality, standards and ethical practice.[28] Founded in 2002, ACHI is increasingly valued[29] for its thought leadership, its trusted advisors and national and international experts in Health Informatics. ACHI is an academic institutional member of the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA)[30] and a full member of the Australian Council of Professions.[31] ACHI is a sponsor of the "e-Journal for Health Informatics",[32] an indexed and peer-reviewed professional journal. ACHI has also supported the "Australian Health Informatics Education Council" (AHIEC) since its founding in 2009.[33] Although there are a number of health informatics organisations in Australia, the Health Informatics Society of Australia[34] (HISA) is regarded as the major umbrella group and is a member of the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA). Nursing informaticians were the driving force behind the formation of HISA, which is now a company limited by guarantee of the members. The membership comes from across the informatics spectrum that is from students to corporate affiliates. HISA has a number of branches (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia) as well as special interest groups such as nursing (NIA), pathology, aged and community care, industry and medical imaging (Conrick, 2006). Hong Kong In Hong Kong a computerized patient record system called the Clinical Management System (CMS) has been developed by the Hospital Authority since 1994. This system has been deployed at all the sites of the Authority (40 hospitals and 120 clinics), and is used by all 30,000 clinical staff on a daily basis, with a daily transaction of up to 2 millions. The comprehensive records of 7 million patients are available on-line in the Electronic Patient Record (ePR), with data integrated from all sites. Since 2004 radiology image viewing has been added to the ePR, with radiography images from any HA site being available as part of the ePR. The Hong Kong Hospital Authority placed particular attention to the governance of clinical systems development, with input from hundreds of clinicians being incorporated through a structured process. The Health Informatics Section in Hong Kong Hospital Authority[35] has close relationship with Information Technology Department and clinicians to develop healthcare systems for the organization to support the service to all public hospitals and clinics in the region. The Hong Kong Society of Medical Informatics (HKSMI) was established in 1987 to promote the use of information technology in healthcare. The eHealth Consortium has been formed to bring together clinicians from both the private and public sectors, medical informatics professionals and the IT industry to further promote IT in healthcare in Hong

Health informatics Kong.[36] New Zealand Health Informatics is taught at five New Zealand universities. The most mature and established is the Otago programme which has been offered for over a decade.[37] Health Informatics New Zealand (HINZ), is the national organisation that advocates for Health Informatics. HINZ organises a conference every year and also publishes an online journal- Healthcare Informatics Review Online. Saudi Arabia The Saudi Association for Health Information (SAHI) was established in 2006[38] to work under direct supervision of King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences to practice public activities, develop theoretical and applicable knowledge, and provide scientific and applicable studies.[39]

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Health Informatics LawHealth informatics law deals with evolving and sometimes complex legal principles as they apply to information technology in health-related fields. It addresses the privacy, ethical and operational issues that invariably arise when electronic tools, information and media are used in health care delivery. Health Informatics Law also applies to all matters that involve information technology, health care and the interaction of information. It deals with the circumstances under which data and records are shared with other fields or areas that support and enhance patient care. As many healthcare systems are making an effort to have patient records more readily available to them via the internet, it is important that providers be sure that there are a few security standards in place in order to make sure that the patients information is safe. They have to be able to assure confidentiality and the security of the people, process, and technology. Since there is also the possibility of payments being made through this system, it is vital that this aspect of their private information will also be protected through cryptography.

Clinical InformaticsClinical Informatics is concerned with the use of information in health care by clinicians.[40][41] Clinical informaticians transform health care by analyzing, designing, implementing, and evaluating information and communication systems that enhance individual and population health outcomes, improve [patient] care, and strengthen the clinician-patient relationship. Clinical informaticians use their knowledge of patient care combined with their understanding of informatics concepts, methods, and health informatics tools to: assess information and knowledge needs of health care professionals and patients, characterize, evaluate, and refine clinical processes, develop, implement, and refine clinical decision support systems, and lead or participate in the procurement, customization, development, implementation, management, evaluation, and continuous improvement of clinical information systems.

Clinicians collaborate with other health care and information technology professionals to develop health informatics tools which promote patient care that is safe, efficient, effective, timely, patient-centered, and equitable.

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Translational bioinformaticsWith the completion of the human genome and the recent advent of high throughput sequencing and genome-wide association studies of single nucleotide polymorphisms, the fields of molecular bioinformatics, biostatistiques, statistical genetics and clinical informatics are converging into the emerging field of translational bioinformatics.[42][43][44]

Clinical Research InformaticsClinical Research Informatics (or, CRI) takes the core foundations, principles, and technologies related to Health Informatics, and applies these to clinical research contexts. As such, CRI is a sub-discipline of sorts of Health Informatics, and interest and activities in CRI have increased greatly in recent years given the overwhelming problems associated with the explosive growth of clinical research data and information.[45] There are a number of activities within clinical research that CRI supports, including: more efficient and effective data collection and acquisition optimal protocol design and efficient management patient recruitment and management adverse event reporting regulatory compliance

data storage, transfer, processing and analysis

Computational Health InformaticsComputational health informatics is a branch of Computer Science that deals specifically with computational techniques that are relevant in healthcare. Computational health informatics is also a branch of Health Informatics, but is orthogonal to much of the work going on in health informatics because computer scientist's interest is mainly in understanding fundamental properties of computation. Health informatics, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with understanding fundamental properties of medicine that allow for the intervention of computers. The health domain provides an extremely wide variety of problems that can be tackled using computational techniques, and computer scientists are attempting to make a difference in medicine by studying the underlying principles of computer science that will allow for meaningful (to medicine) algorithms and systems to be developed. Thus, computer scientists working in computational health informatics and health scientists working in medical health informatics combine to develop the next generation of healthcare technologies. Using computers to analyze health data has been around since the 1950's, but it wasn't until the 1990's that the first sturdy models appeared. The development of the internet has helped develop computational health informatics over the past decade. Computer models are used to examine various topics such as how exercise affects obesity, healthcare costs, and many more. [46] Examples of projects in computational health informatics include the COACH project.[47][48]

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Health Informatics, Information Systems Education and ResearchBangladeshIn Bangladesh, University of Dhaka has approved a Masters' program in Health Informatics at Bangladesh Institute of Health Sciences with support from the Rockefeller Foundation.

Canada University of Waterloo has a program in computational health informatics [49] in the David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science. Ryerson University Health Informatics Dalhousie University Health Informatics in the Faculty of Computer Science University of Victoria School of Health Information Science University of Toronto Masters of Health Informatics Conestoga College Undergraduate degree in Health Informatics

Saudi Arabia King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences has Bachelor in Health Information Management, Bachelor in Health Information Systems, Master in Health Informatics at the College of Public Health and Health Informatics University of Ha'il has a Bachelor in Health Informatics at the College of Public Health and Health Informatics

ChileCentre for Health Informatics [50].Health Informatics

CubaUniversity of Medical Sciences of Cuba Health Informatics [51].Health Informatics in the Faculty of Computer Science National Nursing Network Informtica [52].REDENFI Systems Research Centre

Brazil Federal University of So Paulo Technology in Health Informatics - So Paulo School of Medicine University of So Paulo Health Informatic - College of Medical Sciences of Ribeiro Preto

Sweden Karolinska Institutet [53]

Switzerland Comeptence Center Health Network Engineering at the University of St. Gallen [54]

IrelandHealth Information Systems Research Centre

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USA IMS Institute for Healthcare Informations, a division of IMS Health[55] Online Master of Science in Medical Informatics at Northwestern University Oregon Health & Science University Biomedical Informatics Program [56] - Master of Science, Master of Biomedical Informatics, PhD, online Graduate Certificate Online Master of Science in Health Informatics at University of Illinois at Chicago Master of Health Informatics at the University of Michigan Master of Science in Health Informatics at University of Missouri Professional Science Master's in Health Informatics and Health Information Technology Certificate at UNC Charlotte The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth) School of Biomedical Informatics Master of Science in Health Care Informatics at University of Wisconsin Master of Science, Bachelor of Science Concentration, and Graduate Certificate in Health Informatics [57] at the George Mason University

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Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 16 (2): 15866. doi:10.1197/jamia.M3046. PMC2649323. PMID19074295. [42] Butte, AJ (2009). "Translational bioinformatics applications in genome medicine.". Genome medicine 1 (6): 64. doi:10.1186/gm64. PMC2703873. PMID19566916. [43] Kann, M. G. (2009). "Advances in translational bioinformatics: computational approaches for the hunting of disease genes". Briefings in Bioinformatics 11 (1): 96. doi:10.1093/bib/bbp048. PMC2810112. PMID20007728. [44] Lussier, YA; Butte, AJ; Hunter, L (2010). "Current methodologies for translational bioinformatics.". Journal of biomedical informatics 43 (3): 3557. doi:10.1016/j.jbi.2010.05.002. PMC2894568. PMID20470899. [45] Richesson, Rachel L., and James E. Andrews. 2012.Clinical research informatics. London: Springer. [46] Greengard, Samuel (1 February 2013). "A New Model for Healthcare" (http:/ / delivery. acm. org. proxy. lib. umich. edu/ 10. 1145/ 2410000/ 2408783/ p17-greengard. pdf?ip=141. 213. 236. 110& acc=OPEN& CFID=179603676& CFTOKEN=72054481& __acm__=1360633247_0aaf666762627a4f5c22fce91d6e6fdf). Communications of the ACM 56 (2): 1719. doi:10.1145/2408776.2408783. . Retrieved 12 February 2013. [47] Jesse Hoey, Pascal Poupart, Axel von Bertoldi, Tammy Craig, Craig Boutilier and Alex Mihailidis (2010). "Automated Handwashing Assistance For Persons With Dementia Using Video and a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process". Computer Vision and Image Understanding (CVIU) 114 (5). doi:10.1016/j.cviu.2009.06.008. [48] Alex Mihailidis, Jennifer N. Boger, Marcelle Candido and Jesse Hoey (2008). "The COACH prompting system to assist older adults with dementia through handwashing: An efficacy study." (http:/ / www. biomedcentral. com/ 1471-2318/ 8/ 28). BMC Geriatrics 8 (28). . [49] https:/ / cs. uwaterloo. ca/ grad/ mhi/ [50] http:/ / www. centrodeinformaticaensalud. org [51] http:/ / www. socim. sld. cu/ [52] http:/ / www. sld. cu/ sitios/ redenfermeria/ [53] http:/ / ki. se/ ki/ jsp/ polopoly. jsp?d=31697& a=145608& l=en [54] http:/ / ehealth. iwi. unisg. ch [55] "Providing unique and transformational insights into healthcare dynamics." (http:/ / www. imshealth. com/ portal/ site/ ims/ menuitem. 5ad1c081663fdf9b41d84b903208c22a/ ?vgnextoid=e39f79d7f269e210VgnVCM10000071812ca2RCRD& vgnextfmt=default). IMS Health. .

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Health informaticsRetrieved 1 October 2012. [56] http:/ / www. ohsu. edu/ xd/ education/ schools/ school-of-medicine/ departments/ clinical-departments/ dmice/ educational-programs/ dmice-programs/ index. cfm [57] http:/ / hi. gmu. edu

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External links Health informatics (http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Medicine/Informatics/) at the Open Directory Project e-Journal for Health Informatics (http://www.eJHI.net) Article about informatics (http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6947/9/24) UK Council for Health Informatics Professions, its principles, code and standards (http://www.ukchip.org) Healthcare Informatics Magazine (http://www.healthcare-informatics.com) Willison, Brian. Advancing Meaningful Use: Simplifying Complex Clinical Metrics Through Visual Representation. (http://piim.newschool.edu/_media/pdfs/PIIM-RESEARCH_AdvancingMeaningfulUse.pdf) Clinfowiki (http://www.clinfowiki.org/) Global Health Informatics Partnership (http://www.ghip.net/)

Clinical InformaticsHealth informatics (also called Health Information Systems, health care informatics, healthcare informatics, medical informatics, nursing informatics, clinical informatics, or biomedical informatics) is a discipline at the intersection of information science, computer science, and health care. It deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information in health and biomedicine. Health informatics tools include computers, clinical guidelines, formal medical terminologies, and information and communication systems. It is applied to the areas of nursing, clinical care, dentistry, pharmacy, public health, occupational therapy, and (bio)medical research.

Electronic patient chart from a health information system

The international standards on the subject are covered by ICS 35.240.80[1] in which ISO 27799:2008 is one of the core components.[2] Molecular bioinformatics and clinical informatics have converged into the field of translational bioinformatics.

HistoryWorld wide use of computer technology in medicine began in the early 1950s with the rise of the computers.[3] In 1949, Gustav Wagner established the first professional organization for informatics in Germany.[4] The prehistory, history, and future of medical information and health information technology are discussed in reference.[5] Specialized university departments and Informatics training programs began during the 1960s in France, Germany, Belgium and The Netherlands. Medical informatics research units began to appear during the 1970s in Poland and in the U.S.[4] Since then the development of high-quality health informatics research, education and infrastructure has been a goal of the U.S. and the European Union.[4] Early names for health informatics included medical computing, biomedical computing, medical computer science, computer medicine, medical electronic data processing, medical automatic data processing, medical information processing, medical information science, medical software engineering, and medical computer technology.

Clinical Informatics The health informatics community is still growing, it is by no means a mature profession, but work in the UK by the voluntary registration body, the UK Council of Health Informatics Professions has suggested eight key constituencies within the domain - information management, knowledge management, portfolio/programme/project management, ICT, education and research, clinical informatics, health records(service and business-related), health informatics service management. These constituencies accommodate professionals in and for the NHS, in academia and commercial service and solution providers. Since the 1970s the most prominent international coordinating body has been the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA).[6]

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Medical informatics in the United StatesEven though the idea of using computers in medicine emerged as technology advanced in the early 20th century, it was not until the 1950s that informatics began to make a significant impact in the United States.[3] The earliest use of electronic digital computers for medicine was for dental projects in the 1950s at the United States National Bureau of Standards by Robert Ledley.[7] During the mid-1950s, the United States Air Force (USAF) carried out several medical projects on its computers while also encouraging civilian agencies such as the National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council (NAS-NRC) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to sponsor such work.[8] In 1959, Ledley and Lee B. Lusted published Reasoning Foundations of Medical Diagnosis, a widely-read article in Science, which introduced computing (especially operations research) techniques to medical workers. Ledley and Lusteds article has remained influential for decades, especially within the field of medical decision making.[9] Guided by Ledley's late 1950s survey of computer use in biology and medicine (carried out for the NAS-NRC), and by his and Lusted's articles, the NIH undertook the first major effort to introduce computers to biology and medicine. This effort, carried out initially by the NIH's Advisory Committee on Computers in Research (ACCR), chaired by Lusted, spent over $40 million between 1960 and 1964 in order to establish dozens of large and small biomedical research centers in the US.[8] One early (1960, non-ACCR) use of computers was to help quantify normal human movement, as a precursor to scientifically measuring deviations from normal, and design of prostheses.[10] The use of computers (IBM 650, 1620, and 7040) allowed analysis of a large sample size, and of more measurements and subgroups than had been previously practical with mechanical calculators, thus allowing an objective understanding of how human locomotion varies by age and body characteristics. A study co-author was Dean of the Marquette University College of Engineering; this work led to discrete Biomedical Engineering departments there and elsewhere. The next steps, in the mid-1960s, were the development (sponsored largely by the NIH) of expert systems such as MYCIN and Internist-I. In 1965, the National Library of Medicine started to use MEDLINE and MEDLARS. Around this time, Neil Pappalardo, Curtis Marble, and Robert Greenes developed MUMPS (Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System) in Octo Barnett's Laboratory of Computer Science [11] at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, another center of biomedical computing that received significant support from the NIH.[12] In the 1970s and 1980s it was the most commonly used programming language for clinical applications. The MUMPS operating system was used to support MUMPS language specifications. As of 2004, a descendent of this system is being used in the United States Veterans Affairs hospital system. The VA has the largest enterprise-wide health information system that includes an electronic medical record, known as the Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture (VistA). A graphical user interface known as the Computerized Patient Record System (CPRS) allows health care providers to review and update a patients electronic medical record at any of the VA's over 1,000 health care facilities. During the 1960s, Morris Collen, a physician working for Kaiser Permanente's Division of Research, developed computerized systems to automate many aspects of multiphasic health checkups. These system became the basis the larger medical databases Kaiser Permanente developed during the 1970s and 1980s.[13] The American College of

Clinical Informatics Medical Informatics (ACMI) has since 1993 annually bestowed the Morris F. Collen, MD Medal for Outstanding Contributions to the Field of Medical Informatics.[14] In the 1970s a growing number of commercial vendors began to market practice management and electronic medical records systems. Although many products exist, only a small number of health practitioners use fully featured electronic health care records systems. Homer R. Warner, one of the fathers of medical informatics,[15] founded the Department of Medical Informatics at the University of Utah in 1968. The American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA) has an award named after him on application of informatics to medicine. Informatics Certifications Like other IT training specialties, there are Informatics certifications available to help informatics professionals stand out and be recognized. In Radiology Informatics, the CIIP (Certified Imaging Informatics Professional) certification was created by ABII (The American Board of Imaging Informatics) which is sponsored by SIIM (the Society for Imaging Informatics in Medicine) in 2005. The CIIP certification requires documented experience working in Imaging Informatics, formal testing and is a limited time credential requiring renewal every five years. The exam tests for a combination of IT technical knowledge, clinical understanding, and project management experience thought to represent the typical workload of a PACS administrator or other radiology IT clinical support role. Certifications from PARCA (PACS Administrators Registry and Certifications Association) are also recognized. The five PARCA certifications are tiered from entry level to architect level.

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Medical informatics in the UKThe broad history of health informatics has been captured in the book UK Health Computing : Recollections and reflections, Hayes G, Barnett D (Eds.), BCS (May 2008) by those active in the field, predominantly members of BCS Health and its constituent groups. The book describes the path taken as early development of health informatics was unorganized and idiosyncratic. In the early -1950s it was prompted by those involved in NHS finance and only in the early 1960s did solutions including those in pathology (1960), radiotherapy (1962), immunization (1963), and primary care (1968) emerge. Many of these solutions, even in the early 1970s were developed in-house by pioneers in the field to meet their own requirements. In part this was due to some areas of health services (for example the immunization and vaccination of children) still being provided by Local Authorities. Interesting, this is a situation which the coalition government propose broadly to return to in the 2010 strategy Equity and Excellence: Liberating the NHS (July 2010); stating: "We will put patients at the heart of the NHS, through an information revolution and greater choice and control with shared decision-making becoming the norm: no decision about me without me and patients having access to the information they want, to make choices about their care. They will have increased control over their own care records." These types of statements present a significant opportunity for health informaticians to come out of the back-office and take up a front-line role supporting clinical practice, and the business of care delivery. The UK health informatics community has long played a key role in international activity, joining TC4 of the International Federation of Information Processing (1969) which became IMIA (1979). Under the aegis of BCS Health, Cambridge was the host for the first EFMI Medical Informatics Europe (1974) conference and London was the location for IMIAs tenth global congress (MEDINFO2001).

Clinical Informatics

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Current state of health informatics and policy initiativesAmericasArgentina Since 1997, the Buenos Aires Biomedical Informatics Group, a nonprofit group, represents the interests of a broad range of clinical and non-clinical professionals working within the Health Informatics sphere. Its purposes are: Promote the implementation of the computer tool in the healthcare activity, scientific research, health administration and in all areas related to health sciences and biomedical research. Support, promote and disseminate content related activities with the management of health information and tools they used to do under the name of Biomedical informatics. Promote cooperation and exchange of actions generated in the field of biomedical informatics, both in the public and private, national and international level. Interact with all scientists, recognized academic stimulating the creation of new instances that have the same goal and be inspired by the same purpose. To promote, organize, sponsor and participate in events and activities for training in computer and information and disseminating developments in this area that might be useful for team members and health related activities. The Argentinian health system is heterogeneousin its function, and because of that the informatics developments show a heterogeneous stage. Many private Health Care center have developed systems, such as the German Hospital of Buenos Aires, which was one of the first in developing an electronic health records system. Brazil The first applications of computers to medicine and healthcare in Brazil started around 1968, with the installation of the first mainframes in public university hospitals, and the use of programmable calculators in scientific research applications. Minicomputers, such as the IBM 1130 were installed in several universities, and the first applications were developed for them, such as the hospital census in the School of Medicine of Ribeiro Preto and patient master files, in the Hospital das Clnicas da Universidade de So Paulo, respectively at the cities of Ribeiro Preto and So Paulo campi of the University of So Paulo. In the 1970s, several Digital Corporation and Hewlett Packard minicomputers were acquired for public and Armed Forces hospitals, and more intensively used for intensive-care unit, cardiology diagnostics, patient monitoring and other applications. In the early 1980s, with the arrival of cheaper microcomputers, a great upsurge of computer applications in health ensued, and in 1986 the Brazilian Society of Health Informatics was founded, the first Brazilian Congress of Health Informatics was held, and the first Brazilian Journal of Health Informatics was published. In Brazil, two universities are pioneers in teaching and research in Medical Informatics, both the University of Sao Paulo and the Federal University of Sao Paulo offer undergraduate programs highly qualified in the area as well as extensive graduate programs (MSc and PhD) Canada Health Informatics projects in Canada are implemented provincially, with different provinces creating different systems. A national, federally-funded, not-for-profit organization called Canada Health Infoway was created in 2001 to foster the development and adoption of electronic health records across Canada. As of December 31, 2008 there were 276 EHR projects under way in Canadian hospitals, other health-care facilities, pharmacies and laboratories, with an investment value of $1.5-billion from Canada Health Infoway.[16] Provincial and territorial programmes include the following: eHealth Ontario was created as an Ontario provincial government agency in September 2008. It has been plagued by delays and its CEO was fired over a multimillion-dollar contracts scandal in 2009.[17] Alberta Netcare was created in 2003 by the Government of Alberta. Today the netCARE portal is used daily by thousands of clinicians. It provides access to demographic data, prescribed/dispensed drugs, known

Clinical Informatics allergies/intolerances, immunizations, laboratory test results, diagnostic imaging reports, the diabetes registry and other medical reports. netCARE interface capabilities are being included in electronic medical record products which are being funded by the provincial government. United States In 2004, President George W. Bush signed Executive Order 13335 [18], creating the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONCHIT) as a division of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The mission of this office is widespread adoption of interoperable electronic health records (EHRs) in the US within 10 years. See quality improvement organizations for more information on federal initiatives in this area. The Certification Commission for Healthcare Information Technology (CCHIT), a private nonprofit group, was funded in 2005 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to develop a set of standards for electronic health records (EHR) and supporting networks, and certify vendors who meet them. In July 2006, CCHIT released its first list of 22 certified ambulatory EHR products, in two different announcements.[18]

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EuropeThe European Union's Member States are committed to sharing their best practices and experiences to create a European eHealth Area, thereby improving access to and quality health care at the same time as stimulating growth in a promising new industrial sector. The European eHealth Action Plan plays a fundamental role in the European Union's strategy. Work on this initiative involves a collaborative approach among several parts of the Commission services.[19][20] The European Institute for Health Records is involved in the promotion of high quality electronic health record systems in the European Union.[21] UK There are different models of health informatics delivery in each of the home countries (England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales) but some bodies like UKCHIP [23] (see below ) operate for those 'in and for' all the home countries and beyond. England The NHS in England has contracted out to several vendors for a national health informatics system 'NPFIT' that originally divided the country into five regions and is to be united by a central electronic medical record system nicknamed "the spine".[16] The project, in 2010, is seriously behind schedule and its scope and design are being revised in real time. In 2010 a wide consultation was launched as part of a wider Liberating the NHS plan. Many organisations and bodies (look on their own websites, as most have made their responses public in detail for information) responded to the consultation and a new strategy is expected in the second quarter of 2011. The degree of computerisation in NHS secondary care was quite high before NPfIT and that programme has had the unfortunate effect of largely stalling further development of the installed base. Almost all general practices in England and Wales are computerised and patients have relatively extensive computerised primary care clinical records. Computerisation is the responsibility of individual practices and there is no single, standardised GP system. Interoperation between primary and secondary care systems is rather primitive. A focus on interworking (for interfacing and integration) standards is hoped will stimulate synergy between primary and secondary care in sharing necessary information to support the care of individuals. Scotland has an approach to central connection under way which is more advanced than the English one in some ways. Scotland has the GPASS system whose source code is own