Why Language is Significant Why Language is Significant

Language is a key medium by which Language is a key medium by which culture is transmittedculture is transmitted

Language reflects concepts and values Language reflects concepts and values (Wittgenstein: The limits of my language (Wittgenstein: The limits of my language are the limits of my world)are the limits of my world)

Language is linked to behaviorLanguage is linked to behaviorSometimes, language IS behaviorSometimes, language IS behavior

Descriptions and EvaluationsDescriptions and Evaluations

Descriptions often mask value judgmentsDescriptions often mask value judgmentsSome descriptions ARE evaluations Some descriptions ARE evaluations

masquerading as descriptions—esp. masquerading as descriptions—esp. abusive or discrediting descriptions: abusive or discrediting descriptions: fascist, old-fashioned, godless, “bleeding-fascist, old-fashioned, godless, “bleeding-heart”heart”

Some words are both descriptive and Some words are both descriptive and evaluative: scientific, irrational, murderevaluative: scientific, irrational, murder

ConnotationsConnotations

Words have both denotations (meaning) Words have both denotations (meaning) and connotations (associations)and connotations (associations)

Consider the connotations of: atheist, Consider the connotations of: atheist, conservative, poor, rural, educatedconservative, poor, rural, educated

Resignification as a means of enacting Resignification as a means of enacting conceptual and social changeconceptual and social change

Asymmetrical DescriptionsAsymmetrical Descriptions

Involves describing a feature in oneself Involves describing a feature in oneself and in others in ways that evaluate that and in others in ways that evaluate that feature differently based on connotationsfeature differently based on connotations

Faithful v. FanaticFaithful v. FanaticOpen-Minded v. Wishy-WashyOpen-Minded v. Wishy-WashyReligion v. Sect v. CultReligion v. Sect v. Cult

Appeal to Cultural Norms or Appeal to Cultural Norms or ParadigmsParadigms

In psychology, a Paradigm is similar to a In psychology, a Paradigm is similar to a stereotype; a paradigm of ‘bird’ would be a stereotype; a paradigm of ‘bird’ would be a concept of what an ideal bird is likeconcept of what an ideal bird is like

To appeal to a cultural norm or paradigm is to To appeal to a cultural norm or paradigm is to use language that convinces by association, use language that convinces by association, where those associations involve psychological where those associations involve psychological paradigms or cultural practicesparadigms or cultural practices

Ex: Abortion stops a beating heartEx: Abortion stops a beating heart Ex: If guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have Ex: If guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have

gunsguns

HyperboleHyperbole

Deliberate exaggeration used to persuade Deliberate exaggeration used to persuade or motivate without reasonsor motivate without reasons

In a way, a kind of fallacy of presumption: In a way, a kind of fallacy of presumption: makes unwarranted assumptions about makes unwarranted assumptions about degreedegree

Can also be a fallacy of relevance: a kind Can also be a fallacy of relevance: a kind of ad misericordiamof ad misericordiam

Especially watch for “always” and “never” Especially watch for “always” and “never” claimsclaims

HypostatizingHypostatizing

Involves treating an abstraction or generality as Involves treating an abstraction or generality as if it were a concrete thingif it were a concrete thing

Examples: The American Way of Life, The Examples: The American Way of Life, The Family, The Jews (see Lang’s essay), The WestFamily, The Jews (see Lang’s essay), The West

Watch for words that identify something whose Watch for words that identify something whose meaning is vague or questionable: Freedom, meaning is vague or questionable: Freedom, Democracy, Love, GodDemocracy, Love, God

Often involves ignoring differences within Often involves ignoring differences within groups: Liberals, Conservatives, The Religious groups: Liberals, Conservatives, The Religious Right, Islam, Christianity Right, Islam, Christianity

False ConsensusFalse Consensus

We tend to systematically overestimate We tend to systematically overestimate the degree to which others are in the degree to which others are in agreement with usagreement with us

This leads us to treat personal beliefs and This leads us to treat personal beliefs and experiences as if they were universalexperiences as if they were universal

Watch for unwarranted “we” and “our” Watch for unwarranted “we” and “our” languagelanguage

Deceptive Euphemisms (or Deceptive Euphemisms (or Deceptive Neologisms)Deceptive Neologisms)

Terminology used to misrepresent what is Terminology used to misrepresent what is actually the caseactually the case

Often used to “sanitize” a practiceOften used to “sanitize” a practiceEx: Camus on executionEx: Camus on executionEx: Nazi languageEx: Nazi language