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Why are soils

not all the

same?

5 main factors:•Climate•Organisms•Parent material•Landscape•Time

http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/tabid/9073/default.aspx

Visually Assessing Your Site

• Slope

• Shade

• Sun exposure

• Drainage

• Plant growth

• Construction debris

• Paint chips

Digging into Your Site’s History

• Research lot history

– Talk with neighbors

– Resources available from public libraries and city government

– Councilperson

– Observation

Why bother with historical information?

• Previous use of the site is an important factor in the possible contaminants present.

• Gain a sense of the surrounding area to further inform your decision about utilizing a specific site.

Site History and Property Research Tools

• “A Checklist for Property Research in Cleveland & Cuyahoga County” – Cleveland Public Library, History and Geography Dept.

– CPL Map Collections • Hopkins Plat Maps (1912-1957)

• Sanborn Fire Maps (1874-1973)

• Other aerial maps– Info on changes to property over time, date buildings

– Some available online www.cpl.org, RESEARCH, Digital Image Gallery

• Realty Atlas Tax Maps

Site History and Property Research Tools

• Online GIS maps– Can be used to determine permanent parcel numbers

(PPN) and addressesCleveland City Planning Commission Interactive Map

• http://planning.city.cleveland.oh.us/

Cleveland GIS and Land Status Map• Id’s City and County Landbank parcels

• http://www.clevelandgis.org/pub/index.html?config=land.xml

Cuyahoga County GIS, MyCuyahoga Map• http://gis.cuyahogacounty.us/

Google earth also has a historical imagery option

Why bother with historical information?

What are the sources of many common contaminants?

From EPA’s BROWNFIELDS AND URBAN AGRICULTURE: Interim Guidelines for Safe Gardening Practices Spring 2011

Are commonly tested for by University Labs Can be tested for by other labs

• Lead (Pb)

• Cadmium (Cd)

• Nickel (Ni)

• Chromium (Cr)

• Copper (Cu)

• Zinc (Zn)

• Arsenic (As)

• Mercury (Hg)

• pesticide residue levels

• PCBs

• hydrocarbons levels

Most Common Soil Contaminants

Exposure to soil contaminants

1. SoilHumanDirect ingestion or inhalation of soil; skin contactFrom hands, dust, surface of fruits and vegetables

2. SoilPlantHumanIngestion of plants that have taken up contaminantsDepends on type of plant, part of plant, type of contaminant, soil pH and organic matter contentIn general, plants do not absorb or accumulate lead very well*

*Leafy vegetables and surfaces of root crops are more of a concern than fruiting parts

Sampling your Soil

1. Goal: send a sample that is representative of the area2. Timing

– Stable climate– No recent disturbances, such as immediately post-harvest or

fertilization

3. Identify and isolate any unusual spots for separate tests– Dead grass, bare spots, drastic differences in soil

composition, topography, drainage, or type of crops grown

4. Combine multiple samples taken randomly throughout the growing area

5. Follow the soil testing lab’s instructions to send

What to look for in your results:

Soil pH

Macro-nutrient ranges

Lead value

What is pH?

• A measure of acidity or alkalinity

• Most plants prefer a soil pH between 5.5 - 7.5

HIGH H+ Acidic

LOW H+ Alkaline

UMass Soil Testing Lab guidance

Lead Level Extracted Lead*Estimated Total

Lead

--------------------------------- mg/kg or ppm

---------------------------------

Low less than 22 less than 299

Medium 22 to 126 300 to 999

High 127 to 293 1000 to 2000

Very High greater than 293

“The screening test offered by the UMass Soil Testing Lab is only meant to identify areas where lead contamination may be a concern. Soils that are known to be contaminated with higher levels of lead, should be tested for Total Sorbed Lead (using EPA method 3050 or 3051) with appropriate actions taken.”

http://soiltest.umass.edu/fact-sheets/soil-lead-testing-interpretation-recommendations

EPA safe gardening practices

Lead Level

Low

Medium

High

Very High

Interim Guidelines for Safe Gardening Practices: http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-09/documents/bf_urban_ag.pdf

Growing in Urban Soils fact sheet: http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-03/documents/urban_gardening_fina_fact_sheet.pdf

Use existing soil

Raised beds are advised, limit contact with existing soil

Site is not recommended for gardening

SITE PREPARATION

To think about:

• Consider lead levels: are they above “low”?• Debris in soil: are there large buried pieces of

rock, metal, tree roots, or other materials?• What do you want your garden to look like?• Who will be gardening?• What resources do you have available?

– Lumber and soil to fill raised beds? People to build and fill them?

– Access to machinery and someone to operate?– Access to hand tools and people to do the work?

Gardens come in two main flavors…

1. In-ground

2. Above ground, raised beds and containers

Garden Construction

In ground gardens

• Traditional

• Plants grow directly in the ground

• Don’t forget that soil test!

Garden Construction

In ground gardens

• Pros

• Use of existing soil

• Economical

• Less start up work

• Less permanent

• Lower water requirements

Cons• Harder to keep neat

• Soil compaction

• Soil improvement (if needed)

Things to think about: Breaking Ground

Tillage

• What is tillage?

– Digging, stirring, or overturning the soil using hand tools or machines

– Primary tillage is done with a plow:

• Breaks up soil; sometimes turns soil over

– Secondary tillage is done by tilling or cultivating:

• turn, break-up clods, and mix soil

Tiller

maxresdefault.jpg

Tiller

forums.techguy.org

Till

Pros

– Easier for larger areas

– Can help initially break up soils and incorporate organic materials

Cons

• If over done, can contribute to compaction by altering soil structure

• Stirs up weed seeds

• Disturbing for soil microbes

Modified Till Garden Bed Preparation-Tools

Fork Spade Broadfork (U-Bar)

Mulch + Compost + Aerate + Don’t Compact

Sheet Mulch or Lasagna beds

Pros

– Reuse compostable/recyclable materials

– No digging

Cons

• Requires collection of A LOT of material

Build raised beds

• What is a raised bed?

– An area where the soil you are gardening in is raised a few inches higher than the surrounding soil

• Usually, 3-4 feet wide

Raised bed size

• No more that 4 feet across• Minimizes soil compaction

• Can be any length, shape

OR OR

Raised beds

• Traditional wooden raised beds

Raised beds

• Woven raised beds

• Concrete block raised beds

Raised beds

• Container gardening

Garden Construction

Not appropriate for container gardening.

Raised bedsPros

• Warm up faster

• Good drainage

• Creates order

• Easier to manage and access

• Less soil compaction

Cons• May need to water more

frequently, dry out quicker

• Cost of materials

• Increased start up work

• More permeant

Scenario 1

• Vacant lot with buried demolition debris

• Low lead level

• Gardeners are a group of neighbors

Scenario 2

• Grassy lawn of a school

• Low lead level

• Gardeners are clients of near-by non-profit growing food for their food pantry

Healthy Soil Toolbox

• Prevent erosion from water and wind

– Mulches

– Irrigation

• Avoid compaction by not walking in or using heavy equipment in garden beds

• Avoid working soil when it is too wet

• Add organic matter

• Use soil test recommendations for fertilization

Mulch• Mulching with organic

matter:

• Reduces erosion from wind and water

• Reduces evaporation

• Reduces crusting

• Provides habitat

• Increases water infiltration rates

• Reduces soil borne diseases

What else is mulch good for?

Avoid working the soil when it’s too wet!

• Squeeze Test– Helps determine if soil is ready to work

1) Use a spade or trowel and bring up a 6” deep slice of soil

2) Pick up a handful of soil and squeeze

If soil remains in a tight ball, wait

If soil crumbles, it’s ready to work

Reduce compaction-make paths!

Add organic matter

• Reduces organic waste

• Returns organic material to the soil in a useable form

• Improves soil’s water and nutrient holding capacity

• Improves plant’s growth

From EPA’s BROWNFIELDS AND URBAN AGRICULTURE: Interim Guidelines for Safe Gardening Practices Spring 2011

Composting Basics

Questions

• What is composting? Why compost?

• What are some types of composting?

• What is the advantage of composting versus turning raw materials into the soil?

– Microorganisms draw on soil nitrogen to assist in breaking down carbons

– Microorganisms may pull oxygen from soil which can suffocate roots

Objectives• By the end of this

class, you should:– Understand some

benefits of compost and how to use it

– Know what is essential for composting to happen

– Be able to start a composting system and troubleshoot issues

Benefits of Compost in Soil

• Very slowly releases micro and macro nutrients essential to plant life

• It inoculates soil with more microorganisms

• It improves soil structure

– Better drainage

– Better retention of nutrients

• Helps keep pH at optimum levels

What role do microorganisms

play in the soil and why are they

important to plant health?

Soil is an ecosystem and a habitat

• Soil organisms play a key role in making nutrients available to plants

– Mineralize nutrients in organic matter into forms plants can use

– Improve soil structure as they move about

– Are naturally present: our job in composting is to provide an environment for these same organisms to thrive

Essentials in Composting: 4 main components

W-O-N-C– Water

– Oxygen

– Nitrogen

– Carbon

• You are creating a habitat for microbes, insects and worms!

The Process of Composting: How organic materials are made into

compost

• By mixing types of organic materials, you are creating a habitat for micro and macro organisms:

– Decomposers=bacteria and fungi

– Consumers=protozoa and nematodes

– Shredders=arthropods, worms, and even mammals

Soil Organic Matter

http://www.coopext.colostate.edu/boulder/ag/susag.shtml#soils

What kind of composter are you?

HOT• Start with enough materials to fill

bin

• Do not add to existing pile, start a new one instead

• Requires monitoring and turning to get maximum benefit– Turn when temperature has risen

to 131-150 and has started to fall

– 3 days at 131 degrees is needed to kill pathogens

– NOP standards require 5 turns in 15 days, keeping temperatures between 130-170

COLD• Can start with any amount of

material• Add material as it becomes

available• Slower rate of decomposition• May not heat up as much nor

as uniformly– Weed seeds and pathogens

may survive process

• Includes piles, sheet and trench composting, and vermicomposting

Getting started

• Where to put it

• What to put in it

• What to put it in

• Tools that help

• Doneness

Locating the Compost Pile

• Check local regulations

– Set back from property lines

– Size or type of container

– Types of waste allowed

• On level ground

• Good Drainage

• Avoid direct sunlight

• Make it convenient

Compost Materials and C:N ratio

30:1

BROWNS

GREENS

The microbes that decompose the materials in the compost bin need carbon for energy and nitrogen for protein production. They use these elements in a ratio of 30 parts carbon to one part of nitrogen and that is why the 30:1 ratio exists!

Compost Materials and C:N ratio

30:1

BROWNS

GREENS

Vegetable waste 12:1

Grass clippings 17:1

Chicken manure 6:1

Leaves 40-80:1

Straw 80:1

Wood chips 500:1

Newspaper 400:1

Coffee grounds 20:1

Compost Materials and C:N ratio

30:1

BROWNS

GREENS

If the ratio is too HIGH, the rate of composting slows.Pile is very dry.

If the ratio is too LOW, excess nitrogen turns into ammonia.Pile is very wet

Considerations for food scraps

x

Photo Source: http://www.spinachandhoney.com/2009/01/how-to-hot-pile-compost.html

Photo courtesy OSU Extension, Cuyahoga County

Particle Size

• Faster Decomposition-Smaller pieces have more surface area and will decompose faster

• Aeration-Don’t makes pieces too small or they will easily compact and restrict oxygen flow

Whenever you add a

food scrap layer, make

sure you sprinkle it with

soil and then cap off

with a brown layer to

prevent smells, flies,

and animals.

Bulking Agents

• Low moisture, high porosity, low nitrogen

• Decay slowly on their own

• Examples:

– Wood chips

– Straw

– Twigs

Moisture

• Related to

– materials in the pile,

– turning and

– where the pile is located

• Keep as moist as a wrung out sponge

– Too wet=smelly (anaerobic bacteria take over!)

– Too dry=decomposition will be slow

What are some reasons the pile may end up too

wet or too dry?

Compost Systems• The Pile

– Best for yard and garden wastes only

– To speed things up:

• Keep the size to approx. 3’ x 3’; make additional piles if needed

• Keep pile moist

• Turn occasionally

http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/designscompostingsystems.pdf

What are some reasons

you don’t want the pile

to get too large?

Compost Systems• Single, wooden bin

– Keeps materials contained

– Always bury food waste beneath brown layer to prevent odors, flies, and animals

– Can make rodent proof, if needed:

• Add a screened lid and line bin with hardware cloth

http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/designscompostingsystems.pdf

What other types of

materials can be used to

make a single bin?

©2014 Ohio State University Extension. Except as

permitted under the U.S. Copyright Act of 1976,

no part of this publication may be reproduced or

distributed in any form or by any means without

the prior written permission of the publisher.

Compost Systems• Multi-bin system

– Allows for larger volume of material

– Great for hot composting

– Always bury food waste beneath brown layer to prevent odors, flies, and animals

– Can make rodent proof, if needed:

• Add a screened lid and line bin with hardware cloth

http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/designscompostingsystems.pdf

Compost Systems• Enclosed bins

– Good for small spaces, keeps animals out

– Smaller, but still usually retain heat well

– May make turning easier or more difficult

http://www.burpee.com/gardening-supplies/kitchen-harvest/composting/backyard-composter-prod001297.html

Food Scrap Composting

• Indoor alternative:

Vermicomposting binhttp://recycling.cityofdavis.org/composting/food-scrap-composting

Sheet or lasagna layering

Management

• Remember: W-O-N-C!–Check moisture level

• Add water if too dry• Add more brown materials if too wet• Turning can also help evaporate water

–Check rate of decomposition• Balance your materials, if possible• Keep pieces of material small, but not too

small

Turning

• When to turn the compost pile?– Once pile temperature has risen to between 131

and 150 and begins to decrease, turn.

– This will accelerate the process of decomposition by:• mixing compost ingredients and

• moving particles to different areas of the pile.

• It also evaporates moisture in the pile.

– Even if your pile is not a hot one, turning every 2-4 weeks can help accelerate the process

Turning

TRUE or FALSE: The main reason to turn a compost pile is to introduce oxygen.• FALSE! While turning will introduce some oxygen, the

composition and size of the pile are key to keeping oxygen moving through the pile.

What does turning do? It: • helps to remove carbon dioxide to prevent toxic conditions• reduces particle size and homogenizes the pile ingredients• accelerates the process of decomposition

Helpful Tools: for turning

• Manure or pitchfork • Compost aerator

http://www.compostmania.com/Double-Winged-Metal-Pile-Turner-Compost-Aeratorhttp://www.plantfactorygardencenter.com/proddetail.asp?prod=FSK-502890-96556935

Helpful Tools: for sifting

• Compost screen or sifter

Helpful Tools: for measuring temp

• Compost thermometer

http://www.territorialseed.com/product/Compost_Thermometer/composting http://www.amazon.com/Bimetal-Thermom-In-Dial-200F/dp/B002P5RGMI

When will my compost be ready?

• It depends on…

– Your method (hot or cold?)

– Size of the pile

– Materials in the pile

– Size of materials in the pile

– Management of the pile

– Season of the year

• On average, 2-6 months

Is it done yet?

• Finished compost • Unfinished compost can:

– Be phytotoxic due to high salt, ammonia, or organic acid levels– Reduce oxygen levels and suffocate roots as soil microbes metabolize– Can decrease soil nitrogen levels as microbes utilize soil nitrogen to

break down carbons

• Compost is mature once all of the complex organic compounds have broken down– Biological activity significantly slows

• No recognizable ingredients (outside of bulking agents)• Is brown, crumbly, and earthy smelling• If turned, does not reheat

Using Compost

• In vegetable and fruit plantings

• In lawns

• As a mulch

• In potting mixes

Materials to rescue!

http://marysveggiegarden.wordpress.com/2013/11/18/11182013-leaves-leaves-and-more-leaves-and-some-food/

http://littlehouseontheurbanprairie.wordpress.com/2010/02/22/brewery-waste/

Managing compost in a community garden

Signage

Managing compost in a community garden

Education

Site history and soil contamination resources

• For more information:– Typical Contaminants and Land Use

• http://www.deq.state.or.us/wq/dwp/docs/typcontaminants.pdf

– Urban Agriculture and Soil Contamination• http://cepm.louisville.edu/Pubs_WPapers/practiceguid

es/PG25.pdf

– EPA Soil Screening Guidance• http://www.epa.gov/superfund/health/conmedia/soil/i

ndex.htm

Choosing a Soil Testing Lab

• Ohioline Fact Sheet “Guidelines for Choosing a Soil Analytical Laboratory” HYG-1133-99-R10 – Land Grant Universities

– Private labs

• Alternative Soil Testing Laboratories– ATTRA https://attra.ncat.org/attra-

pub/viewhtml.php?id=285

– Woods End: https://woodsend.org/

Composting Resources

• University of Maine http://umaine.edu/gardening/master-gardeners/manual/composting/

• Cornell Composting http://compost.css.cornell.edu/

• Teaming with Microbes by Jeff Lowenfels and Wayne Lewis

Resources for Teaching Others How to Compost

• Cornell Master Composter Manual http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/mastercompostermanual.pdf

• NYC Master Composter Manual http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycwasteless/downloads/pdf/materials/nyc-master-composter-manual.pdf

Resources for Teaching Others How to Compost

• Cornell: Composting in Schools http://compost.css.cornell.edu/schools.html

– Composting in the Classroom: A Guide for Student Composting Research http://compost.css.cornell.edu/CIC.html

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Community Resources

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Ohio Utilities Protection Services

Call Before You Dig!

• By law, everyone MUST contact the Ohio Utilities Protection Service, 8-1-1 or 1-800-362-2764, at

least 48 hours but no more than 10 working days (excluding weekends and legal holidays) before

beginning ANY digging project.

• Some examples include:

• Landscaping

• Digging holes for fence posts or a mailbox

• Planting trees

• Removing tree roots

• Driving landscaping stakes into the ground-

• Remember, even if your digging project is small, it's always best to call!

• www.oups.org

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Cuyahoga County Solid Waste District

• Educational programs on composting and recycling

• Compost bin container sales

• Resources about the environment and recycling for teachers and

students

• http://www.cuyahogaswd.org/

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Cuyahoga Soil and Water Conservation District

• Hands-on rain barrel workshops

• Rain garden and backyard stewardship programs and information

• Watershed groups

• Teacher workshops on environmental education curriculums

• http://www.cuyahogaswcd.org/